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253:, and inhaled up the nose. Snuff-querns consisted of an upper and lower stone, fixed together by a central iron pivot. The quern was held on the user's lap, the eye of the quern was filled with dried tobacco leaves, and then the upper-stone was turned using the handle. The friction caused by the turning ground the leaves into a fine powder that built up around the edge of the lower-stone. Many snuff-querns had a small hole or cut made near the edge of the upper-stone, into which a pointed end of a lamb's horn was placed in order to turn the stone; an alternative to using a handle.
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this upper piece, but which does not fill the hole, room for feeding the mill being left on each side: it is so nicely balanced, that though there is some friction from the contact of the two stones, yet a very small momentum will make it revolve several times, when it has no corn in it. The corn being dried, two women sit down on the ground, having the quern between them; the one feeds it, while the other turns it round, relieving each other occasionally, and singing some Celtic songs all the time.
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quern-stones have a slot handle which indicates that a piece of wood was placed horizontally and protruded out from the edge so that the operator could turn the stone by standing and using a rod vertically. One class of upper quern-stones has from two to three sockets for the rod used to turn them and this is thought to reflect the need to reduce wear and tear by having alternative points of contact when in active use.
130:
686:. Various legends give miraculous power to mill-stones and several have been found which have been re-used in the construction of burial cists or as tomb stones. The association between quern stones and burial may be because they are used in the process of making bread, the staple of life. A broken or disused quern therefore can be seen as symbolic of death. In
442:
38:
46:
471:
208:
Saddle querns were known in China during the
Neolithic Age but rotary stone mills did not appear until the Warring States Period. A prehistoric quern dating back to 23,000 BCE was found at the Longwangchan archaeological site, in Hukou, Shaanxi in 2007. The site is located in the heartland of the northern Chinese loess plateau near the Yellow River.
113:
402:) and used with both hands, or rough hemispheres and used with one hand. This provides a crushing motion, not a grinding action and is more suitable for crushing malted grain. It is not easy to produce flour from a saddle quern with unmalted grain. The muller is also referred to as a 'rubber' or 'mouler'. Some pictorial examples may be found in the
424:
As the name implies, the rotary quern used circular motions to grind the material, meaning both the upper and lower quern were generally circular. The handstone of a rotary quern is much heavier than that of saddle quern and provides the necessary weight for the grinding of unmalted grain into flour.
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A number of handstones have been found with extra carving, however it is not always straightforward to separate decoration from practical functional purposes. The designs invest in the appearance of the handstone when it is in circular motion, and the ability of the quern-stones to change seeds into
348:
Rutter was able to show, for the southern Levant, that basalt quern-stones were preferred to those manufactured from other rock types. Basalt quern-stones were therefore transported over long-distances, leading him to argue that, despite their everyday, utilitarian function, they were also used as a
526:
The quern consists of two circular pieces of stone, generally grit or granite, about twenty inches in diameter. In the lower stone is a wooden peg, rounded at the top; on this the upper stone is nicely balanced, so as just to touch the lower one, by means of a piece of wood fixed in a large hole in
457:
In this type, the upper stone is hemispherical, or bun-shaped, with a central conical hopper to hold the grain that falls down a hole to the grinding surface. It is held in position with a pivot that fits into a central hole in the bottom stone. The upper stone also has a deep horizontal socket in
536:
Under 200 mm (8 in) in diameter and varying from roughly dressed to carefully worked, often with vertical handle sockets, a new class of querns has been identified having been overlooked in the past as weights, etc. In all respects they are like full sized quern stones and they show the
207:
at least 10,000 years ago to grind wheat into flour. The production of flour by rubbing wheat by hand took several hours. Due to their form, dimensions, and the nature of the treatment of the surfaces, they reproduce precisely the most ancient implements used for grinding cereal grain into flour.
108:
was present as a piece of wood (or other material), which allowed the cereal etc. to be added but still acted as a centering device. The upper stone sometimes had a cup-shaped area around the hopper hole with a raised edge. Most handstones have a handle hole on the upper surface, but one class of
220:
texts show that a wide range of foodstuffs and inorganic materials were processed using stone querns or mortars, including nuts, seeds, fruit, vegetables, herbs, spices, meat, bark, pigments, temper and clay. Moreover, one study analysing quern-stones noted that a number of querns had traces of
478:
Disc querns consist of two flat disc-shaped stones, an upper stone with a cylindrical perforation for containing a handle and a lower stone with a central spindle hole. The adjustable, discoid rotary quern has larger, flatter and more discoid stones than the beehive type. The lower stone was
661:
type, as do examples from
England and Wales. Many of the horizontal slot-handled quern-stones have decoration that usually follows the basic pattern of motifs that encircle the hopper and/or the handle slot. One type though has an irregular pattern of cup marks that encircle the hopper.
677:
predecessors of the fifth and sixth centuries. This example has a high quality of finishing which reflects its 'cost' and enhances its symbolic value and social significance. The cross is likely to have 'protected' the corn and the resultant flour from evil, such as fungal
313:. These have naturally rough surfaces, but grains do not detach easily, so the material being ground does not become gritty. However, such rocks are not always available, meaning that quern-stones have been manufactured from a wide variety of rocks, including
52:
51:
48:
47:
613:, who owned as lord of the manor the exclusive milling rights for the whole town, is notable: he instructed his bailiffs to search townspeople's homes and seize any quern-stones they found. Eventually the town brought a case against the abbott at the town
53:
177:, although animals were also used to operate the millstones. However, in many non-Westernised, non-mechanised cultures they are still manufactured and used regularly and have only been replaced in many parts of the world in the last century or so.
398:. These are the most ancient and widely used type of quern-stone and were superseded around the 5th to the 4th century BC by the more efficient rotary quern. The handstones for saddle querns are generally either roughly cylindrical (not unlike a
50:
281:
Quern stonesâ ubiquity led to ancillary uses. For example, DeBoer, in his review of the traditional gambling games of North
American tribes, reports that one of the games involved bouncing a group of split canes off a quern.
458:
its steep side in which to place the wooden peg used as a handle to rotate or oscillate the upper stone. This was the earliest type of rotary quern to appear in the
British Isles. It arrived in Britain in the middle of the
84:. The upper stone was moved in a back-and-forth motion across the saddle quern. Later querns are known as rotary querns. The central hole of a rotary quern is called the eye, and a dish in the upper surface is known as the
237:
Querns were widely used in grinding metals ores after mining extraction. The aim was to liberate fine ore particles which could then be separated by washing for example, prior to smelting. They were thus widely used in
233:
which were ten times higher than those of the rocks. The authors concluded that this was probably due to the use of these querns in the preparation of medicines, cosmetics, dyes or even in the manufacture of alloys.
195:
was distinctive in that hard, ripe kernels of maize (corn) were boiled in water and lime, thus producing nixtamal which was then made into unleavened dough for flat cakes by grinding with a handstone on a quern
731:
Quern' that ground constantly, except on
Sundays. It could be heard working underground and the local placename 'Auchenbrain' may celebrate it, translating from the Gaelic as 'field of the quern'.
104:
The upper stones were usually concave while the lower ones were convex. Quern-stones are frequently identifiable by their grooved working surfaces which enabled the movement of flour. Sometimes a
1627:
Lease, N., Laurent, R., Blackburn, M. and Fortin, M. (2001) CaractĂ©risation pĂ©trologie dâartefact en basalte provenant de Tell âAtij et de Tell Gudeda en Syrie de Nord (3000-2500 av J-C), In
698:, a quern stone was found which had been made into a tombstone, having been ornamented and the name Sechnasach, who died in 928 AD, inscribed onto it. A large quern was discovered on the
537:
typical wear signs that indicate that they were used for grinding small amounts of seeds, minerals or herbs. A suggestion that they may have been made as toys is thought to be unlikely.
657:
flour may invoke a feeling of transformative magic that attracted both reverence and status to these household objects. Three beehive querns found in
Ireland have inscribed ornament of
847:
49:
379:
were used in the preparation of small quantities of cereal, however the earliest forms of quern were the saddle and trough querns. The earliest quern so far discovered dates to
591:
1743:
1021:. Vol. 6. Cambridge University Press (published November 30, 2000). Volume 6: Biology and Biological Technology. Part 5: Fermentations and Food Science. p. 463.
579:
for tenants to pay for use of the baron's mill. Early leases of mills gave to the miller the legal right to destroy quern-stones which were being used in defiance of
3501:
3242:
2838:
1303:
E. W. MacKie, "The broch cultures of
Atlantic Scotland: origins, high noon and decline": part 2: The Middle Iron Age: high noon and decline c.200 BC â AD 550,
394:
The saddle quern is produced by rocking or rolling the muller using parallel motions (i.e., pushing and pulling the handstone), which forms a shape looking like a
1396:
3457:
2966:
72:
a wide variety of materials, especially for various types of grains. They are used in pairs. The lower stationary stone of early examples is called a saddle
3289:
2740:
1656:
Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007), "A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a
Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications",
479:
completely perforated. The long handle rotated in a shallow socket in the upper surface of the upper stone. They are thought to have originated in
3598:
789:
1359:
851:
1736:
1279:"«Moliendo en ibero, moliendo en griego»: aculturación y resistencia tecnológica en el Mediterråneo occidental durante la Edad del Hierro"
1349:
586:
The obligations of thirlage eventually ceased to apply, but thirlage in
Scotland was only formally and totally abolished on 28 November (
425:
In some cases the grinding surfaces of the stones fit into each other, the upper stone being slightly concave and the lower one convex.
621:
in compensation for defaming him. To celebrate his victory, the abbot then used the stones to pave the floor of his private parlour.
149:
Quern-stones have been used by numerous civilizations throughout the world to grind materials, the most important of which was usually
1054:
1026:
1001:
555:
483:
2,500 years ago and appear to have arrived in maritime
Scotland from about 200 BC with people who built the defensive homes known as
2867:
1773:
1621:
1580:
1383:
1204:
968:
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Quern stones may have been used as improvised weapons, as mentioned in the Bible: "But a certain woman threw an upper-millstone on
554:
333:
in England is named after the quarrying of millstone grit used to make quern stones in these parts. The names of the mountains of
2961:
669:
in Scotland that has a cross carved into the upper stone. The cross has expanded terminals and ultimately derives its form from
3486:
2877:
1915:
1729:
549:. The larger rotary mills were usually worked by a donkey or horse via an extension arm of wood attached to the upper stone.
462:(about 400â300 BC) and spread into the northern half of Ireland, probably from Scotland, some time after the 2nd century BC.
510:
of the woman on the right, possibly to catch grain; she feeds the stone with grain from the bowl at her left. Woodcut from
3613:
3099:
2629:
1889:
1697:
1237:
Observations on a Tour through the Highlands and part of the Western Isles of Scotland, particularly Staff and Icolmkill.
628:, Yorkshire, when in 1850 the town bought out the owner of Soke Mill for ÂŁ20,000 (equivalent to ÂŁ2,700,000 in 2023).
3608:
3094:
2634:
2107:
1702:
3603:
2060:
1475:
69:
1957:
180:
The use of grinding stones for vegetal food processing, and possibly the production of flour, was widespread across
3628:
3362:
3163:
1715:
3074:
2983:
553:
3357:
2449:
1994:
359:
3618:
3474:
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2142:
2075:
1807:
1529:
1498:
1318:
502:
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3436:
3042:
2933:
2921:
2617:
2358:
2197:
1834:
1768:
1752:
1558:
Ewan Campbell, A cross-marked quern from Dunadd and other evidence for relations between Dunass and Iona,
636:
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and was found at Abu Hureyra, Syria. A later development was the rotary quern, which takes several forms.
2504:
3301:
3237:
3111:
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2499:
2437:
2313:
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1800:
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3259:
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2100:
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1899:
1842:
134:
748:: a type of rotary quern-stone used in the Himalayan region of Nepal, Sikkim, Darjeeling and Bhutan.
3557:
3168:
3027:
2860:
2393:
2266:
2147:
2122:
1042:
564:
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3313:
3126:
2521:
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2038:
2004:
1673:
1644:
763:
723:
364:
286:
1429:
658:
1685:
Ground stone assemblage variations and subsistence strategies in the Levant, 22,000 to 5,500 bp
993:
986:
3550:
3540:
3530:
3479:
3136:
2348:
2333:
2318:
2298:
2189:
2168:
1979:
1822:
1617:
1576:
1541:
1510:
1479:
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1379:
1355:
1330:
1286:
1278:
1200:
1178:
1143:
1050:
1022:
997:
964:
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901:
874:
826:
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provisions. Among many recorded adjudications, the 1274 case of the abbot of St Albans Abbey,
261:
188:
92:
contained a handle which enabled the rotary quern to be rotated. They were first used in the
3623:
3545:
3452:
3195:
3037:
2978:
2698:
2654:
2454:
2276:
2127:
2087:
1783:
1665:
1170:
794:
1110:
3567:
3426:
3396:
3158:
3086:
3064:
3022:
2917:
2887:
2752:
2747:
2398:
2281:
1852:
1421:
945:
Anna Revedin et al. (2010). "Thirty thousand-year-old evidence of plant food processing".
645:
618:
419:
342:
338:
250:
192:
166:
727:, in which he lists the thirteen wonders of Britain, and included in it is the wondrous '
491:
type closely resembles the adjustable Highland quern still in use in historic times. In
3535:
3462:
3284:
3249:
3180:
3069:
2941:
2649:
2234:
2224:
2026:
1609:
DeBoer, W. (2001) Of dice and women: gambling and exchange in Native North America, In
757:
745:
740:
545:
Other forms of quern-stone include hopper-rubbers and Pompeian mills, both used by the
511:
415:
376:
290:
142:
117:
65:
3592:
3421:
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2291:
2173:
2137:
2117:
1969:
1947:
1859:
687:
670:
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Garnett in his 1800 tour of Scotland describes the use of a hand quern as follows:
217:
129:
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Exercising the prerogative fell into gradual disuse and the last instance was in
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1864:
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249:, tobacco was not smoked when first introduced, but instead was ground up into
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Research in Scotland has indicated that to a degree regional styles existed.
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3000:
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2207:
2095:
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1788:
1778:
772:
728:
674:
625:
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495:, disc querns were the dominant type of querns in use between the years 500
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93:
17:
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174:
138:
105:
1648:
1161:
McLaren D, Hunter F (2008). "New aspects of rotary querns in Scotland".
1134:
McLaren D, Hunter F (2008). "New aspects of rotary querns in Scotland".
919:
McLaren D, Hunter F (2008). "New aspects of rotary querns in Scotland".
892:
McLaren D, Hunter F (2008). "New aspects of rotary querns in Scotland".
865:
McLaren D, Hunter F (2008). "New aspects of rotary querns in Scotland".
817:
McLaren D, Hunter F (2008). "New aspects of rotary querns in Scotland".
3267:
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2993:
2773:
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2065:
1984:
1937:
1925:
1049:. Cambridge University Press (published January 26, 2015). p. 53.
718:
706:
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306:
226:
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112:
1616:
Gauldie, Enid (1981) The Scottish Miller 1700â1900. Pub. John Donald.
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1711:
Using a Millstone : Grinding Wheat with a Stone grinder (2022)
3401:
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3005:
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2016:
1047:
The Archaeology of Early China: From Prehistory to the Han Dynasty
683:
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The best type of stone from which to manufacture quern-stones are
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44:
36:
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1879:
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133:
Revolving beehive quern-stones and a saddlestone on display at
2915:
2554:
1820:
1725:
2951:
2659:
2425:
2383:
1351:
International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms
963:(sixth ed.). New York: Thames & Hudson. p. 13.
601:) existed in England, established by custom only and not by
563:
Querns utilizing crank-and-connecting rods were used in the
1596:. Edinburgh : William Blackwood & Sons Ltd., p.187
751:
1635:
O'Sullivan, Muiris; Downey, Liam (2006). "Quern Stones".
1215:
1213:
1354:. Springer Science and Business Media. p. 236-236.
1112:
Basaltic-rock procurement systems in the southern Levant
1283:
Vegueta: Anuario de la Facultad de GeografĂa e Historia
1472:
The History of Bread from Pre-historic to Modern Times
1560:
Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland
1323:
Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland
1247:
1245:
921:
Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland
894:
Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland
867:
Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland
1705:
at the Khirbet Qeiyafa archaeological site in Israel
1426:
Practical Treatise on the Law of Landlord and Tenant
3445:
3258:
3085:
2932:
2797:
2761:
2610:
2567:
2357:
2188:
2161:
2086:
2003:
1908:
1833:
617:. They lost, and were ordered to pay the abbot 100
592:
Abolition of Feudal Tenure etc. (Scotland) Act 2000
1264:
985:
848:"Explore/Highlights: Quern stone for making flour"
499:â1500 CE, and usually had a diameter of 30â60 cm.
1594:The History of the Celtic Place-Names of Scotland
1470:Ashton, John (1904). "The miller and his tolls".
432:Rotary Hand Quern at the Estonian Open Air Museum
812:
810:
265:A stack of quern-stones for sale in a market in
1115:. PhD thesis, University of Durham. p. 236
947:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
524:
277:. These quern-stones are only about 30 cm wide.
229:, unlike their source rocks, and had levels of
57:Nepali women using quern-stones to grind grains
116:The upper stone of a Scottish hand quern from
1737:
1703:Saddle quern, other querns, and stone objects
1231:
1229:
8:
850:. London: The British Museum. Archived from
597:A similar obligation (the manorial right of
216:As well as grain, ethnographic evidence and
1611:Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory
949:, vol. 107, no. 44, pp. 18815â18819 (18815)
76:, while the upper mobile stone is called a
2929:
2912:
2564:
2551:
2009:
1830:
1817:
1744:
1730:
1722:
1708:Demonstration of quern-stone use in Iran,
1687:, unpublished PhD thesis, Yale University.
1530:"New aspects of rotary querns in Scotland"
1499:"New aspects of rotary querns in Scotland"
1319:"New aspects of rotary querns in Scotland"
1307:, vol. 29, no 1. (2010), pp. 89-117 (100).
842:
840:
161:-making. They were generally replaced by
1562:, vol. 5, no. 117 (1987), pp. 105 - 117.
1348:Hong-Sen Yan, Marco Ceccarelli (2009).
806:
790:Scottish Rural Life, History Dictionary
1443:Bennett, Richard; Elton, John (1898).
7:
1698:Atlas of European millstone quarries
1277:Alonso i MartĂnez, Natalia (2015).
1195:MacSween, A & Sharp, M (1989),
992:. Rosen Publishing Group. pp.
605:. This was actively enforced using
717:In the 9th century the Welsh monk
289:'s head, and crushed his skull." (
25:
2868:Megalithic architectural elements
1019:Science and Civilisation in China
575:There was a legal requirement in
96:era to grind cereals into flour.
1265:Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007
721:wrote a history of Britain, the
640:A quern-stone (right), known as
363:Women grind grain with a quern,
184:from at least 30,000 years ago.
3487:Evolutionary origin of religion
988:The Technology of Ancient China
41:Disc quern made of basalt stone
1239:The Strand: T. Cadell. P. 155.
1:
3599:Archaeological artefact types
3100:Art of the Middle Paleolithic
2630:British megalith architecture
1376:The Scottish Miller 1700â1900
1305:Oxford Journal of Archaeology
380:
27:Stone tools for handâgrinding
3095:Art of the Upper Paleolithic
2635:Nordic megalith architecture
1658:Journal of Roman Archaeology
1528:McLaren D, Hunter F (2008).
1497:McLaren D, Hunter F (2008).
1317:McLaren D, Hunter F (2008).
1199:London : B.T.Batsford.
984:Greenberger, Robert (2005).
713:The Wondrous Mauchline Quern
1592:Watson, William J. (1926).
1476:The Religious Tract Society
1397:"UK Government Web Archive"
1221:An Atlas for Celtic Studies
541:Other types of quern stones
474:A hand quern being operated
301:Manufacture of quern-stones
169:appeared, particularly the
3650:
3243:British Isles and Brittany
3164:Gwion Gwion rock paintings
665:A quern was discovered at
648:, on the porch of a rural
413:
203:Quern stones were used in
29:
2928:
2911:
2563:
2550:
2012:
1829:
1816:
1759:
1670:10.1017/S1047759400005341
372:Evolution of quern-stones
165:once mechanised forms of
1175:10.9750/PSAS.138.105.128
959:Coe, Michael D. (1999).
632:Ornament and inscription
30:Not to be confused with
3475:Evolutionary musicology
2878:Oldest extant buildings
2805:Archaeological features
2324:Prepared-core technique
1445:History of corn milling
1422:Harrison, Samuel Bealey
1109:Rutter, Graham (2003).
506:The quern rests on the
3437:Unchambered long cairn
3285:Mound Builders culture
2618:Neolithic architecture
1753:Prehistoric technology
1571:Janet and Colin Bord,
1449:Simpkin & Marshall
1428:(7 ed.). London:
752:
735:Related grinding tools
653:
560:
559:Sound of a Roman mill.
529:
519:
475:
454:
433:
368:
345:have the same origin.
278:
146:
121:
100:Design of quern-stones
58:
42:
3112:List of Stone Age art
2314:Microblade technology
2262:Langdale axe industry
1860:Ard / plough
1197:Prehistoric Scotland.
1090:. Accessed 2009-11-20
1078:Lease et al. 2001:235
1017:Huang, H. T. (2000).
639:
558:
505:
473:
451:Dumfries and Galloway
444:
431:
362:
264:
132:
115:
56:
40:
3614:Grinding and lapping
3519:Prehistoric medicine
3514:Prehistoric counting
3497:Prehistoric religion
3492:Paleolithic religion
3470:Behavioral modernity
2827:Causewayed enclosure
2719:Abri de la Madeleine
1843:Neolithic Revolution
1378:(John Donald 1981),
1043:Shelach-Lavi, Gideon
694:in County Offaly in
135:Cliffe Castle Museum
3609:Food grinding tools
3558:Prehistoric warfare
2304:Magdalenian culture
2267:Levallois technique
2198:Earliest toolmaking
1637:Archaeology Ireland
1534:Proc Soc Antiq Scot
1503:Proc Soc Antiq Scot
1432:. pp. iv, 561.
1430:Sweet & Maxwell
1163:Proc Soc Antiq Scot
1136:Proc Soc Antiq Scot
819:Proc Soc Antiq Scot
565:Western Han Dynasty
453:, southern Scotland
3604:Chinese inventions
3509:Origin of language
3502:Spiritual drug use
3412:Rectangular dolmen
3314:Dartmoor kistvaens
3127:Carved stone balls
2839:Circular enclosure
2798:Other architecture
2741:Alp pile dwellings
2329:Solutrean industry
2240:Gravettian culture
1890:Secondary products
1683:Wright, K. (1992)
1575:(Garnstone 1973),
1573:Mysterious Britain
1267:, p. 158, 159
854:on April 21, 2009.
724:Historia Brittonum
654:
561:
520:
516:A Tour in Scotland
476:
455:
434:
369:
279:
189:Maya civilizations
147:
122:
59:
43:
3629:Maya civilization
3586:
3585:
3582:
3581:
3578:
3577:
3531:Prehistoric music
3480:music archaeology
3137:Cup and ring mark
2962:Clothing/textiles
2907:
2906:
2903:
2902:
2546:
2545:
2542:
2541:
2349:Yubetsu technique
2334:Striking platform
2299:Lithic technology
2184:
2183:
2169:Game drive system
2088:Projectile points
1980:Mortar and pestle
1629:Serie archéométri
1361:978-1-4020-9484-2
556:
54:
16:(Redirected from
3641:
3546:Divje Babe flute
3453:Archaeoastronomy
3196:Petrosomatoglyph
2930:
2913:
2762:Water management
2565:
2552:
2455:Denticulate tool
2277:Lithic reduction
2010:
1831:
1818:
1746:
1739:
1732:
1723:
1718:, November 2022.
1712:
1680:
1652:
1597:
1590:
1584:
1569:
1563:
1556:
1550:
1549:
1525:
1519:
1518:
1494:
1488:
1487:
1467:
1461:
1460:
1440:
1434:
1433:
1418:
1412:
1411:
1409:
1408:
1399:. Archived from
1393:
1387:
1372:
1366:
1365:
1345:
1339:
1338:
1314:
1308:
1301:
1295:
1294:
1274:
1268:
1262:
1256:
1249:
1240:
1233:
1224:
1217:
1208:
1193:
1187:
1186:
1158:
1152:
1151:
1131:
1125:
1124:
1122:
1120:
1106:
1100:
1099:DeBoer 2001:223.
1097:
1091:
1085:
1079:
1076:
1070:
1067:
1061:
1060:
1039:
1033:
1032:
1014:
1008:
1007:
991:
981:
975:
974:
956:
950:
943:
937:
936:
916:
910:
909:
889:
883:
882:
862:
856:
855:
844:
835:
834:
814:
795:Sharpening stone
755:
571:Laws against use
557:
445:Querns from the
385:
384: 9,000 BCE
382:
120:, North Ayrshire
55:
21:
3649:
3648:
3644:
3643:
3642:
3640:
3639:
3638:
3589:
3588:
3587:
3574:
3441:
3427:Stone box grave
3397:Megalithic tomb
3302:Cotswold-Severn
3254:
3159:Guardian stones
3087:Prehistoric art
3081:
2924:
2899:
2888:Timber trackway
2793:
2757:
2753:Wattle and daub
2606:
2585:Standing stones
2559:
2538:
2353:
2180:
2157:
2082:
1999:
1909:Food processing
1904:
1853:New World crops
1825:
1812:
1755:
1750:
1710:
1694:
1655:
1634:
1606:
1601:
1600:
1591:
1587:
1570:
1566:
1557:
1553:
1527:
1526:
1522:
1496:
1495:
1491:
1478:. p. 115.
1469:
1468:
1464:
1451:. p. 215.
1442:
1441:
1437:
1420:
1419:
1415:
1406:
1404:
1395:
1394:
1390:
1373:
1369:
1362:
1347:
1346:
1342:
1316:
1315:
1311:
1302:
1298:
1276:
1275:
1271:
1263:
1259:
1250:
1243:
1234:
1227:
1223:(2007), p. 150.
1218:
1211:
1194:
1190:
1160:
1159:
1155:
1133:
1132:
1128:
1118:
1116:
1108:
1107:
1103:
1098:
1094:
1086:
1082:
1077:
1073:
1069:Wright 1992:87f
1068:
1064:
1057:
1041:
1040:
1036:
1029:
1016:
1015:
1011:
1004:
983:
982:
978:
971:
958:
957:
953:
944:
940:
918:
917:
913:
891:
890:
886:
864:
863:
859:
846:
845:
838:
816:
815:
808:
803:
781:
737:
715:
634:
573:
552:
543:
534:
532:Miniature quern
468:
439:
422:
420:Mo (grist mill)
412:
392:
383:
377:Knocking stones
374:
343:Yorkshire Dales
339:Great Whernside
303:
259:
257:Incidental uses
214:
212:Other materials
193:nixtamalization
191:the process of
127:
102:
68:tools for hand-
45:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3647:
3645:
3637:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3619:Grinding mills
3616:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3591:
3590:
3584:
3583:
3580:
3579:
3576:
3575:
3573:
3572:
3571:
3570:
3560:
3555:
3554:
3553:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3536:Alligator drum
3528:
3527:
3526:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3505:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3484:
3483:
3482:
3472:
3467:
3466:
3465:
3463:lunar calendar
3460:
3449:
3447:
3446:Other cultural
3443:
3442:
3440:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
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3333:
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3316:
3306:
3305:
3304:
3294:
3293:
3292:
3282:
3281:
3280:
3275:
3264:
3262:
3256:
3255:
3253:
3252:
3250:Venus figurine
3247:
3246:
3245:
3240:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3219:
3218:
3213:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3181:Megalithic art
3178:
3177:
3176:
3171:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3150:
3149:
3139:
3134:
3132:Cave paintings
3129:
3124:
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3114:
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3025:
3015:
3010:
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2997:
2996:
2991:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2970:
2969:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2938:
2936:
2934:Material goods
2926:
2925:
2916:
2909:
2908:
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2904:
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2898:
2897:
2896:
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2728:
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2716:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2690:
2689:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2668:
2667:
2657:
2652:
2650:Cliff dwelling
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2626:
2625:
2614:
2612:
2608:
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2605:
2604:
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2369:
2363:
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2289:
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2269:
2264:
2259:
2258:
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2242:
2237:
2235:Fire hardening
2232:
2227:
2225:Clovis culture
2222:
2217:
2216:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2194:
2192:
2186:
2185:
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2181:
2179:
2178:
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2155:
2150:
2148:Manis Mastodon
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2110:
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2030:
2029:
2027:throwing stick
2019:
2013:
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1693:
1692:External links
1690:
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1003:978-1404205581
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741:Knocking stone
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590:) 2004 by the
572:
569:
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539:
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512:Thomas Pennant
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416:Jato (grinder)
411:
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309:rocks such as
302:
299:
258:
255:
242:in antiquity.
213:
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143:West Yorkshire
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123:
118:Dalgarven Mill
101:
98:
78:muller, rubber
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3634:Stone objects
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3422:Simple dolmen
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3408:
3407:Passage grave
3405:
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2077:
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2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2056:spear-thrower
2054:
2053:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2040:
2037:
2036:
2035:
2034:Bow and arrow
2032:
2028:
2025:
2024:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2014:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2002:
1996:
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1978:
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1971:
1968:
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1943:Grinding slab
1941:
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1875:Domestication
1873:
1871:
1870:Digging stick
1868:
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1861:
1858:
1854:
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1849:
1848:Founder crops
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1824:
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1815:
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1799:
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1789:New Stone Age
1787:
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1626:
1623:
1622:0-85976-067-7
1619:
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1608:
1607:
1603:
1595:
1589:
1586:
1582:
1581:0-85511-180-1
1578:
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1561:
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1524:
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1458:
1454:
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1446:
1439:
1436:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1417:
1414:
1403:on 2008-08-10
1402:
1398:
1392:
1389:
1385:
1384:0-85976-067-7
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1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1313:
1310:
1306:
1300:
1297:
1292:
1288:
1285:(15): 23â36.
1284:
1280:
1273:
1270:
1266:
1261:
1258:
1255:(2006), p. 24
1254:
1248:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1232:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1216:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1205:0-7134-6173-X
1202:
1198:
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1189:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1157:
1154:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1130:
1127:
1114:
1113:
1105:
1102:
1096:
1093:
1089:
1084:
1081:
1075:
1072:
1066:
1063:
1058:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1038:
1035:
1030:
1024:
1020:
1013:
1010:
1005:
999:
995:
990:
989:
980:
977:
972:
970:0-500-28066-5
966:
962:
955:
952:
948:
942:
939:
934:
930:
926:
922:
915:
912:
907:
903:
899:
895:
888:
885:
880:
876:
872:
868:
861:
858:
853:
849:
843:
841:
837:
832:
828:
824:
820:
813:
811:
807:
800:
796:
793:
791:
788:
786:
783:
782:
778:
774:
771:
769:
765:
762:
759:
754:
750:
747:
744:
742:
739:
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631:
629:
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620:
616:
612:
608:
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600:
595:
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589:
584:
582:
578:
570:
568:
566:
550:
548:
540:
538:
531:
528:
523:
517:
514:'s 1772 book
513:
509:
504:
500:
498:
494:
490:
486:
482:
472:
465:
463:
461:
452:
448:
443:
437:Beehive quern
436:
430:
426:
421:
417:
409:
407:
405:
401:
397:
389:
387:
378:
371:
366:
361:
357:
354:
352:
351:status symbol
346:
344:
340:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
300:
298:
296:
292:
288:
283:
276:
272:
268:
263:
256:
254:
252:
248:
243:
241:
235:
232:
228:
224:
219:
211:
209:
206:
201:
199:
194:
190:
185:
183:
178:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
144:
140:
136:
131:
124:
119:
114:
110:
107:
99:
97:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
39:
33:
19:
3363:wedge-shaped
3348:Funeral pyre
3341:Great dolmen
3297:Chamber tomb
3278:Round barrow
3233:Stone circle
3105:Blombos Cave
3033:Grooved ware
2957:Chalcolithic
2861:Thornborough
2779:Flush toilet
2714:Blombos Cave
2709:Rock shelter
2665:Quiggly hole
2557:Architecture
2532:illustration
2484:
2174:Buffalo jump
1995:Storage pits
1989:
1958:AĆıklı HöyĂŒk
1948:Ground stone
1784:Subdivisions
1684:
1661:
1657:
1643:(2): 22â25.
1640:
1636:
1631:e 1:227-240.
1628:
1610:
1604:Bibliography
1593:
1588:
1572:
1567:
1559:
1554:
1537:
1533:
1523:
1506:
1502:
1492:
1471:
1465:
1444:
1438:
1425:
1416:
1405:. Retrieved
1401:the original
1391:
1375:
1370:
1350:
1343:
1326:
1322:
1312:
1304:
1299:
1282:
1272:
1260:
1252:
1251:O'Sullivan,
1236:
1235:Garnett, T.
1220:
1219:J. T. Koch,
1196:
1191:
1166:
1162:
1156:
1139:
1135:
1129:
1117:. Retrieved
1111:
1104:
1095:
1083:
1074:
1065:
1046:
1037:
1018:
1012:
987:
979:
960:
954:
946:
941:
924:
920:
914:
897:
893:
887:
870:
866:
860:
852:the original
822:
818:
722:
716:
688:Clonmacnoise
664:
655:
641:
623:
596:
585:
583:agreements.
574:
562:
544:
535:
525:
521:
515:
477:
456:
423:
410:Rotary quern
393:
390:Saddle quern
375:
355:
347:
304:
284:
280:
244:
236:
218:Mesopotamian
215:
202:
197:
186:
179:
148:
103:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
62:Quern-stones
61:
60:
18:Rotary quern
3385:unchambered
3380:Long barrow
3370:Grave goods
3326:Court cairn
3321:Clava cairn
3273:Bowl barrow
3211:Rock cupule
3154:Golden hats
3147:Hill figure
3048:Unstan ware
3028:Cord-marked
2893:Sweet Track
2815:Burnt mound
2736:Stilt house
2724:Sibudu Cave
2517:Tally stick
2485:Quern-stone
2470:Hammerstone
2460:Fire plough
2431:Pesse canoe
2389:Bannerstone
2359:Other tools
2272:Lithic core
2220:Aurignacian
2108:Bare Island
1990:Quern-stone
1664:: 138â163,
1329:: 119â122.
1169:: 105â128.
1142:: 122â125.
1088:Snuff Quern
753:Batu giling
611:Cirencester
400:rolling pin
240:gold mining
90:handle slot
32:Quarrystone
3593:Categories
3524:trepanning
3417:Ring cairn
3375:Jar burial
3358:transepted
3290:U.S. sites
3191:Petroglyph
3117:Bird stone
3075:wine press
2748:Stone roof
2731:Roundhouse
2623:long house
2600:Stonehenge
2568:Ceremonial
2512:Stone tool
2339:Tool stone
2309:Metallurgy
2213:Mousterian
2190:Toolmaking
2128:Cumberland
2101:Transverse
2071:Schöningen
1963:Qesem cave
1931:Earth oven
1885:Irrigation
1796:Technology
1764:Prehistory
1613:8:215-268.
1474:. London:
1447:. London:
1407:2017-05-24
700:Lough Scur
607:common law
466:Disc quern
414:See also:
329:Crag near
171:water mill
163:millstones
3568:symbolism
3432:Tor cairn
3390:GrĂžnsalen
3331:Cremation
3223:Sculpture
3201:Pictogram
3186:Petroform
3006:amber use
2974:Cosmetics
2784:Reservoir
2769:Check dam
2699:Pueblitos
2694:Pit-house
2677:Longhouse
2611:Dwellings
2480:Microlith
2411:Bow drill
2406:Bone tool
2399:prismatic
2208:Acheulean
2123:Cresswell
2096:Arrowhead
2022:Boomerang
1938:Granaries
1900:Terracing
1779:Stone Age
1678:161937987
1546:0081-1564
1515:0081-1564
1457:184882012
1424:(1856) .
1335:0081-1564
1291:1133-598X
1183:0081-1564
1148:0081-1564
933:0081-1564
906:0081-1564
879:0081-1564
831:0081-1564
773:Millstone
729:Mauchline
675:Byzantine
626:Wakefield
588:Martinmas
406:article.
365:Palestine
335:Whernside
331:Lancaster
327:Quernmore
323:limestone
319:quartzite
315:sandstone
287:Abimelech
187:In early
94:Neolithic
82:handstone
3206:Rock art
3169:painting
3142:Geoglyph
2967:timeline
2947:Beadwork
2687:Mehrgarh
2682:Mudbrick
2590:megalith
2465:Fire-saw
2287:debitage
2282:analysis
2250:Hand axe
2230:Cupstone
1808:Glossary
1769:Timeline
1649:20559139
1624:. 98-99.
1583:. P. 62.
1207:. p. 17.
1119:12 March
1045:(2015).
961:The Maya
779:See also
599:mulcture
581:thirlage
577:Scotland
508:earasaid
489:Iron Age
460:Iron Age
449:Museum,
447:Whithorn
247:Shetland
231:antimony
175:windmill
173:and the
153:to make
139:Keighley
106:millrind
70:grinding
3624:Lithics
3563:Symbols
3174:pigment
3060:Weaving
3023:Cardium
3018:Pottery
3013:Mirrors
3001:Jewelry
2942:Baskets
2922:culture
2774:Cistern
2580:Pyramid
2522:Weapons
2500:Scraper
2490:Racloir
2450:Cleaver
2438:Chopper
2344:Uniface
2255:Grooves
2245:Hafting
2203:Oldowan
2162:Systems
2113:Cascade
2076:woomera
2066:harpoon
2039:history
2005:Hunting
1985:Pottery
1926:Cooking
1835:Farming
1801:history
1774:Outline
1716:YouTube
1540:: 117.
1509:: 106.
1484:6124449
927:: 106.
900:: 112.
873:: 106.
825:: 106.
719:Nennius
707:Ireland
703:crannog
696:Ireland
692:Athlone
690:, near
659:La TĂšne
615:assizes
603:statute
493:Ireland
487:. This
341:in the
307:igneous
227:bismuth
223:arsenic
167:milling
3541:flutes
3336:Dolmen
3260:Burial
3070:winery
3043:Linear
2873:Midden
2851:Cursus
2844:Goseck
2704:Pueblo
2655:Dugout
2640:Burdei
2319:Mining
2143:Lamoka
2138:Folsom
2118:Clovis
1975:Metate
1953:Hearth
1921:Basket
1895:Sickle
1676:
1647:
1620:
1579:
1544:
1513:
1482:
1455:
1382:
1358:
1333:
1289:
1253:et al.
1203:
1181:
1146:
1053:
1025:
1000:
967:
931:
904:
877:
829:
785:Metate
768:metate
667:Dunadd
652:house.
650:Nepali
646:Nepali
547:Romans
485:brochs
404:metate
396:saddle
367:(1900)
311:basalt
271:Hainan
267:Haikou
198:metate
182:Europe
86:hopper
3458:sites
3402:Mummy
3122:Cairn
3038:JĆmon
2989:shoes
2984:Hides
2856:Henge
2810:Broch
2672:Jacal
2527:Wheel
2475:Knife
2421:Canoe
2416:Burin
2394:Blade
2292:flake
2153:Plano
2061:baton
2051:Spear
2017:Arrow
1970:Manos
1823:Tools
1674:S2CID
1645:JSTOR
801:Notes
764:Manos
758:Malay
684:ergot
671:Roman
619:marks
481:Spain
293:9:53
291:Judg.
275:China
251:snuff
205:China
159:bread
155:flour
151:grain
137:, in
125:Grain
80:, or
74:quern
66:stone
3551:gudi
3309:Cist
3238:list
3065:Wine
2994:Ătzi
2979:Glue
2952:Beds
2920:and
2918:Arts
2789:Well
2645:Cave
2575:Kiva
2505:side
2495:Rope
2443:tool
2377:bone
2367:Adze
2133:Eden
2046:Nets
1916:Fire
1880:Goad
1865:Celt
1618:ISBN
1577:ISBN
1542:ISSN
1511:ISSN
1480:OCLC
1453:OCLC
1380:ISBN
1356:ISBN
1331:ISSN
1287:ISSN
1201:ISBN
1179:ISSN
1144:ISSN
1121:2014
1051:ISBN
1023:ISBN
998:ISBN
965:ISBN
929:ISSN
902:ISSN
875:ISSN
827:ISSN
766:and
746:Jato
680:rust
673:and
642:jato
418:and
337:and
321:and
295:NRSV
225:and
157:for
88:. A
64:are
2660:Hut
2595:row
2426:Oar
2384:Axe
2372:Awl
1714:on
1666:doi
1538:113
1507:119
1327:138
1171:doi
1167:138
1140:138
925:115
898:138
871:138
823:113
705:in
682:or
644:in
245:In
200:).
3595::
1672:,
1662:20
1660:,
1641:20
1639:.
1536:.
1532:.
1505:.
1501:.
1325:.
1321:.
1281:.
1244:^
1228:^
1212:^
1177:.
1165:.
1138:.
996:.
994:10
923:.
896:.
869:.
839:^
821:.
809:^
709:.
594:.
567:.
497:CE
381:c.
353:.
325:.
317:,
297:)
273:,
269:,
141:,
1745:e
1738:t
1731:v
1668::
1651:.
1548:.
1517:.
1486:.
1459:.
1410:.
1386:.
1364:.
1337:.
1293:.
1185:.
1173::
1150:.
1123:.
1059:.
1031:.
1006:.
973:.
935:.
908:.
881:.
833:.
760:)
756:(
518:.
196:(
145:.
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
