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346:, can survive and even reproduce at temperatures found in autoclaves, their growth rate is so slow at the lower temperatures in the less extreme environments occupied by humans that it is unlikely they could compete with other organisms. None of them are known to be infectious or otherwise pose a health risk to humans; in fact, their biochemistry is so different from that of humans, and their multiplication rate is so slow, that microbiologists need not worry about them.
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423:. Many medical-grade autoclaves are therefore limited to running regulator-approved cycles. Because they are optimized for continuous hospital use, they favor rectangular designs, require demanding maintenance regimens, and are costly to operate. (A properly calibrated medical-grade autoclave uses thousands of gallons of water each day, independent of task, with correspondingly high electric power consumption.)
448:
medical-grade autoclaves used in their research labs were each consuming 700 gallons of water and 90 kWh of electricity per day (1,134MWh of electricity and 8.8 million gallons of water total), because they consumed energy and water continuously, even when not in use. UCR's research-grade autoclaves performed the same tasks with equal effectiveness, but used 83% less energy and 97% less water.
216:(but not eliminate) potentially infectious agents by using pressurized steam and superheated water. A new generation of waste converters is capable of achieving the same effect without a pressure vessel to sterilize culture media, rubber material, gowns, dressings, gloves, etc. It is particularly useful for materials that cannot withstand the higher temperature of a hot air oven.
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difficult challenge device, named the Bowie-Dick device after its inventors, is also used to verify a full cycle. This contains a full sheet of chemical indicator placed in the center of a stack of paper. It is designed specifically to prove that the process achieved full temperature and time required for a normal minimum cycle of 134 °C for 3.5–4 minutes.
336:, may not be destroyed by autoclaving at the typical 134 °C for three minutes or 121 °C for 15 minutes and instead should be immersed in sodium hydroxide (1M NaOH) and heated in a gravity displacement autoclave at 121 °C for 30 min, cleaned, rinsed in water and subjected to routine sterilization. Although a wide range of
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where efficiency, ease-of-use, and flexibility are at a premium. Research-grade autoclaves may be configured for "pass-through" operation. This makes it possible to maintain absolute isolation between "clean" and potentially contaminated work areas. Pass-through research autoclaves are especially important in
215:
A notable recent and increasingly popular application of autoclaves is the pre-disposal treatment and sterilization of waste material, such as pathogenic hospital waste. Machines in this category largely operate under the same principles as conventional autoclaves in that they are able to neutralize
447:
In 2016, the Office of
Sustainability at the University of California, Riverside (UCR) conducted a study of autoclave efficiency in their genomics and entomology research labs, tracking several units' power and water consumption. They found that, even when functioning within intended parameters, the
443:
Research-grade autoclaves—which are not approved for use in sterilizing instruments that will be directly used on humans—are primarily designed for efficiency, flexibility, and ease-of-use. They display a wide range of designs and sizes, and are frequently tailored to their use and load type. Common
431:
Autoclaves used in education, research, biomedical research, pharmaceutical research and industrial settings (often called "research-grade" autoclaves) are used to sterilize lab instruments, glassware, culture media, and liquid media. Research-grade autoclaves are increasingly used in these settings
498:
change color once the correct conditions have been met, indicating that the object inside the package, or under the tape, has been appropriately processed. Autoclave tape is only a marker that steam and heat have activated the dye. The marker on the tape does not indicate complete sterility. A more
487:
There are physical, chemical, and biological indicators that can be used to ensure that an autoclave reaches the correct temperature for the correct amount of time. If a non-treated or improperly treated item can be confused for a treated item, then there is the risk that they will become mixed up,
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As steam enters the chamber, it fills the upper areas first as it is less dense than air. This process compresses the air to the bottom, forcing it out through a drain which often contains a temperature sensor. Only when air evacuation is complete does the discharge stop. Flow is usually controlled
543:
values are set for the number of minutes of sterilization equivalent to 121 °C (250 °F) at 103 kPa (14.9 psi) above atmospheric pressure for 15 minutes. Since exact temperature control is difficult, the temperature is monitored, and the sterilization time adjusted accordingly.
404:
due to environmental and health concerns about the combustion by-products emitted by incinerators, especially from the small units which were commonly operated at individual hospitals. Incineration or a similar thermal oxidation process is still generally mandated for pathological waste and other
235:
It is very important to ensure that all of the trapped air is removed from the autoclave before activation, as trapped air is a very poor medium for achieving sterility. Steam at 134 °C (273 °F) can achieve a desired level of sterility in three minutes, while achieving the same level of
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Autoclaves are also widely used to cure composites, especially for melding multiple layers without any voids that would decrease material strength, and in the vulcanization of rubber. The high heat and pressure that autoclaves generate help to ensure that the best possible physical properties are
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when run on the factory default setting. The study found that 18 of 18 (100%) mock patient loads (6 PPE, 6 linen, and 6 liquid loads) passed sterilization tests with the optimized parameters compared to only 3 of 19 (16%) mock loads that passed with use of the factory default settings.
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bags often have a "sterilization indicator mark" that typically darkens when the bag and its contents have been adequately processed. Comparing the marks on an unprocessed bag (L) and on a bag that has been properly cycled (R) will reveal an obvious visual
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repeatable. Manufacturers of spars for sailboats have autoclaves well over 50 feet (15 m) long and 10 feet (3 m) wide, and some autoclaves in the aerospace industry are large enough to hold whole airplane fuselages made of layered composites.
1175:
Garibaldi, Brian T.; Reimers, Mallory; Ernst, Neysa; Bova, Gregory; Nowakowski, Elaine; Bukowski, James; Ellis, Brandon C.; Smith, Chris; Sauer, Lauren; Dionne, Kim; Carroll, Karen C.; Maragakis, Lisa L.; Parrish, Nicole M. (February 2017).
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Autoclaves are found in many medical settings, laboratories, and other places that need to ensure the sterility of an object. Many procedures today employ single-use items rather than sterilizable, reusable items. This first happened with
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The machine on the right is an autoclave used for processing substantial quantities of laboratory equipment prior to reuse, and infectious material prior to disposal. (The machines on the left and in the middle are washing
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Stovetop autoclaves used in poorer or non-medical settings do not always have automatic air removal programs. The operator is required to manually perform steam pulsing at certain pressures as indicated by the gauge.
903:
Australian/New
Zealand Standard: Office-based health care facilities— Reprocessing of reusable medical and surgical instruments and equipment, and maintenance of the associated environment (AS/NZS 4815:2006)
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variations include either a cylindrical or square pressure chamber, air- or water-cooling systems, and vertically or horizontally opening chamber doors (which may be electrically or manually powered).
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Achieved with a vacuum pump. It starts with a vacuum followed by a steam pulse followed by a vacuum followed by a steam pulse. The number of pulses depends on the particular autoclave and cycle chosen.
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and other products that may be damaged by steam must also be sterilized another way. In all autoclaves, items should always be separated to allow the steam to penetrate the load evenly.
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877:"A new approach to making airplane parts, minus the massive infrastructure: Carbon nanotube film produces aerospace-grade composites with no need for huge ovens or autoclaves"
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Immerse in sodium hydroxide (NaOH)20 and heat in a gravity displacement autoclave at 121°C for 30 min; clean; rinse in water and subject to routine sterilization.
1178:"Validation of Autoclave Protocols for Successful Decontamination of Category A Medical Waste Generated from Care of Patients with Serious Communicable Diseases"
252:, but bleed holes are sometimes used. As the steam and air mix, it is also possible to force out the mixture from locations in the chamber other than the bottom.
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Similar to the superatmospheric cycles, but chamber pressure never exceeds atmospheric pressure until they pressurize up to the sterilizing temperature.
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Air dilution by using a series of steam pulses, in which the chamber is alternately pressurized and then depressurized to near atmospheric pressure.
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designed to melt only after being subjected to a given temperature for the relevant holding time. If the alloy melts, the change will be visible.
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In order to sterilize items effectively, it is important to use optimal parameters when running an autoclave cycle. A 2017 study performed by the
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is a machine used to carry out industrial and scientific processes requiring elevated temperature and pressure in relation to
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374:). Autoclaves are of particular importance in poorer countries due to the much greater amount of equipment that is re-used.
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129:(about double atmospheric pressure) depending on the size of the load and the contents. The autoclave was invented by
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118:. Industrial autoclaves are used in industrial applications, especially in the manufacturing of composites.
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Menge, John A. (1984). "Chapter 9: Inoculom
Production". In Powel, Conway L.; Bagyaraj, D. Joseph (eds.).
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sterility in hot air requires two hours at 160 °C (320 °F). Methods of air removal include:
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functions as a single-purpose autoclave designed for the sterilization of liquid waste and effluent.
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1234:"Guideline for Disinfection and Sterilization in Healthcare Facilities (2008): Steam Sterilization"
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201:. They vary in size and function depending on the media to be sterilized and are sometimes called
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Joint
Technical Committee HE-023, Processing of Medical and Surgical Instruments (6 April 2006),
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Typical loads include laboratory glassware, other equipment and waste, surgical instruments, and
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Many autoclaves are used to sterilize equipment and supplies by subjecting them to pressurized
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Hugo WB (July 1991). "A brief history of heat and chemical preservation and disinfection".
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Dental equipment in an autoclave to be sterilized for 2 hours at 150 to 180 degrees
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Autoclaving is often used to sterilize medical waste prior to disposal in the standard
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To prove sterility, biological indicators are used. Biological indicators contain
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at 121 °C (250 °F) for 30–60 minutes at a pressure of 205 kPa or 2.02
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512:. If the autoclave does not reach the right temperature, the spores will
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In dentistry, autoclaves provide sterilization of dental instruments.
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handles) are commonly single-use rather than reusable items (see
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Cutaway illustration of a jacketed rectangular-chamber autoclave
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A vacuum pump sucks air or air/steam mixtures from the chamber.
1029:"The upper temperature for life – where do we draw the line?"
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very toxic or infectious medical waste. For liquid waste, an
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Illustration of a cylindrical-chamber pass-through autoclave
524:-sensitive chemical. Some physical indicators consist of an
106:. Autoclaves are used before surgical procedures to perform
973:. ScienceEquip Quality Laboratory Equipment and Consumables
590:
Horizontal high-capacity autoclave with cylindrical chamber
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332:, and some toxins released by certain bacteria, such as
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Cutaway illustration of a cylindrical-chamber autoclave
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unit tested the ability of pass-through autoclaves to
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United States
Department of Health and Human Services
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389:) cannot be sterilized this way or they will melt.
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1084:Davies, Julian; Davies, Dorothy (September 2010).
110:and in the chemical industry to cure coatings and
308:equipment and other objects. This means that all
1086:"Origins and Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance"
1332:
993:Communicable Disease Surveillance and Control
811:Disinfection, Sterilization, and Preservation
8:
531:Some computer-controlled autoclaves use an F
173:Sterilization autoclaves are widely used in
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2292:Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) instrument
1006:. World Health Organization. pp. 29–32
926:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
909:, Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand
848:. iSmithers Rapra Publishing. p. 161.
133:in 1879, although a precursor known as the
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300:A medical autoclave is a device that uses
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1268:"The Autoclave, effectivity and low cost"
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149:meaning key, thus a self-locking device.
2657:Instruments used in medical laboratories
240:Downward displacement (or gravity-type):
2173:Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) device
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164:Video demonstrating how autoclaves work
2221:Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
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683:. Pasteur Institute. 9 November 2018.
36:
1143:"Laboratory autoclaves: a case study"
814:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
205:in the chemical and food industries.
145:, ultimately meaning self, and Latin
7:
1141:Faugeroux, Delphine; Wells, Barbra.
942:"All American Autoclave Sterilizers"
747:. Etymonline.com. September 16, 2018
415:In most of the industrialized world
681:"Charles Chamberland, the inventor"
561:Stovetop autoclaves, also known as
141:in 1679. The name comes from Greek
27:Temperature and pressure instrument
2216:Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
769:. Consolidated Machine Corporation
719:10.1111/j.1365-2672.1991.tb04657.x
25:
2261:Thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA)
2071:Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
1182:Journal of Clinical Microbiology
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535:(F-nought) value to control the
328:, such as those associated with
707:Journal of Applied Bacteriology
687:from the original on 2021-11-22
506:of a heat-resistant bacterium,
407:effluent decontamination system
225:effluent decontamination system
808:Seymour Stanton Block (2001).
659:. Prentice Hall. p. 334.
509:Geobacillus stearothermophilus
1:
967:"How Does an Autoclave Work?"
409:is the equivalent hardware.
1027:Cowan, D. A. (2004-02-01).
1004:Communicable Diseases (CDS)
745:Online Etymology Dictionary
565:—the simplest of autoclaves
520:will change the color of a
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324:are inactivated. However,
32:Autoclave (disambiguation)
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1045:10.1016/j.tim.2003.12.002
655:Black, Jacquelyn (1993).
516:when incubated and their
494:on medical packaging and
419:autoclaves are regulated
330:Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease
42:
948:. Red Hill General Store
270:Superatmospheric cycles:
2251:Melting-point apparatus
1632:Cryogenic storage dewar
1274:. Kalstein France. 2022
385:products (such as some
2188:Mass spectrometer (MS)
2178:Gas chromatograph (GC)
1033:Trends in Microbiology
842:R. B. Simpson (2002).
767:"Sterilization Cycles"
470:Johns Hopkins Hospital
465:
297:
276:Subatmospheric cycles:
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116:hydrothermal synthesis
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2563:Acid-resistant gloves
2244:differential scanning
1102:10.1128/MMBR.00016-10
946:AllAmericanCanner.com
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398:municipal solid waste
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2676:Laboratory equipment
2140:Analytical chemistry
1642:Laminar flow cabinet
1348:Laboratory equipment
1194:10.1128/JCM.02161-16
356:surgical instruments
30:For other uses, see
2512:Personal protective
1421:Meker–Fisher burner
1248:. November 28, 2023
492:Chemical indicators
479:loads of simulated
340:species, including
131:Charles Chamberland
69:Charles Chamberland
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2338:Bench power supply
2277:Analytical balance
2038:Ostwald viscometer
2033:Graduated cylinder
1772:Inoculation needle
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1150:Laboratory Design
855:978-1-85957-307-5
821:978-0-683-30740-5
634:978-1-351-09441-2
548:Additional images
452:Quality assurance
354:, but today many
343:Geogemma barossii
199:funerary practice
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790:. 2 January 2017
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137:was created by
123:saturated steam
114:rubber and for
79:Waste autoclave
50:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2694:
2692:
2684:
2683:
2678:
2668:
2667:
2661:
2660:
2655:
2652:
2651:
2648:
2647:
2644:
2643:
2641:
2640:
2635:
2633:Safety cabinet
2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2609:
2607:
2603:
2602:
2599:
2598:
2596:
2595:
2593:Safety goggles
2590:
2588:Safety glasses
2585:
2583:Nitrile gloves
2580:
2578:Medical gloves
2575:
2570:
2565:
2559:
2557:
2553:
2552:
2550:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2523:
2517:
2510:
2503:
2502:
2499:
2492:
2491:
2488:
2487:
2484:
2483:
2481:
2480:
2475:
2473:Alligator clip
2469:
2467:
2463:
2462:
2460:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2447:Soldering iron
2444:
2438:
2436:
2432:
2431:
2429:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2391:Logic analyzer
2388:
2382:
2380:
2376:
2375:
2373:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2351:
2350:
2348:Voltage source
2345:
2343:Current source
2334:
2332:
2324:
2323:
2318:
2311:
2310:
2307:
2306:
2303:
2302:
2300:
2299:
2294:
2289:
2284:
2282:Colony counter
2279:
2273:
2271:
2267:
2266:
2264:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2247:
2246:
2235:
2233:
2227:
2226:
2224:
2223:
2218:
2212:
2210:
2204:
2203:
2201:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2154:
2152:
2144:
2143:
2138:
2131:
2130:
2127:
2126:
2123:
2122:
2120:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2098:
2096:
2092:
2091:
2089:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2057:
2055:
2049:
2048:
2046:
2045:
2040:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2004:
2002:
1998:
1997:
1995:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1973:
1971:
1967:
1966:
1964:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1921:Vacuum (Dewar)
1918:
1912:
1910:
1904:
1903:
1901:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1879:
1877:
1873:
1872:
1870:
1869:
1864:
1858:
1856:
1850:
1849:
1847:
1846:
1840:
1838:
1834:
1833:
1831:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1814:
1812:
1804:
1803:
1798:
1791:
1790:
1787:
1786:
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1782:
1780:
1779:
1774:
1769:
1764:
1759:
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1749:
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1739:
1734:
1729:
1724:
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1714:
1709:
1704:
1699:
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1678:
1674:
1673:
1671:
1670:
1667:
1664:
1659:
1654:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1629:
1623:
1621:
1619:
1618:
1615:
1611:
1608:
1607:
1605:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1592:Test tube rack
1589:
1584:
1581:
1576:
1573:
1568:
1567:Funnel support
1565:
1562:
1559:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1540:
1538:
1536:
1535:
1532:
1527:
1523:
1520:
1519:
1517:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1501:
1496:
1491:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1474:Liquid whistle
1471:
1466:
1460:
1458:
1456:
1455:
1452:
1448:
1445:
1444:
1442:
1441:
1439:Vacuum dry box
1436:
1431:
1426:
1423:
1418:
1413:
1408:
1403:
1401:Heating mantle
1398:
1393:
1388:
1386:Alcohol burner
1382:
1380:
1378:
1377:
1374:
1370:
1363:
1362:
1359:
1352:
1351:
1346:
1344:
1343:
1336:
1329:
1321:
1313:
1312:
1301:. Elsevier B.V
1284:
1259:
1225:
1188:(2): 545–551.
1167:
1133:
1096:(3): 417–433.
1076:
1019:
995:(1999-03-26).
984:
958:
933:
892:
868:
854:
834:
820:
800:
779:
758:
732:
697:
672:
665:
647:
633:
612:
611:
609:
606:
605:
604:
601:
594:
592:
589:
582:
580:
576:
569:
567:
560:
553:
549:
546:
540:
532:
496:autoclave tape
473:biocontainment
453:
450:
428:
425:
381:heat is used,
289:
286:
281:
280:
277:
274:
271:
268:
265:
259:
256:
255:Steam pulsing:
253:
250:solenoid valve
241:
232:
229:
170:
167:
135:steam digester
82:
81:
76:
72:
71:
66:
62:
61:
56:
52:
51:
48:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2693:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2673:
2671:
2658:
2653:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2610:
2608:
2604:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2560:
2558:
2554:
2548:
2547:Safety shower
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2524:
2521:
2518:
2515:
2508:
2504:
2497:
2493:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2470:
2468:
2464:
2458:
2457:Wire stripper
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2439:
2437:
2433:
2427:
2424:
2422:
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2402:
2399:
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2353:
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2339:
2336:
2335:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2316:
2312:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2287:Spiral plater
2285:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2274:
2272:
2268:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2245:
2242:
2241:
2240:
2237:
2236:
2234:
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2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2213:
2211:
2209:
2205:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2155:
2153:
2151:Compositional
2149:
2145:
2141:
2136:
2132:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2099:
2097:
2093:
2087:
2084:
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2079:
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2074:
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2069:
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2064:
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2054:
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2044:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2005:
2003:
1999:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1974:
1972:
1968:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
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1944:
1942:
1939:
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1922:
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1905:
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1723:
1720:
1718:
1715:
1713:
1710:
1708:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1693:Balance brush
1692:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1681:
1679:
1675:
1669:Weighing dish
1668:
1666:Weighing boat
1665:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
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1645:
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1585:
1582:
1580:
1577:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1563:
1560:
1558:
1557:Burette clamp
1555:
1553:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1542:
1541:
1539:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1525:
1524:
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1432:
1430:
1427:
1424:
1422:
1419:
1417:
1414:
1412:
1409:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1392:
1391:Bunsen burner
1389:
1387:
1384:
1383:
1381:
1375:
1372:
1371:
1368:
1364:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1342:
1337:
1335:
1330:
1328:
1323:
1322:
1319:
1300:
1299:
1298:ScienceDirect
1294:
1288:
1285:
1273:
1269:
1263:
1260:
1247:
1243:
1241:
1235:
1229:
1226:
1221:
1217:
1212:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1171:
1168:
1155:
1151:
1144:
1137:
1134:
1129:
1125:
1120:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1080:
1077:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1055:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1023:
1020:
1016:
1005:
998:
994:
988:
985:
972:
968:
962:
959:
947:
943:
937:
934:
929:
923:
905:
904:
896:
893:
882:
878:
872:
869:
857:
851:
847:
846:
845:Rubber Basics
838:
835:
823:
817:
813:
812:
804:
801:
789:
783:
780:
768:
762:
759:
746:
742:
736:
733:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
701:
698:
686:
682:
676:
673:
668:
666:9780135829172
662:
658:
651:
648:
636:
630:
627:. CRC Press.
626:
625:
624:VA Mycorrhiza
617:
614:
607:
598:
593:
586:
581:
573:
568:
564:
557:
552:
547:
545:
538:
537:sterilization
529:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
510:
505:
500:
497:
493:
489:
485:
482:
478:
477:decontaminate
474:
471:
462:
461:Sterilization
458:
451:
449:
445:
441:
439:
435:
426:
424:
422:
418:
417:medical-grade
413:
410:
408:
403:
399:
394:
392:
388:
384:
380:
375:
373:
369:
366:holders, and
365:
361:
357:
353:
347:
345:
344:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
294:
287:
285:
278:
275:
272:
269:
266:
263:
260:
257:
254:
251:
247:
242:
239:
238:
237:
230:
228:
226:
221:
217:
213:
211:
210:medical waste
206:
204:
200:
196:
195:body piercing
192:
189:fabrication,
188:
184:
180:
176:
168:
150:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
119:
117:
113:
109:
108:sterilization
105:
101:
97:
88:
80:
77:
75:Related items
73:
70:
67:
63:
60:
59:Sterilization
57:
53:
46:
41:
33:
19:
2618:Fire blanket
2556:Eye and hand
2542:Rubber apron
2406:Oscilloscope
2370:Potentiostat
2297:Plate reader
2193:pH indicator
2163:CHN analyzer
2158:AutoAnalyzer
1951:Round-bottom
1844:Boston round
1707:Filter paper
1688:
1662:Refrigerator
1579:Retort stand
1547:Clamp holder
1543:Beaker clamp
1509:Vortex mixer
1504:Stirring rod
1499:Static mixer
1429:Teclu burner
1303:. Retrieved
1296:
1293:"Sterilizer"
1287:
1276:. Retrieved
1271:
1262:
1250:. Retrieved
1237:
1228:
1185:
1181:
1170:
1158:. Retrieved
1153:
1149:
1136:
1093:
1089:
1079:
1039:(2): 58–60.
1036:
1032:
1022:
1014:
1008:. Retrieved
1003:
987:
975:. Retrieved
971:ScienceEquip
970:
961:
950:. Retrieved
945:
936:
911:, retrieved
902:
895:
884:. Retrieved
881:ScienceDaily
880:
871:
859:. Retrieved
844:
837:
825:. Retrieved
810:
803:
792:. Retrieved
782:
771:. Retrieved
761:
749:. Retrieved
744:
735:
710:
706:
700:
689:. Retrieved
675:
657:Microbiology
656:
650:
638:. Retrieved
623:
616:
530:
507:
501:
490:
486:
467:
446:
442:
440:facilities.
430:
414:
411:
402:incineration
395:
376:
348:
341:
299:
282:
262:Vacuum pumps
234:
222:
218:
214:
207:
175:microbiology
172:
146:
142:
120:
95:
93:
2606:Other items
2532:Face shield
2379:Measurement
2360:Galvanostat
2320:Electronics
2270:Other items
2256:Thermometer
2239:Calorimeter
2168:Colorimeter
2112:Gas syringe
2095:Other items
2023:Eye dropper
1898:Watch glass
1883:Evaporating
1862:Cold finger
1677:Other items
1583:Screw clamp
1575:Pinch clamp
1564:Flask clamp
1514:Wash bottle
1469:Homogenizer
713:(1): 9–18.
464:difference.
427:In research
383:heat-labile
288:In medicine
231:Air removal
187:prosthetics
139:Denis Papin
104:temperature
2670:Categories
2537:Respirator
2478:Test probe
2396:Multimeter
2208:Microscopy
2028:Eudiometer
1992:Separatory
1961:Volumetric
1926:Erlenmeyer
1854:Condensers
1818:Dean–Stark
1767:Wire brush
1727:Microscope
1722:Centrifuge
1697:Cork borer
1652:Petri dish
1627:Agar plate
1614:Containers
1597:Wire gauze
1434:Water bath
1396:Desiccator
1278:2023-10-21
1156:(6): 10–12
1010:2002-02-05
952:2022-04-30
886:2020-01-13
861:19 January
827:19 January
794:2017-04-20
773:2009-06-30
691:2021-12-15
608:References
578:machines.)
518:metabolism
246:steam trap
223:A thermal
18:Sterilizer
2628:Fume hood
2573:Glove box
2426:Voltmeter
1811:Apparatus
1800:Glassware
1689:Autoclave
1684:Aspirator
1637:Incubator
1571:Iron ring
1494:Sonicator
1464:Chemostat
1406:Hot plate
1202:0095-1137
1110:1092-2172
1063:0966-842X
1054:10566/147
514:germinate
358:(such as
334:Cereulide
306:sterilize
191:tattooing
112:vulcanize
96:autoclave
38:Autoclave
2527:Lab coat
2452:Tweezers
2442:Heat gun
2198:pH meter
2107:Bell jar
1987:Dropping
1941:Florence
1931:Fernbach
1893:Syracuse
1752:Scoopula
1702:Crucible
1411:Lab oven
1272:Kalstein
1252:June 11,
1220:27927920
1128:20805405
1071:15040324
922:citation
751:June 11,
685:Archived
640:June 11,
539:cycle. F
387:plastics
377:Because
310:bacteria
183:medicine
179:mycology
65:Inventor
2466:General
2386:Ammeter
2086:Thistle
2043:Pipette
2018:Cuvette
2008:Burette
1977:BĂĽchner
1970:Funnels
1956:Schlenk
1936:Fleaker
1916:BĂĽchner
1837:Bottles
1757:Spatula
1747:Stopper
1717:Forceps
1617:Storage
1534:Holders
1454:Shakers
1425:Striker
1373:Heaters
1360:General
1305:11 June
1211:5277525
1160:May 24,
1119:2937522
977:11 June
913:11 June
727:1894581
368:scalpel
360:forceps
338:archaea
314:viruses
102:and/or
2500:Safety
2102:Beaker
2081:Thiele
2066:Cragie
2061:Drying
1982:Hirsch
1946:Retort
1908:Flasks
1876:Dishes
1867:Liebig
1828:Kipp's
1742:Splint
1552:Tripod
1530:Clamps
1526:Stands
1489:Shaker
1451:Mixers
1376:Dryers
1218:
1208:
1200:
1126:
1116:
1108:
1069:
1061:
852:
818:
725:
663:
631:
504:spores
364:needle
326:prions
322:spores
320:, and
203:retort
197:, and
147:clavis
2435:Tools
2053:Tubes
1888:Petri
1242:(CDC)
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