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806:. This is efficient, but the mouth cannot be used when hunting because the stingrays bury themselves in the ocean sediment and wait for prey to swim by. So the stingray switches to using its spiracles. With the spiracles, they can draw water free from sediment directly into their gills for gas exchange. These alternate ventilation organs are less efficient than the mouth, since spiracles are unable to pull the same volume of water. However, it is enough when the stingray is quietly waiting to ambush its prey.
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1159:-filled cytoplasm. The stinging cells of marine stingrays are located only within these lateral grooves of the stinger. The stinging cells of freshwater stingray branch out beyond the lateral grooves to cover a larger surface area along the entire blade. Due to this large area and an increased number of proteins within the cells, the venom of freshwater stingrays has a greater toxicity than that of marine stingrays.
538:
1324:
924:. Seasonal elevated levels of serum androgens coincide with the expressed aggressive behavior, which led to the proposal that androgen steroids start, indorse and maintain aggressive sexual behaviors in the male rays for this species which drives the prolonged mating season. Similarly, concise elevations of serum androgens in females has been connected to increased aggression and improvement in
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bodies, they catch their prey, then crush and eat with their powerful jaws. Like its shark relatives, the stingray is outfitted with electrical sensors called ampullae of
Lorenzini. Located around the stingray's mouth, these organs sense the natural electrical charges of potential prey. Many rays have jaw teeth to enable them to crush mollusks such as clams, oysters and mussels.
854:
1077:
123:
1144:. Galectin induces cell death in its victims and cystatins inhibit defense enzymes. In humans, these toxins lead to increased blood flow in the superficial capillaries and cell death. Despite the number of cells and toxins that are within the stingray, there is little relative energy required to produce and store the venom.
916:
periods. The behavior expressed among males and females during specific parts of this period involves aggressive social interactions. Frequently, the males trail females with their snout near the female vent then proceed to bite the female on her fins and her body. Although this mating behavior is similar to the species
915:
Furthermore, their mating period is one of the longest recorded in elasmobranch fish. Individuals are known to mate for seven months before the females ovulate in March. During this time, the male stingrays experience increased levels of androgen hormones which has been linked to its prolonged mating
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Stingrays are not usually aggressive and ordinarily attack humans only when provoked, such as when they are accidentally stepped on. Stingrays can have one, two or three blades. Contact with the spinal blade or blades causes local trauma (from the cut itself), pain, swelling, muscle cramps from the
1030:
performed by ray-finned fish. Stingrays exhibit a wide range of colors and patterns on their dorsal surface to help them camouflage with the sandy bottom. Some stingrays can even change color over the course of several days to adjust to new habitats. Since their mouths are on the underside of their
801:
are small openings that allow some fish and amphibians to breathe. Stingray spiracles are openings just behind its eyes. The respiratory system of stingrays is complicated by having two separate ways to take in water to use the oxygen. Most of the time stingrays take in water using their mouth and
1239:
Stingrays are usually very docile and curious, their usual reaction being to flee any disturbance, but they sometimes brush their fins past any new object they encounter. Nevertheless, certain larger species may be more aggressive and should be approached with caution, as the stingray's defensive
1025:
stingrays (those that reside on the sea floor) are ambush hunters. They wait until prey comes near, then use a strategy called "tenting". With pectoral fins pressed against the substrate, the ray will raise its head, generating a suction force that pulls the prey underneath the body. This form of
809:
The flattened bodies of stingrays allow them to effectively conceal themselves in their environments. Stingrays do this by agitating the sand and hiding beneath it. Because their eyes are on top of their bodies and their mouths on the undersides, stingrays cannot see their prey after capture;
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1085:
venom and, later, may result in infection from bacteria or fungi. The injury is very painful, but rarely life-threatening unless the stinger pierces a vital area. The blade is often deeply barbed and usually breaks off in the wound. Surgery may be required to remove the fragments.
928:. When their androgen steroid levels are elevated, they are able to improve their mate choice by quickly fleeing from tenacious males when undergoing ovulation succeeding impregnation. This ability affects the paternity of their offspring by refusing less qualified mates.
964:
939:
and after the sac is depleted, the mother provides uterine "milk". After birth, the offspring generally disassociate from the mother and swim away, having been born with the instinctual abilities to protect and feed themselves. In a very small number of species, like the
3298:
Pedroso CM, Jared C, Charvet-Almeida P, Almeida MP, Garrone Neto D, Lira MS, Haddad V, Barbaro KC, Antoniazzi MM (October 2007). "Morphological characterization of the venom secretory epidermal cells in the stinger of marine and freshwater stingrays".
1206:
states, it is sometimes used as part of spicy curries. Generally, the most prized parts of the stingray are the wings, the "cheek" (the area surrounding the eyes), and the liver. The rest of the ray is considered too rubbery to have any culinary uses.
935:, bearing live young in "litters" of five to thirteen. During this period, the female's behavior transitions to support of her future offspring. Females hold the embryos in the womb without a placenta. Instead, the embryos absorb nutrients from a
781:
that are regularly shed and replaced. In general, the teeth have a root implanted within the connective tissue and a visible portion of the tooth, is large and flat, allowing them to crush the bodies of hard shelled prey. Male stingrays display
1587:
1020:
Stingrays use a wide range of feeding strategies. Some have specialized jaws that allow them to crush hard mollusk shells, whereas others use external mouth structures called cephalic lobes to guide plankton into their oral cavity.
996:
areas. Longer thinner pectoral fins make for faster speeds in oscillation mobility in pelagic zones. Visually distinguishable oscillation has less than one wave going, opposed to undulation having more than one wave at all times.
1443:
955:, two female stingrays delivered seven baby stingrays, although the mothers have not been near a male for two years. This suggests some species of rays can store sperm then give birth when they deem conditions to be suitable.
1545:
1478:
1502:
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2108:"Freshwater Stingrays of the Green River Formation of Wyoming (Early Eocene), With the Description of a New Genus and Species and an Analysis of Its Phylogenetic Relationships (Chondrichthyes: Myliobatiformes)"
1323:
1564:
2170:
2365:
Bedore CN, Harris LL, Kajiura SM (April 2014). "Behavioral responses of batoid elasmobranchs to prey-simulating electric fields are correlated to peripheral sensory morphology and ecology".
1374:
3334:
Enzor LA, Wilborn RE, Bennett WA (December 2011). "Toxicity and metabolic costs of the
Atlantic stingray (Dasyatis sabina) venom delivery system in relation to its role in life history".
631:
a highly stingray-like body plan, although its exact taxonomic placement is still uncertain. True stingray fossils become more common in the Eocene, with the extinct freshwater stingrays
2496:
Tricas, Timothy C.; Rasmussen, L. E. L.; Maruska, Karen P. (2000). "Annual Cycles of
Steroid Hormone Production, Gonad Development, and Reproductive Behavior in the Atlantic Stingray".
2208:
1622:
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790:, or pointed ends, to some of their teeth. During mating season, some stingray species fully change their tooth morphology which then returns to baseline during non-mating seasons.
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into the different extant families today. The earliest stingrays appear to have been benthic, with the ancestors of the eagle rays becoming pelagic during the early
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can be divided into two categories, undulatory and oscillatory. Stingrays that use undulatory locomotion have shorter thicker fins for slower motile movements in
482:
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cell products that occurs upon secretion from the spinal blade. The spine is covered with the epidermal skin layer. During secretion, the venom penetrates the
3481:
2727:
2154:
1894:"A bizarre Eocene dasyatoid batomorph (Elasmobranchii, Myliobatiformes) from the Bolca Lagerstätte (Italy) reveals a new, extinct body plan for stingrays"
2043:"A new Miocene skate from the Central Paratethys (Upper Austria): the first unambiguous skeletal record for the Rajiformes (Chondrichthyes: Batomorphii)"
1180:
Rays are edible, and may be caught as food using fishing lines or spears. Stingray recipes can be found in many coastal areas worldwide. For example, in
773:
side of the vertebrate. Stingrays exhibit hyostylic jaw suspension, which means that the mandibular arch is only suspended by an articulation with the
3428:
1080:
The stinger of a stingray is known also as the spinal blade. It is located in the mid-area of the tail and can secrete venom. The ruler measures 10cm.
3372:
3637:
3458:
888:. When a male is courting a female, he follows her closely, biting at her pectoral disc. He then places one of his two claspers into her valve.
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1132:. The stingray is notable in that it stores its venom within tissue cells. The toxins that have been confirmed to be within the venom are
2589:
2567:
1526:
1172:
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3077:
2655:
Macesic, J (2013). "Synchronized swimming: coordination of pelvic and pectoral fins during augmented punting by freshwater stingray
2202:
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and mixes with the mucus to release the venom on its victim. Typically, other venomous organisms create and store their venom in a
1848:
1609:
3143:
234:
3642:
3238:
Dos Santos JC, Grund LZ, Seibert CS, Marques EE, Soares AB, Quesniaux VF, Ryffel B, Lopes-Ferreira M, Lima C (August 2017).
2425:
Tricas TC, Michael SW, Sisneros JA (December 1995). "Electrosensory optimization to conspecific phasic signals for mating".
497:
3043:
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for moving around. This is in contrast to sharks and most other fish, which get most of their swimming power from a single
3240:"Stingray venom activates IL-33 producing cardiomyocytes, but not mast cell, to promote acute neutrophil-mediated injury"
3511:
2918:
Wilga CD, Maia A, Nauwelaerts S, Lauder GV (February 2012). "Prey handling using whole-body fluid dynamics in batoids".
2538:
861:
147:
777:. This type of suspensions allows for the upper jaw to have high mobility and protrude outward. The teeth are modified
1817:
1108:
Posterior anatomy of a stingray. (1) Pelvic Fins (2) Caudal
Tubercles (3) Stinger (4) Dorsal Fin (5) Claspers (6) Tail
770:
3163:
3002:
Notarbartolo-di-Sciara G, Hillyer EV (1989-01-01). "Mobulid Rays off
Eastern Venezuela (Chondrichthyes, Mobulidae)".
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1104:
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2766:
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941:
31:
3189:) in Central Brazil: How Well Do We Really Understand Stingray Venom Chemistry, Envenomation, and Therapeutics?"
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at the mid-distal region. These secretory cells are housed within the ventrolateral grooves of the spine. The
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in the Amazon feed on insects and break down their tough exoskeletons with mammal-like chewing motions. Large
3420:
1692:
1655:
1570:
462:
3670:
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1892:
Marramà, Giuseppe; Carnevale, Giorgio; Giusberti, Luca; Naylor, Gavin J. P.; Kriwet, Jürgen (2019-10-01).
1156:
798:
750:
2017:
1865:
3364:
881:
811:
644:
2728:"Hydrodynamics of swimming in stingrays: numerical simulations and the role of the leading-edge vortex"
2699:
Fontanella J (2013). "Two- and three-dimensional geometries of batoids in relation to locomotor mode".
948:), the mother "cares" for her young by having them swim with her until they are one-third of her size.
735:
3547:
1299:, the British forbade their use on women and slaves. In former Spanish colonies, a stingray is called
830:
3450:
3251:
2742:
2054:
1973:
1905:
1724:
1089:
908:
885:
628:
320:
2231:"Morphology does not predict performance: jaw curvature and prey crushing in durophagous stingrays"
1593:
671:
470:
2620:
Wang, Y (2015). "Design and
Experiment on Biometic Robotic Fish Inspired by Freshwater Stingray".
1268:
due to its hard, rough texture that keeps the braided wrap from sliding on the handle during use.
3628:
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2900:
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in 2006 was only the second recorded in
Australian waters since 1945. The stinger penetrated his
818:. Stingrays settle on the bottom while feeding, often leaving only their eyes and tails visible.
700:
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478:
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407:
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340:
142:
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1215:
692:
2229:
Kolmann, M. A.; Crofts, S. B.; Dean, M. N.; Summers, A. P.; Lovejoy, N. R. (13 November 2015).
1712:
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of the stingray has been relatively unstudied due to the mixture of venomous tissue secretions
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3170:
3136:"I thought stingrays were harmless, so how did one manage to kill the "Crocodile Hunter?""
2955:"Always chew your food: freshwater stingrays use mastication to process tough insect prey"
2545:
2474:
1852:
1426:
1121:
1071:
1027:
869:
666:
526:
348:
219:
3395:"The Delicious and Deadly Stingray. Nyonya. New York, NY. (Partially from the Archives.)"
1711:
Marmi, Josep; Vila #, Bernat; Oms, Oriol; Galobart, Àngel; Cappetta, Henri (2010-05-18).
697:
dorsal (topside) ← → ventral (underside)
3255:
2746:
2272:"Seasonal dynamics of dental sexual dimorphism in the Atlantic stingray Dasyatis sabina"
2058:
1977:
1909:
1728:
1295:
were made from the tails of big stingrays and these devices inflicted cruel cuts, so in
1005:
963:
717:
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3272:
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2979:
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2813:
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2083:
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1994:
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427:
352:
255:
199:
189:
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3659:
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2762:
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The skin of the ray is used as an under layer for the cord or leather wrap (known as
1228:
1137:
1093:
932:
778:
726:
680:
543:
518:
485:. The status of some other species is poorly known, leading to their being listed as
364:
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284:
267:
80:
2525:
2454:
2139:
1845:
1752:
537:
3135:
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1365:
1284:
1076:
1047:
1022:
993:
981:
803:
774:
639:
624:
501:
443:
383:(eagle rays). There are about 220 known stingray species organized into 29 genera.
380:
312:
3312:
2066:
1960:
Marramà, G.; Villalobos-Segura, E.; Zorzin, R.; Kriwet, J.; Carnevale, G. (2023).
822:
are favorite feeding grounds and are usually shared with sharks during high tide.
884:
to sense certain electrical signals given off by mature females before potential
3622:
3347:
3107:
Flint DJ, Sugrue WJ (April 1999). "Stingray injuries: a lesson in debridement".
3063:
2838:"The evolution of cranial design, diet, and feeding mechanisms in batoid fishes"
2712:
1605:
1155:
of both marine and freshwater stingrays are round and contain a great amount of
925:
656:
648:
599:
595:
571:
555:
435:
391:
360:
272:
55:
3613:
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299:
289:
100:
65:
2131:
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1925:
1744:
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1240:
reflex (use of its venomous stinger) may result in serious injury or death.
1185:
1125:
1062:
and have been seen swimming in acrobatic patterns through plankton patches.
1051:
675:
451:
403:
159:
105:
3320:
3281:
3224:
3120:
3059:
2988:
2970:
2939:
2863:
2822:
2680:
2539:
Florida Museum of
Natural History Ichthyology Department: Atlantic Stingray
2517:
2509:
2386:
2256:
2092:
2003:
1943:
3205:
2446:
2297:
3607:
3552:
2854:
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2754:
1628:
1461:
1330:
1309:
1189:
1181:
1141:
1133:
1059:
1035:
936:
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439:
387:
336:
209:
179:
95:
90:
75:
70:
60:
17:
3023:
2247:
2230:
1985:
1275:, display arrowheads and spearheads made of stingray stingers, used in
1009:
660:
620:
575:
455:
122:
110:
85:
2804:
1962:"The evolutionary origin of the durophagous pelagic stingray ecomorph"
1713:"Oldest records of stingray spines (Chondrichthyes, Myliobatiformes)"
1640:
1636:
1265:
1194:
857:
514:
169:
3584:
3015:
605:
Full-body stingray fossils are very rare but are known from certain
1457:
1247:
1214:
1203:
1171:
1129:
1113:
1103:
1075:
1004:
962:
903:), social groups are formed first, then the sexes display complex
852:
829:
815:
652:
587:
536:
2041:
Marramà, Giuseppe; Schultz, Ortwin; Kriwet, Jürgen (2019-06-03).
2106:
Carvalho, Marcelo R. De; Maisey, John G.; Grande, Lance (2004).
1296:
1292:
3588:
3042:
Slaughter RJ, Beasley DM, Lambie BS, Schep LJ (February 2009).
2953:
Kolmann MA, Welch KC, Summers AP, Lovejoy NR (September 2016).
1147:
The venom is produced and stored in the secretory cells of the
684:, which had an extremely short and slender tail with no sting.
602:
searching for the latter do encounter the teeth of stingrays.
2402:"Stingray City - Altering Stingray Behavior & Physiology?"
1873:
1199:
394:
marine waters throughout the world. Some species, such as the
2783:
Kolmann MA, Huber DR, Motta PJ, Grubbs RD (September 2015).
1096:
and pierced his heart, causing massive trauma and bleeding.
2124:
10.1206/0003-0090(2004)284<0001:FSOTGR>2.0.CO;2
647:. A diversity of stingray fossils is known from the Eocene
1364:) are found on the upper continental slope throughout the
3185:"A Severe Accident Caused by an Ocellate River Stingray (
3183:
da Silva NJ, Ferreira KR, Pinto RN, Aird SD (June 2015).
1516:) is one of the few stingrays that primarily inhabit the
920:, differences can be seen in the particular actions of
578:, whose teeth most closely resemble that of the extant
1271:
Several ethnological sections in museums, such as the
2342:
Vertebrates: Comparative
Anatomy, Function, Evolution
2018:"Heliobatis radians Stingray Fossil from Green River"
1846:
The Future of Sharks: A Review of Action and
Inaction
1176:
Dried strips of stingray meat served as food in Japan
891:
Reproductive ray behaviors are associated with their
513:
Stingrays diverged from their closest relatives, the
317:
304:
30:
This article is about the fish. For other uses, see
3597:
3336:Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology
2112:Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History
1308:Some stingray species are commonly seen in public
3164:Discovery Channel Mourns the Death of Steve Irwin
2153:Carrier JC, Musick JA, Heithaus MR (2012-04-09).
2344:. New York: McGraw-Hill Education. p. 426.
1492:) is a rare stingray distributed throughout the
872:, males of various stingray species such as the
3293:
3291:
1770:(fourth ed.). John Wiley. pp. 76–82.
609:that preserve soft-bodied animals. The extinct
521:period, and diversified over the course of the
3365:"Animal Diversity Web – Dasyatidae, Stingrays"
2836:Dean MN, Bizzarro JJ, Summers AP (July 2007).
1870:International Union for Conservation of Nature
1816:Bester C, Mollett HF, Bourdon J (2017-05-09).
1026:whole-body suction is analogous to the buccal
810:instead, they use smell and electroreceptors (
3500:. Iucnredlist.org. Retrieved on 17 July 2012.
2694:
2692:
2690:
1300:
558:deposits around the world as far back as the
473:. As of 2013, 45 species have been listed as
8:
3479:FLMNH Ichthyology Department: Daisy Stingray
3037:
3035:
3033:
2560:"How Do Stingrays Take Care of Their Young?"
769:The mouth of the stingray is located on the
3488:. Flmnh.ufl.edu. Retrieved on 17 July 2012.
3451:"The Samegawa – Parts of a Japanese Katana"
2701:Journal of Experimental Biology and Ecology
2477:. Wetwebmedia.com. Retrieved on 2012-07-17.
1312:exhibits and more recently in home aquaria.
442:(inhabiting the next-to-lowest zone in the
3585:
2785:"Feeding biomechanics of the cownose ray,
2491:
2489:
2487:
2485:
2483:
1791:Helfman GS, Collette BB, Facey DE (1997).
802:then send the water through the gills for
121:
38:
3676:Extant Early Cretaceous first appearances
3271:
3214:
3204:
2978:
2853:
2812:
2548:. Flmnh.ufl.edu. Retrieved on 2012-07-17.
2287:
2246:
2082:
1993:
1933:
1410:) frequently sting beachgoers along the
691:
496:
1955:
1953:
1703:
1319:
3359:
3357:
2570:from the original on December 16, 2018
1192:over charcoal, then served with spicy
895:, for example, in species such as the
753:just behind the eyes when it hunts in
562:. The oldest known stingray taxon is "
343:. They are classified in the suborder
2498:General and Comparative Endocrinology
2156:Biology of Sharks and Their Relatives
1341:) have six rather than five pairs of
469:, particularly as the consequence of
7:
3510:Michael, Scott W. (September 2014).
3498:Dasyatis rudis (Smalltooth Stingray)
2879:The Ethology of Predation - Springer
2590:"Stingrays born in female only tank"
2468:FAQs on Freshwater Stingray Behavior
2270:Kajiura, null; Tricas, null (1996).
1887:
1885:
1883:
2842:Integrative and Comparative Biology
2276:The Journal of Experimental Biology
2047:Journal of Systematic Palaeontology
1662:) are the largest of the stingrays.
3044:"New Zealand's venomous creatures"
2558:Seubert, Curtis (April 24, 2017).
1795:. Blackwell Science. p. 180.
1717:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology
1558:) are the largest freshwater fish.
1042:and, occasionally, on small fish.
670:, which is thought to represent a
554:stingray teeth have been found in
25:
3431:from the original on 24 July 2012
3088:from the original on 4 April 2019
1822:Florida Museum of Natural History
1681:) often migrate in large schools.
1034:Most stingrays feed primarily on
463:progressively becoming threatened
2959:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
1667:
1648:
1621:
1586:
1563:
1544:
1525:
1501:
1477:
1442:
1419:
1396:
1373:
1350:
1322:
1283:stated in his books that before
1088:Fatal stings are very rare. The
911:which is similar to the species
734:
716:
386:Stingrays are common in coastal
146:
3522:from the original on 2021-04-22
3461:from the original on 2021-02-26
3375:from the original on 2021-06-17
3146:from the original on 2022-03-29
3134:Hadhazy, Adam T. (2006-09-11).
3109:The New Zealand Medical Journal
3048:The New Zealand Medical Journal
2602:from the original on 2020-07-25
2400:Heller, Jason (14 April 2009).
2322:from the original on 2018-07-23
2235:Journal of Experimental Biology
2211:from the original on 2022-01-10
2173:from the original on 2022-01-10
1828:from the original on 2016-01-15
1610:East Coast of the United States
406:oceans and others, such as the
351:and consist of eight families:
3421:"Stingrays: Dangerous or Not?"
3078:"Stingray Injury Case Reports"
2197:. Discovery Publishing House.
2159:(Second ed.). CRC Press.
1058:to consume vast quantities of
1:
3313:10.1016/j.toxicon.2007.06.004
3082:Clinical Toxicology Resources
2634:10.1016/S1672-6529(14)60113-X
2622:Journal of Bionic Engineering
2067:10.1080/14772019.2018.1486336
980:The stingray uses its paired
3568:"Beware the Ugly Sting Ray."
2439:10.1016/0304-3940(95)12230-3
860:(devil rays) are thought to
3512:"Rays in the Home Aquarium"
3348:10.1016/j.jembe.2011.08.026
2713:10.1016/j.jembe.2013.05.016
1533:Bluespotted ribbontail rays
907:behaviors that end in pair
699:External anatomy of a male
3692:
3264:10.1038/s41598-017-08395-y
3084:. University of Adelaide.
2932:10.1016/j.zool.2011.09.002
2735:Journal of Fluid Mechanics
2673:10.1016/j.zool.2012.11.002
2379:10.1016/j.zool.2013.09.002
1918:10.1038/s41598-019-50544-y
1824:, Ichthyology department.
1552:Giant freshwater stingrays
1470:Southeastern United States
1069:
743:bluespotted ribbontail ray
29:
2887:10.1007/978-3-642-81028-2
2595:The Sydney Morning Herald
1737:10.1080/02724631003758011
1514:Pteroplatytrygon violacea
1219:Divers can interact with
1001:Feeding behavior and diet
942:giant freshwater stingray
678:, and the highly unusual
446:), but some, such as the
247:
242:
143:Scientific classification
141:
129:
120:
41:
32:Stingray (disambiguation)
3546:; Pauly, Daniel (eds.).
3419:Sullivan BN (May 2009).
1855:CITES AC25 Inf. 6, 2011.
1679:Rhinoptera steindachneri
1656:Giant oceanic manta rays
1608:. Found along the lower
1571:Ocellate river stingrays
1389:Western Australian coast
988:. Stingray pectoral fin
953:Sea Life London Aquarium
893:behavioral endocrinology
741:Like in other rays, the
594:compared to the similar
438:. Most myliobatoids are
2289:10.1242/jeb.199.10.2297
1793:The Diversity of Fishes
1693:List of threatened rays
1468:environments along the
1188:, stingray is commonly
975:) undulation locomotion
864:as a form of courtship.
725:The teeth are modified
723:Stingray jaw and teeth.
432:Fontitrygon garouaensis
402:), are found in warmer
3556:. August 2005 version.
3516:Tropical Fish Magazine
3173:. animal.discovery.com
2971:10.1098/rspb.2016.1392
2510:10.1006/gcen.2000.7466
2191:Khanna, D. R. (2004).
1387:) are found along the
1301:
1253:
1236:
1177:
1109:
1081:
1017:
1016:) in a feeding posture
1014:Myliobatis californica
977:
865:
845:
814:) similar to those of
709:
674:between stingrays and
655:, including the early
548:
510:
371:(whiptail stingrays),
359:(deepwater stingray),
3206:10.3390/toxins7062272
2726:Bottom II, R (2016).
2657:Potamotrygon orbignyi
1251:
1218:
1175:
1107:
1079:
1008:
966:
882:ampullae of Lorenzini
880:), may rely on their
856:
833:
812:ampullae of Lorenzini
695:
645:Green River Formation
586:). Although stingray
547:of Early Eocene Italy
540:
500:
461:Stingray species are
434:)) are restricted to
379:(butterfly rays) and
3369:Animal Diversity Web
2755:10.1017/jfm.2015.702
2427:Neuroscience Letters
2282:(Pt 10): 2297–2306.
1594:Spiny butterfly rays
1221:southern stingrays (
1090:death of Steve Irwin
1044:Freshwater stingrays
629:convergently evolved
414:), are found in the
355:(sixgill stingray),
3548:"Family Dasyatidae"
3393:Lin, Eddie (2006).
3256:2017NatSR...7.7912D
3187:Potamotrygon motoro
2747:2016JFM...788..407B
2059:2019JSPal..17..937M
1978:2023Palgy..6612669M
1910:2019NatSR...914087M
1768:Fishes of the World
1729:2010JVPal..30..970M
1675:Golden cownose rays
1633:Aetomylaeus bovinus
1575:Potamotrygon motoro
1556:Urogymnus polylepis
1362:Plesiobatis daviesi
1358:Deepwater stingrays
1339:Hexatrygon bickelli
946:Urogymnus polylepis
623:is thought to be a
471:unregulated fishing
412:Plesiobatis daviesi
375:(river stingrays),
335:are a group of sea
3484:2016-01-04 at the
3244:Scientific Reports
3169:2013-01-07 at the
3066:on April 17, 2011.
2965:(1838): 20161392.
2855:10.1093/icb/icm034
2793:Journal of Anatomy
2787:Rhinoptera bonasus
2544:2016-01-04 at the
2473:2017-10-02 at the
2340:Kardong K (2015).
2248:10.1242/jeb.127340
2022:www.fossilmall.com
1986:10.1111/pala.12669
1898:Scientific Reports
1851:2013-05-12 at the
1818:"Pelagic Stingray"
1766:Nelson JS (2006).
1635:) are found along
1490:Megatrygon microps
1450:Atlantic stingrays
1431:Himantura leoparda
1381:Spotted stingarees
1254:
1237:
1223:Hypanus americanus
1178:
1110:
1082:
1018:
978:
866:
846:
749:) breathes though
710:
701:bluntnose stingray
549:
511:
507:Heliobatis radians
424:whiptail stingrays
408:deepwater stingray
396:thorntail stingray
341:cartilaginous fish
135:Hypanus americanus
27:Suborder of fishes
3653:
3652:
3591:Taxon identifiers
2896:978-3-642-81030-5
2805:10.1111/joa.12342
2351:978-0-07-802302-6
2241:(24): 3941–3949.
2194:Biology Of Fishes
1876:on June 27, 2014.
1802:978-0-86542-256-8
1777:978-0-471-25031-9
1486:smalleye stingray
1437:from overfishing.
1335:sixgill stingrays
1281:Henry de Monfreid
1066:Stingray injuries
986:caudal (tail) fin
969:Atlantic stingray
913:Urobatis halleri.
897:atlantic stingray
837:atlantic stingray
784:sexual dimorphism
755:seafloor sediment
672:transitional form
465:or vulnerable to
400:Dasyatis thetidis
330:
329:
308:Dasyomyliobatidae
238:
131:Southern stingray
16:(Redirected from
3683:
3646:
3645:
3633:
3632:
3631:
3618:
3617:
3616:
3586:
3580:
3576:
3573:, July 1954, pp.
3557:
3531:
3530:
3528:
3527:
3507:
3501:
3495:
3489:
3476:
3470:
3469:
3467:
3466:
3447:
3441:
3440:
3438:
3436:
3416:
3410:
3409:
3407:
3406:
3390:
3384:
3383:
3381:
3380:
3361:
3352:
3351:
3342:(1–2): 235–239.
3331:
3325:
3324:
3295:
3286:
3285:
3275:
3235:
3229:
3228:
3218:
3208:
3180:
3174:
3161:
3155:
3154:
3152:
3151:
3131:
3125:
3124:
3104:
3098:
3097:
3095:
3093:
3074:
3068:
3067:
3062:. Archived from
3039:
3028:
3027:
2999:
2993:
2992:
2982:
2950:
2944:
2943:
2915:
2909:
2908:
2877:Curio E (1976).
2874:
2868:
2867:
2857:
2833:
2827:
2826:
2816:
2789:, over ontogeny"
2780:
2774:
2773:
2771:
2765:. Archived from
2732:
2723:
2717:
2716:
2696:
2685:
2684:
2652:
2646:
2645:
2617:
2611:
2610:
2608:
2607:
2586:
2580:
2579:
2577:
2575:
2555:
2549:
2536:
2530:
2529:
2493:
2478:
2465:
2459:
2458:
2422:
2416:
2415:
2413:
2412:
2397:
2391:
2390:
2362:
2356:
2355:
2337:
2331:
2330:
2328:
2327:
2316:bioweb.uwlax.edu
2308:
2302:
2301:
2291:
2267:
2261:
2260:
2250:
2226:
2220:
2219:
2217:
2216:
2188:
2182:
2181:
2179:
2178:
2150:
2144:
2143:
2103:
2097:
2096:
2086:
2038:
2032:
2031:
2029:
2028:
2014:
2008:
2007:
1997:
1957:
1948:
1947:
1937:
1889:
1878:
1877:
1872:. Archived from
1862:
1856:
1843:
1837:
1836:
1834:
1833:
1813:
1807:
1806:
1788:
1782:
1781:
1763:
1757:
1756:
1708:
1671:
1660:Mobula birostris
1652:
1625:
1598:Gymnura altavela
1590:
1567:
1548:
1529:
1510:pelagic stingray
1505:
1481:
1446:
1427:Leopard whiprays
1423:
1412:Western American
1408:Urobatis halleri
1400:
1377:
1354:
1326:
1304:
1252:Stingray wallets
1149:vertebral column
918:Urobatis halleri
878:Urobatis halleri
738:
720:
580:sixgill stingray
560:Early Cretaceous
504:fossil stingray
448:pelagic stingray
422:and a number of
373:Potamotrygonidae
319:
306:
295:Potamotrygonidae
233:
151:
150:
125:
115:
52:
49:Early Cretaceous
45:Temporal range:
39:
21:
3691:
3690:
3686:
3685:
3684:
3682:
3681:
3680:
3666:Myliobatiformes
3656:
3655:
3654:
3649:
3641:
3636:
3627:
3626:
3621:
3612:
3611:
3606:
3593:
3578:
3574:
3571:Popular Science
3564:
3542:
3539:
3534:
3525:
3523:
3509:
3508:
3504:
3496:
3492:
3486:Wayback Machine
3477:
3473:
3464:
3462:
3449:
3448:
3444:
3434:
3432:
3418:
3417:
3413:
3404:
3402:
3399:Deep End Dining
3392:
3391:
3387:
3378:
3376:
3363:
3362:
3355:
3333:
3332:
3328:
3297:
3296:
3289:
3237:
3236:
3232:
3182:
3181:
3177:
3171:Wayback Machine
3162:
3158:
3149:
3147:
3133:
3132:
3128:
3115:(1086): 137–8.
3106:
3105:
3101:
3091:
3089:
3076:
3075:
3071:
3054:(1290): 83–97.
3041:
3040:
3031:
3016:10.2307/1445487
3001:
3000:
2996:
2952:
2951:
2947:
2917:
2916:
2912:
2897:
2876:
2875:
2871:
2835:
2834:
2830:
2782:
2781:
2777:
2769:
2730:
2725:
2724:
2720:
2698:
2697:
2688:
2654:
2653:
2649:
2619:
2618:
2614:
2605:
2603:
2588:
2587:
2583:
2573:
2571:
2557:
2556:
2552:
2546:Wayback Machine
2537:
2533:
2495:
2494:
2481:
2475:Wayback Machine
2466:
2462:
2433:(1–2): 129–32.
2424:
2423:
2419:
2410:
2408:
2399:
2398:
2394:
2364:
2363:
2359:
2352:
2339:
2338:
2334:
2325:
2323:
2310:
2309:
2305:
2269:
2268:
2264:
2228:
2227:
2223:
2214:
2212:
2205:
2190:
2189:
2185:
2176:
2174:
2167:
2152:
2151:
2147:
2105:
2104:
2100:
2053:(11): 937–960.
2040:
2039:
2035:
2026:
2024:
2016:
2015:
2011:
1959:
1958:
1951:
1891:
1890:
1881:
1866:"IUCN Red List"
1864:
1863:
1859:
1853:Wayback Machine
1844:
1840:
1831:
1829:
1815:
1814:
1810:
1803:
1790:
1789:
1785:
1778:
1765:
1764:
1760:
1710:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1689:
1682:
1672:
1663:
1653:
1644:
1626:
1617:
1591:
1582:
1577:) are found in
1568:
1559:
1549:
1540:
1530:
1521:
1506:
1497:
1482:
1473:
1456:) are found in
1454:Hypanus sabinus
1447:
1438:
1424:
1415:
1404:Round stingrays
1401:
1392:
1385:Urolophus gigas
1378:
1369:
1355:
1346:
1327:
1318:
1279:and elsewhere.
1266:Japanese swords
1246:
1213:
1170:
1165:
1122:mucous membrane
1102:
1074:
1072:Stingray injury
1068:
1028:suction feeding
1003:
976:
973:Hypanus sabinus
961:
922:Hypanus sabinus
901:Hypanus sabinus
870:breeding season
851:
844:
841:Hypanus sabinus
835:Skeleton of an
828:
796:
767:
762:
761:
760:
759:
758:
739:
731:
730:
724:
721:
708:
698:
690:
667:Dasyomyliobatis
651:formation from
643:known from the
535:
527:Late Cretaceous
495:
420:river stingrays
349:Myliobatiformes
251:Hexatrygonoidea
232:
220:Myliobatiformes
145:
116:
114:
113:
108:
103:
98:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
63:
58:
47:
46:
43:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3689:
3687:
3679:
3678:
3673:
3668:
3658:
3657:
3651:
3650:
3648:
3647:
3634:
3619:
3603:
3601:
3595:
3594:
3589:
3583:
3582:
3563:
3562:External links
3560:
3559:
3558:
3544:Froese, Rainer
3538:
3535:
3533:
3532:
3502:
3490:
3471:
3442:
3425:The Right Blue
3411:
3385:
3371:. 2021-03-10.
3353:
3326:
3287:
3230:
3199:(6): 2272–88.
3175:
3156:
3126:
3099:
3069:
3029:
3010:(3): 607–614.
2994:
2945:
2910:
2895:
2869:
2828:
2775:
2772:on 2020-02-15.
2718:
2686:
2667:(3): 144–150.
2647:
2628:(2): 204–216.
2612:
2598:. 2011-08-10.
2581:
2550:
2531:
2479:
2460:
2417:
2406:DivePhotoGuide
2392:
2357:
2350:
2332:
2303:
2262:
2221:
2203:
2183:
2165:
2145:
2118:(284): 1–136.
2098:
2033:
2009:
1949:
1879:
1857:
1838:
1808:
1801:
1783:
1776:
1758:
1723:(3): 970–974.
1702:
1700:
1697:
1696:
1695:
1688:
1685:
1684:
1683:
1673:
1666:
1664:
1654:
1647:
1645:
1627:
1620:
1618:
1614:South American
1592:
1585:
1583:
1579:South American
1569:
1562:
1560:
1550:
1543:
1541:
1537:Taeniura lymma
1531:
1524:
1522:
1507:
1500:
1498:
1483:
1476:
1474:
1448:
1441:
1439:
1425:
1418:
1416:
1402:
1395:
1393:
1379:
1372:
1370:
1356:
1349:
1347:
1328:
1321:
1317:
1314:
1305:("whip ray").
1289:Horn of Africa
1273:British Museum
1245:
1242:
1233:Cayman Islands
1212:
1209:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1101:
1098:
1070:Main article:
1067:
1064:
1050:rays like the
1002:
999:
967:
960:
957:
931:Stingrays are
874:round stingray
850:
847:
834:
827:
824:
795:
792:
786:by developing
779:placoid scales
766:
763:
747:Taeniura lymma
740:
733:
732:
727:placoid scales
722:
715:
714:
713:
712:
711:
696:
689:
686:
552:Permineralized
534:
531:
494:
491:
487:data deficient
428:Niger stingray
367:(round rays),
363:(stingarees),
353:Hexatrygonidae
328:
327:
326:
325:
324:
323:
321:Rhombodontidae
315:
310:
302:
297:
292:
287:
277:
276:
275:
270:
260:
259:
258:
256:Hexatrygonidae
245:
244:
240:
239:
227:
223:
222:
217:
213:
212:
207:
203:
202:
200:Elasmobranchii
197:
193:
192:
190:Chondrichthyes
187:
183:
182:
177:
173:
172:
167:
163:
162:
157:
153:
152:
139:
138:
127:
126:
118:
117:
109:
104:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
64:
59:
54:
53:
44:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3688:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3671:Venomous fish
3669:
3667:
3664:
3663:
3661:
3644:
3639:
3635:
3630:
3629:Myliobatoidei
3624:
3620:
3615:
3609:
3605:
3604:
3602:
3600:
3599:Myliobatoidei
3596:
3592:
3587:
3572:
3569:
3566:
3565:
3561:
3555:
3554:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3540:
3536:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3506:
3503:
3499:
3494:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3480:
3475:
3472:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3446:
3443:
3430:
3426:
3422:
3415:
3412:
3400:
3396:
3389:
3386:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3360:
3358:
3354:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3330:
3327:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3307:(5): 688–97.
3306:
3302:
3294:
3292:
3288:
3283:
3279:
3274:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3234:
3231:
3226:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3188:
3179:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3165:
3160:
3157:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3130:
3127:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3103:
3100:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3073:
3070:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3038:
3036:
3034:
3030:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
2998:
2995:
2990:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2949:
2946:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2914:
2911:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2873:
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2847:
2843:
2839:
2832:
2829:
2824:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2799:(3): 341–51.
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2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
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2504:(2): 209–25.
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2476:
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2428:
2421:
2418:
2407:
2403:
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2393:
2388:
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2380:
2376:
2373:(2): 95–103.
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2321:
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2204:9788171419081
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2172:
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2166:9781439839263
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2013:
2010:
2005:
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1996:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
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1967:
1966:Palaeontology
1963:
1956:
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929:
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789:
785:
780:
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765:Jaw and teeth
764:
756:
752:
748:
744:
737:
728:
719:
706:
702:
694:
687:
685:
683:
682:
681:Lessiniabatis
677:
673:
669:
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664:, as well as
663:
662:
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650:
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565:
561:
557:
553:
546:
545:
544:Lessiniabatis
539:
532:
530:
528:
524:
520:
519:Late Jurassic
517:, during the
516:
509:
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503:
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490:
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425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
384:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
365:Urotrygonidae
362:
358:
357:Plesiobatidae
354:
350:
347:of the order
346:
345:Myliobatoidei
342:
338:
334:
322:
316:
314:
311:
309:
303:
301:
298:
296:
293:
291:
288:
286:
285:Urotrygonidae
283:
282:
281:
278:
274:
271:
269:
268:Plesiobatidae
266:
265:
264:
261:
257:
254:
253:
252:
249:
248:
246:
241:
236:
231:
230:Myliobatoidei
228:
225:
224:
221:
218:
215:
214:
211:
208:
205:
204:
201:
198:
195:
194:
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3537:Bibliography
3524:. Retrieved
3515:
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3454:
3445:
3433:. Retrieved
3424:
3414:
3403:. Retrieved
3398:
3388:
3377:. Retrieved
3368:
3339:
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3329:
3304:
3300:
3247:
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3233:
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3178:
3159:
3148:. Retrieved
3139:
3129:
3112:
3108:
3102:
3090:. Retrieved
3081:
3072:
3064:the original
3051:
3047:
3007:
3003:
2997:
2962:
2958:
2948:
2926:(1): 47–57.
2923:
2919:
2913:
2878:
2872:
2848:(1): 70–81.
2845:
2841:
2831:
2796:
2792:
2786:
2778:
2767:the original
2738:
2734:
2721:
2704:
2700:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2650:
2625:
2621:
2615:
2604:. Retrieved
2593:
2584:
2574:December 14,
2572:. Retrieved
2563:
2553:
2534:
2501:
2497:
2463:
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2420:
2409:. Retrieved
2405:
2395:
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2366:
2360:
2341:
2335:
2324:. Retrieved
2315:
2306:
2279:
2275:
2265:
2238:
2234:
2224:
2213:. Retrieved
2193:
2186:
2175:. Retrieved
2155:
2148:
2115:
2111:
2101:
2050:
2046:
2036:
2025:. Retrieved
2021:
2012:
1969:
1965:
1904:(1): 14087.
1901:
1897:
1874:the original
1860:
1841:
1830:. Retrieved
1811:
1792:
1786:
1767:
1761:
1720:
1716:
1706:
1678:
1659:
1632:
1597:
1574:
1555:
1536:
1513:
1494:Indo-Pacific
1489:
1453:
1430:
1407:
1384:
1366:Indo-Pacific
1361:
1338:
1307:
1285:World War II
1270:
1257:
1255:
1238:
1222:
1202:, and other
1193:
1179:
1146:
1111:
1087:
1083:
1033:
1019:
1013:
979:
972:
950:
945:
930:
921:
917:
912:
900:
890:
877:
867:
849:Reproduction
840:
808:
804:gas exchange
797:
775:hyomandibula
768:
746:
704:
679:
665:
659:
640:Asterotrygon
638:
632:
610:
604:
600:scuba divers
590:are rare on
583:
568:speetonensis
567:
563:
550:
542:
541:The bizarre
512:
505:
502:Early Eocene
460:
444:water column
431:
411:
399:
385:
381:Myliobatidae
344:
339:, a type of
332:
331:
313:Myliobatidae
279:
263:Urolophoidea
262:
250:
229:
206:Superorder:
134:
36:
3623:Wikispecies
3577:117–118/pp.
3250:(1): 7912.
3140:Scienceline
2741:: 407–443.
2707:: 273–281.
1606:overfishing
1302:raya látigo
1056:ram feeding
1040:crustaceans
926:mate choice
868:During the
820:Coral reefs
705:Hypanus say
649:Monte Bolca
607:lagerstätte
596:shark teeth
592:sea bottoms
572:Hauterivian
556:sedimentary
436:fresh water
392:subtropical
361:Urolophidae
280:Dasyatoidea
273:Urolophidae
3660:Categories
3526:2021-03-10
3465:2021-03-10
3405:2023-02-14
3379:2021-03-10
3150:2018-11-18
3092:22 October
2606:2020-07-25
2411:2023-02-14
2326:2018-05-12
2312:"Stingray"
2215:2020-11-21
2177:2020-11-21
2027:2023-02-14
1832:2009-09-29
1699:References
1602:endangered
1518:open ocean
1466:freshwater
1435:vulnerable
1343:gill slits
1277:Micronesia
1244:Other uses
1211:Ecotourism
1198:sauce. In
990:locomotion
959:Locomotion
909:copulation
886:copulation
676:eagle rays
634:Heliobatis
617:Cretaceous
612:Cyclobatis
584:Hexatrygon
523:Cretaceous
479:endangered
475:vulnerable
467:extinction
452:eagle rays
416:deep ocean
377:Gymnuridae
369:Dasyatidae
300:Gymnuridae
290:Dasyatidae
226:Suborder:
196:Subclass:
2763:124395779
2642:136537698
2564:Sciencing
2132:0003-0090
2075:1477-2019
1926:2045-2322
1745:0272-4634
1629:Bull rays
1287:, in the
1186:Singapore
1163:Human use
1134:cystatins
1126:epidermis
905:courtship
799:Spiracles
794:Spiracles
751:spiracles
657:stingaree
627:that had
570:from the
493:Evolution
404:temperate
333:Stingrays
243:Families
166:Kingdom:
160:Eukaryota
51:to recent
42:Stingrays
18:Stingrays
3614:Q5328202
3608:Wikidata
3581:224–228.
3553:FishBase
3520:Archived
3482:Archived
3459:Archived
3429:Archived
3401:. (blog)
3373:Archived
3321:17659760
3282:28801624
3225:26094699
3167:Archived
3144:Archived
3121:10340692
3086:Archived
3060:19319171
2989:27629029
2940:22244456
2864:21672821
2823:26183820
2681:23477972
2600:Archived
2568:Archived
2542:Archived
2526:11150958
2518:10890563
2471:Archived
2455:42318841
2387:24290363
2320:Archived
2257:26567348
2209:Archived
2171:Archived
2140:83986811
2093:31156351
2004:37533696
1944:31575915
1849:Archived
1826:Archived
1753:86179086
1687:See also
1637:European
1612:and the
1462:brackish
1310:aquarium
1262:Japanese
1258:samegawa
1182:Malaysia
1142:galectin
1060:plankton
1036:mollusks
937:yolk sac
826:Behavior
564:Dasyatis
450:and the
440:demersal
388:tropical
235:Compagno
210:Batoidea
180:Chordata
176:Phylum:
170:Animalia
156:Domain:
3435:17 July
3301:Toxicon
3273:5554156
3252:Bibcode
3216:4488702
3024:1445487
2980:5031661
2920:Zoology
2905:8090692
2814:4560568
2743:Bibcode
2661:Zoology
2447:8787848
2367:Zoology
2298:9320215
2084:6510527
2055:Bibcode
1995:7614867
1974:Bibcode
1935:6773687
1906:Bibcode
1725:Bibcode
1643:coasts.
1641:African
1581:rivers.
1316:Gallery
1231:in the
1190:grilled
1168:As food
1157:granule
1048:pelagic
1023:Benthic
1010:Bat ray
994:benthic
951:At the
771:ventral
688:Anatomy
661:Arechia
621:Lebanon
615:of the
576:England
533:Fossils
515:panrays
481:by the
456:pelagic
216:Order:
186:Class:
3643:563996
3579:
3575:
3455:Reliks
3319:
3280:
3270:
3223:
3213:
3193:Toxins
3119:
3058:
3022:
3004:Copeia
2987:
2977:
2938:
2903:
2893:
2862:
2821:
2811:
2761:
2679:
2640:
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2385:
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2163:
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2130:
2091:
2081:
2073:
2002:
1992:
1942:
1932:
1924:
1799:
1774:
1751:
1743:
1616:coast.
1600:) are
1472:coast.
1464:, and
1458:marine
1433:) are
1414:coast.
1204:Indian
1195:sambal
862:breach
858:Mobula
816:sharks
454:, are
418:. The
237:, 1973
3020:JSTOR
2901:S2CID
2770:(PDF)
2759:S2CID
2731:(PDF)
2638:S2CID
2522:S2CID
2451:S2CID
2136:S2CID
1749:S2CID
1604:from
1293:whips
1264:) on
1153:cells
1130:gland
1118:cells
1114:venom
1100:Venom
1052:manta
788:cusps
653:Italy
625:skate
588:teeth
3638:ITIS
3437:2012
3317:PMID
3278:PMID
3221:PMID
3117:PMID
3094:2012
3056:PMID
3008:1989
2985:PMID
2936:PMID
2891:ISBN
2860:PMID
2819:PMID
2677:PMID
2576:2018
2514:PMID
2443:PMID
2383:PMID
2346:ISBN
2294:PMID
2253:PMID
2199:ISBN
2161:ISBN
2128:ISSN
2116:2004
2089:PMID
2071:ISSN
2000:PMID
1940:PMID
1922:ISSN
1797:ISBN
1772:ISBN
1741:ISSN
1639:and
1508:The
1484:The
1331:rays
1297:Aden
1184:and
1140:and
1120:and
1112:The
1054:use
637:and
483:IUCN
390:and
337:rays
56:PreꞒ
3344:doi
3340:409
3309:doi
3268:PMC
3260:doi
3211:PMC
3201:doi
3113:112
3052:122
3012:doi
2975:PMC
2967:doi
2963:283
2928:doi
2924:115
2883:doi
2850:doi
2809:PMC
2801:doi
2797:227
2751:doi
2739:788
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2705:446
2669:doi
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2435:doi
2431:202
2375:doi
2371:117
2284:doi
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2243:doi
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2120:doi
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2063:doi
1990:PMC
1982:doi
1930:PMC
1914:doi
1733:doi
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