317:
328:, after the family Crassulaceae, which includes the species in which the CAM process was first discovered) open their stomata at night (when water evaporates more slowly from leaves for a given degree of stomatal opening), use PEPcase to fix carbon dioxide and store the products in large vacuoles. The following day, they close their stomata and release the carbon dioxide fixed the previous night into the presence of RuBisCO. This saturates RuBisCO with carbon dioxide, allowing minimal photorespiration. This approach, however, is severely limited by the capacity to store fixed carbon in the vacuoles, so it is preferable only when water is severely limited.
233:
914:(SPeecCHless) gene prevents stomatal development all together. Inhibition of stomatal production can occur by the activation of EPF1, which activates TMM/ERL, which together activate YODA. YODA inhibits SPCH, causing SPCH activity to decrease, preventing asymmetrical cell division that initiates stomata formation. Stomatal development is also coordinated by the cellular peptide signal called stomagen, which signals the activation of the SPCH, resulting in increased number of stomata.
343:
45:
69:
61:
4401:
308:(PEPcase). Retrieving the products of carbon fixation from PEPCase is an energy-intensive process, however. As a result, the PEPCase alternative is preferable only where water is limiting but light is plentiful, or where high temperatures increase the solubility of oxygen relative to that of carbon dioxide, magnifying RuBisCo's oxygenation problem.
1147:) stomata have two guard cells surrounded by two lens-shaped subsidiary cells. The guard cells are narrower in the middle and bulbous on each end. This middle section is strongly thickened. The axis of the subsidiary cells are parallel stoma opening. This type can be found in monocot families including
403:
of the cells and cause the concentration of free Ca to increase in the cytosol due to influx from outside the cell and release of Ca from internal stores such as the endoplasmic reticulum and vacuoles. This causes the chloride (Cl) and organic ions to exit the cells. Second, this stops the uptake of
207:
may have about the same number of stomata on both leaf surfaces. In plants with floating leaves, stomata may be found only on the upper epidermis and submerged leaves may lack stomata entirely. Most tree species have stomata only on the lower leaf surface. Leaves with stomata on both the upper and
882:
An asymmetrical cell division occurs in protodermal cells resulting in one large cell that is fated to become a pavement cell and a smaller cell called a meristemoid that will eventually differentiate into the guard cells that surround a stoma. This meristemoid then divides asymmetrically one to
350:
However, most plants do not have CAM and must therefore open and close their stomata during the daytime, in response to changing conditions, such as light intensity, humidity, and carbon dioxide concentration. When conditions are conducive to stomatal opening (e.g., high light intensity and high
1502:. Plant breeders and farmers are beginning to work together using evolutionary and participatory plant breeding to find the best suited species such as heat and drought resistant crop varieties that could naturally evolve to the change in the face of food security challenges.
1256:. Stomatal crypts can be an adaption to drought and dry climate conditions when the stomatal crypts are very pronounced. However, dry climates are not the only places where they can be found. The following plants are examples of species with stomatal crypts or antechambers:
443:) can therefore be calculated from the transpiration rate and humidity gradient. This allows scientists to investigate how stomata respond to changes in environmental conditions, such as light intensity and concentrations of gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, and
296:
cells exposed directly to the air spaces inside the leaf. This exacerbates the transpiration problem for two reasons: first, RuBisCo has a relatively low affinity for carbon dioxide, and second, it fixes oxygen to RuBP, wasting energy and carbon in a process called
1169:) stomata have six subsidiary cells around both guard cells, one at either end of the opening of the stoma, one adjoining each guard cell, and one between that last subsidiary cell and the standard epidermis cells. This type can be found in some monocot families.
921:
represses stomatal development by affecting their development at the receptor level like the ERL and TMM receptors. However, a low concentration of auxin allows for equal division of a guard mother cell and increases the chance of producing guard cells.
1377:
Drought inhibits stomatal opening, but research on soybeans suggests moderate drought does not have a significant effect on stomatal closure of its leaves. There are different mechanisms of stomatal closure. Low humidity stresses guard cells causing
883:
three times before differentiating into a guard mother cell. The guard mother cell then makes one symmetrical division, which forms a pair of guard cells. Cell division is inhibited in some cells so there is always at least one cell between stomata.
937:
have them on both surfaces. When leaves develop stomata on both leaf surfaces, the stomata on the lower surface tend to be larger and more numerous, but there can be a great degree of variation in size and frequency about species and genotypes.
1068:) stomata have guard cells surrounded by two subsidiary cells, that each encircle one end of the opening and contact each other opposite to the middle of the opening. This type of stomata can be found in more than ten dicot families such as
906:). Mutations in any one of the genes which encode these factors may alter the development of stomata in the epidermis. For example, a mutation in one gene causes more stomata that are clustered together, hence is called Too Many Mouths (
1112:) stomata have one or more subsidiary cells parallel to the opening between the guard cells. These subsidiary cells may reach beyond the guard cells or not. This type of stomata can be found in more than hundred dicot families such as
966:
introduced in 1889, was further developed by
Metcalfe and Chalk, and later complemented by other authors. It is based on the size, shape and arrangement of the subsidiary cells that surround the two guard cells. They distinguish for
1212:
stomata have two guard cells in one layer with only ordinary epidermis cells, but with two subsidiary cells on the outer surface of the epidermis, arranged parallel to the guard cells, with a pore between them, overlying the stoma
367:
ions (K) occurs. To maintain this internal negative voltage so that entry of potassium ions does not stop, negative ions balance the influx of potassium. In some cases, chloride ions enter, while in other plants the organic ion
1034:) stomata have guard cells that are surrounded by cells that have the same size, shape and arrangement as the rest of the epidermis cells. This type of stomata can be found in more than hundred dicot families such as
2507:
Jordan, Gregory J; Weston, Peter H; Carpenter, Raymond J; Dillon, Rebecca A.; Brodribb, Timothy J. (2008). "The evolutionary relations of sunken, covered, and encrypted stomata to dry habitats in
Proteaceae".
773:
4231:
687:
515:
136:
The term is usually used collectively to refer to the entire stomatal complex, consisting of the paired guard cells and the pore itself, which is referred to as the stomatal aperture. Air, containing
851:
There is little evidence of the evolution of stomata in the fossil record, but they had appeared in land plants by the middle of the
Silurian period. They may have evolved by the modification of
1337:. Multiple studies have found support that increasing potassium concentrations may increase stomatal opening in the mornings, before the photosynthesis process starts, but that later in the day
1183:) stomata have four subsidiary cells, one on either end of the opening, and one next to each guard cell. This type occurs in many monocot families, but also can be found in some dicots, such as
2269:
Sugano, Shigeo S.; Shimada, Tomoo; Imai, Yu; Okawa, Katsuya; Tamai, Atsushi; Mori, Masashi; Hara-Nishimura, Ikuko (2010-01-14). "Stomagen positively regulates stomatal density in
Arabidopsis".
614:
4236:
1284:
Stomata are holes in the leaf by which pathogens can enter unchallenged. However, stomata can sense the presence of some, if not all, pathogens. However, pathogenic bacteria applied to
1345:
in guard cells acts as a blue light photoreceptor which mediates the stomatal opening. The effect of blue light on guard cells is reversed by green light, which isomerizes zeaxanthin.
388:
that prevent the width of the guard cells from swelling, and thus only allow the extra turgor pressure to elongate the guard cells, whose ends are held firmly in place by surrounding
917:
Environmental and hormonal factors can affect stomatal development. Light increases stomatal development in plants; while, plants grown in the dark have a lower amount of stomata.
1090:
stomata are bordered by just one subsidiary cell that differs from the surrounding epidermis cells, its length parallel to the stoma opening. This type occurs for instance in the
1004:) stomata have guard cells between two larger subsidiary cells and one distinctly smaller one. This type of stomata can be found in more than thirty dicot families, including
320:
C3 and C4 plants(1) stomata stay open all day and close at night. CAM plants(2) stomata open during the morning and close slightly at noon and then open again in the evening.
4369:
1832:
Eduardo Zeiger; Lawrence D. Talbott; Silvia
Frechilla; Alaka Srivastava; Jianxin Zhu (March 2002). "The Guard Cell Chloroplast: A Perspective for the Twenty-First Century".
986:) stomata have guard cells that are surrounded by at least five radiating cells forming a star-like circle. This is a rare type that can for instance be found in the family
2917:
Ceccarelli, S; Grando, S; Maatougui, M; Michael, M; Slash, M; Haghparast, R; Rahmanian, M; Taheri, A; Al-Yassin, A; Benbelkacem, A; Labdi, M; Mimoun, H; Nachit, M (2010).
1950:
Waichi Agata; Yoshinobu
Kawamitsu; Susumu Hakoyama; Yasuo Shima (January 1986). "A system for measuring leaf gas exchange based on regulating vapour pressure difference".
1252:
Stomatal crypts are sunken areas of the leaf epidermis which form a chamber-like structure that contains one or more stomata and sometimes trichomes or accumulations of
2154:
316:
844:
2885:
Rogiers, SY; Hardie, WJ; Smith, JP (2011). "Stomatal density of grapevine leaves (Vitis
Vinifera L.) responds to soil temperature and atmospheric carbon dioxide".
800:. These scientific instruments measure the amount of water vapour leaving the leaf and the vapor pressure of the ambient air. Photosynthetic systems may calculate
2697:"The effect of subambient to elevated atmospheric CO2 concentration on vascular function in Helianthus annuus: implications for plant response to climate change"
4287:
1382:
loss, termed hydropassive closure. Hydroactive closure is contrasted as the whole leaf affected by drought stress, believed to be most likely triggered by
301:. For both of these reasons, RuBisCo needs high carbon dioxide concentrations, which means wide stomatal apertures and, as a consequence, high water loss.
1325:
in causing stomatal response. Research suggests this is because the light response of stomata to blue light is independent of other leaf components like
264:, is present in the atmosphere at a concentration of about 400 ppm. Most plants require the stomata to be open during daytime. The air spaces in the
4103:
2439:
78:) the guard cells of the stomata are green because they contain chlorophyll while the epidermal cells are chlorophyll-free and contain red pigments.
2001:
1243:
stomata have two guard cells that are largely encircled by one subsidiary cell, but also contact ordinary epidermis cells (like a U or horseshoe).
3018:
2822:
2778:
2745:
2080:
1631:
1596:
1535:
419:
Guard cells have more chloroplasts than the other epidermal cells from which guard cells are derived. Their function is controversial.
1560:
706:
4293:
1498:
Predicting how stomata perform during adaptation is useful for understanding the productivity of plant systems for both natural and
1452:
399:(ABA) is released. ABA binds to receptor proteins in the guard cells' plasma membrane and cytosol, which first raises the pH of the
1370:
response is the least understood mechanistically, this stomatal response has begun to plateau where it is soon expected to impact
3188:
1921:
629:
457:
3627:
305:
1233:
stomata have two guard cells that are entirely encircled by one subsidiary cell that has not merged its ends (like a sausage).
4108:
392:
cells, the two guard cells lengthen by bowing apart from one another, creating an open pore through which gas can diffuse.
3558:
304:
Narrower stomatal apertures can be used in conjunction with an intermediary molecule with a high carbon dioxide affinity,
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3864:
3379:
325:
53:
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556:
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from plants' alga-like ancestors. However, the evolution of stomata must have happened at the same time as the waxy
4093:
1467:
is one of the effects with simulations from experiments predicting a 5â20% increase in crop yields at 550 ppm of CO
867:
There are three major epidermal cell types which all ultimately derive from the outermost (L1) tissue layer of the
843:
3045:
Gray, J; Holroyd, G; van der Lee, F; Bahrami, A; Sijmons, P; Woodward, F; Schuch, W; Hetherington, A (2000). "The
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4243:
363:
becomes increasingly negative. The negative potential opens potassium voltage-gated channels and so an uptake of
285:
4381:
4226:
3276:
1413:(high carbon dioxide) encodes a negative regulator for the development of stomata in plants. Research into the
1358:
Decreasing stomatal density is one way plants have responded to the increase in concentration of atmospheric CO
903:
404:
any further K into the cells and, subsequently, the loss of K. The loss of these solutes causes an increase in
125:
between the internal air spaces of the leaf and the atmosphere. The pore is bordered by a pair of specialized
2234:
Casson, Stuart A; Hetherington, Alistair M (2010-02-01). "Environmental regulation of stomatal development".
2099:
Bergmann, Dominique C.; Lukowitz, Wolfgang; Somerville, Chris R.; Lukowitz, W; Somerville, CR (4 July 2004).
4440:
31:
4425:
4211:
4135:
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stomata have two guard cells that are entirely encircled by one continuous subsidiary cell (like a donut).
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was evolving â these two traits together constituted a major advantage for early terrestrial plants.
439:
gradient between the leaf's internal air spaces and the outside air. Stomatal resistance (or its inverse,
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2148:
2010:
1488:
868:
797:
232:
1314:) and gas exchange are regulated by stomatal function which is important in the functioning of plants.
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and aperture (length of stomata) varies under a number of environmental factors such as atmospheric CO
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360:
141:
74:
4268:
3813:
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Schulze-Lefert, P; Robatzek, S (2006). "Plant pathogens trick guard cells into opening the gates".
962:
Different classifications of stoma types exist. One that is widely used is based on the types that
887:
427:
The degree of stomatal resistance can be determined by measuring leaf gas exchange of a leaf. The
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1983:
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Evolutionary theory and processes : modern horizons : papers in honour of
Eviatar Nevo
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38:
2426:. Vol. 1: Leaves, Stem, and Wood in relation to Taxonomy, with notes on economic Uses.
1398:
will reach 500â1000 ppm by 2100. 96% of the past 400,000 years experienced below 280 ppm CO
276:. Therefore, plants cannot gain carbon dioxide without simultaneously losing water vapour.
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that may have been an adaptive trait in the evolution of plant respiration and function.
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149:
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99:
2592:
Maeli
Melotto; William Underwood; Jessica Koczan; Kinya Nomura; Sheng Yang He (2006).
1929:
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60:
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levels in the atmosphere enhances photosynthesis, reduce transpiration, and increase
1383:
1371:
1133:
1091:
1047:
856:
831:. These scientific instruments are commonly used by plant physiologists to measure CO
428:
396:
273:
192:
191:
usually have more stomata on the lower surface of the leaves than the upper surface.
161:
126:
3090:
2987:
2944:
2627:
2140:
1987:
1355:
concentration, light intensity, air temperature and photoperiod (daytime duration).
534:
are the partial pressures of water in the leaf and in the ambient air respectively,
4329:
4319:
4221:
3945:
3930:
3439:
3406:
3028:
3001:
Mengel, Konrad; Kirkby, Ernest A.; Kosegarten, Harald; Appel, Thomas, eds. (2001).
2788:
2761:
Mengel, Konrad; Kirkby, Ernest A.; Kosegarten, Harald; Appel, Thomas, eds. (2001).
2324:
1273:
1039:
1013:
1005:
951:
852:
385:
269:
157:
122:
2340:"Auxin represses stomatal development in dark-grown seedling via Aux/IAA proteins"
2545:"Stomatal crypts have small effects on transpiration: A numerical model analysis"
1789:
1772:
187:. In vascular plants the number, size and distribution of stomata varies widely.
4145:
4130:
4125:
4061:
3923:
3703:
3674:
3573:
3568:
3416:
3256:
3251:
3236:
1435:
levels in the atmosphere. These studies imply the plants response to changing CO
1330:
1326:
1073:
1035:
968:
947:
943:
413:
352:
188:
172:
17:
3113:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2654:
2610:
2593:
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inside the cell, which results in the diffusion of water into the cell through
4174:
4167:
4157:
4140:
3823:
3818:
3754:
3546:
3393:
3352:
3246:
3010:
2935:
2918:
2814:
2770:
2247:
1588:
1342:
1291:
1152:
1009:
337:
221:
168:
130:
2308:
2202:
1971:
372:
is produced in guard cells. This increase in solute concentration lowers the
160:
diffuses through the stomata into the atmosphere as part of a process called
4282:
4179:
3908:
3713:
3694:
3605:
3529:
3401:
3342:
3322:
3261:
3133:
2124:
1334:
1113:
1095:
987:
796:
respectively. The rate of evaporation from a leaf can be determined using a
432:
364:
293:
220:. Size varies across species, with end-to-end lengths ranging from 10 to 80
184:
153:
3152:
3082:
2979:
2868:
2722:
2672:
2619:
2578:
2529:
2493:
2365:
2338:
Balcerowicz, M.; Ranjan, A.; Rupprecht, L.; Fiene, G.; Hoecker, U. (2014).
2316:
2255:
2220:
2132:
2036:"Stomata in early land plants: an anatomical and ecophysiological approach"
1979:
1902:
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1798:
1757:
1708:
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1812:
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4314:
4258:
4253:
4020:
3893:
3869:
3786:
3456:
3241:
2003:
Portable Gas Exchange Fluorescence System GFS-3000. Handbook of Operation
1739:
1690:
1654:
1403:
1121:
872:
436:
237:
2521:
2290:
216:, and leaves with stomata only on the upper surface are epistomatous or
3509:
3504:
3421:
3411:
2408:
2356:
2339:
1963:
1464:
1338:
1148:
934:
930:
409:
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377:
289:
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2842:
2713:
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2484:
2467:
2299:
1724:"Sensitivity of Stomata to Abscisic Acid (An Effect of the Mesophyll)"
3962:
3854:
3808:
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3728:
3718:
3679:
3617:
3598:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3197:
3074:
2971:
2843:"Modelling stomatal conductance in response to environmental factors"
2466:
Nunes, Tiago D. G.; Zhang, Dan; Raissig, Michael T. (February 2020).
2194:
1424:
1406:
of todayâs plants have diverged from their pre-industrial relatives.
1379:
1257:
369:
356:
180:
137:
83:
49:
2400:
1893:
1868:
1333:
swell under blue light provided there is sufficient availability of
879:
and guard cells, all of which are arranged in a non-random fashion.
2695:
Rico, C; Pittermann, J; Polley, HW; Aspinwall, MJ; Fay, PA (2013).
1471:. Rates of leaf photosynthesis were shown to increase by 30â50% in
4186:
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4010:
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3801:
3796:
3791:
3779:
3764:
3733:
3654:
3312:
3303:
2437:
van Cotthem, W.R.F. (1970). "A Classification of Stomatal Types".
1311:
1185:
918:
842:
444:
408:, which results in the diffusion of water back out of the cell by
341:
315:
231:
204:
196:
67:
59:
43:
1660:. National Council for Science and the Environment, Washington DC
272:, which exits the leaf through the stomata in a process known as
4037:
4032:
3684:
3524:
3499:
3494:
3478:
3449:
3337:
1198:
265:
3170:
2958:
Serna, L; Fenoll, C (2000). "Coping with human CO2 emissions".
2101:"Stomatal Development and Pattern Controlled by a MAPKK Kinase"
946:
leaves had fewer stomata but larger in size. On the other hand
768:{\displaystyle A={\frac {(C_{\text{a}}-C_{\text{i}})g}{1.6P}},}
3957:
3519:
2805:
Kochhar, S. L.; Gujral, Sukhbir Kaur (2020). "Transpiration".
1773:"The role of ion channels in light-dependent stomatal opening"
1322:
200:
121:
of leaves, stems, and other organs, that controls the rate of
2594:"Plant Stomata in innate immunity against bacterial invasion"
1771:
Petra Dietrich; Dale Sanders; Rainer Hedrich (October 2001).
1672:"Structure and Development of Stomata on the Primary Root of
886:
Stomatal patterning is controlled by the interaction of many
1670:
N. S. CHRISTODOULAKIS; J. MENTI; B. GALATIS (January 2002).
792:
are the atmospheric and sub-stomatal partial pressures of CO
395:
When the roots begin to sense a water shortage in the soil,
2543:
Roth-Nebelsick, A.; Hassiotou, F.; Veneklaas, E. J (2009).
2809:(2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 75â99.
1423:
found no increase of stomatal development in the dominant
682:{\displaystyle g={\frac {EP}{e_{\text{i}}-e_{\text{a}}}}.}
510:{\displaystyle E={\frac {e_{\text{i}}-e_{\text{a}}}{Pr}},}
435:
resistance provided by the stomatal pores and also on the
212:
leaves; leaves with stomata only on the lower surface are
3166:
2379:
Pallardy, Stephen (1983). "Physiology of Woody Plants".
2069:"Macroevolutionary events and the origin of higher taxa"
1451:
fertiliser effect has been greatly overestimated during
324:
A group of mostly desert plants called "C.A.M." plants (
1922:"Calculating Important Parameters in Leaf Gas Exchange"
1431:
showed a large increase, both in response to rising CO
416:, which results in the closing of the stomatal pores.
37:
For natural and surgically created body openings, see
1136:, several different types of stomata occur such as:
709:
632:
559:
460:
359:(H) from the guard cells. This means that the cells'
27:
In plants, a variable pore between paired guard cells
1341:
plays a larger role in regulating stomatal opening.
4343:
4307:
4197:
4070:
3986:
3882:
3832:
3557:
3487:
3430:
3392:
3366:
3302:
3222:
2912:
2910:
2908:
2800:
2798:
2172:
2170:
2168:
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2164:
2075:. Dordrecht: Kluwer Acad. Publ. pp. 265â289.
1519:
1455:(FACE) experiments where results show increased CO
767:
681:
608:
509:
2468:"Form, development and function of grass stomata"
3107:Tubiello, FN; Soussana, J-F; Howden, SM (2007).
3102:
3100:
2094:
2092:
609:{\displaystyle E=(e_{\text{i}}-e_{\text{a}})g/P}
133:that regulate the size of the stomatal opening.
2880:
2878:
2836:
2834:
1916:
1914:
1912:
1402:. From this figure, it is highly probable that
929:have stomata only on their lower leaf surface.
2177:Pillitteri, Lynn Jo; Dong, Juan (2013-06-06).
1722:C. L. Trejo; W. J. Davies; LdMP. Ruiz (1993).
1574:
1572:
3182:
3109:"Crop and pasture response to climate change"
2887:Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research
1869:"Carbon sinks threatened by increasing ozone"
835:uptake and thus measure photosynthetic rate.
423:Inferring stomatal behavior from gas exchange
8:
4288:International Association for Plant Taxonomy
3040:
3038:
2690:
2688:
2686:
2684:
2682:
2153:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1653:Debbie Swarthout and C.Michael Hogan. 2010.
1303:Response of stomata to environmental factors
224:and width ranging from a few to 50 Ξm.
954:had small stomata that were more numerous.
847:Tomato stoma observed through immersion oil
3389:
3189:
3175:
3167:
1439:levels is largely controlled by genetics.
1201:, four different types are distinguished:
72:The underside of a leaf. In this species (
3142:
3132:
2934:
2858:
2807:Plant Physiology: Theory and Applications
2712:
2662:
2609:
2568:
2483:
2355:
2298:
2210:
2051:
1892:
1788:
1747:
1698:
1272:which is a species of plant found in the
739:
726:
716:
708:
667:
654:
639:
631:
598:
586:
573:
558:
487:
474:
467:
459:
4232:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)
2440:Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society
1390:Future adaptations during climate change
1374:and photosynthesis processes in plants.
550:), so the equation can be rearranged to
1510:
542:is stomatal resistance. The inverse of
380:. This increases the cell's volume and
284:Ordinarily, carbon dioxide is fixed to
2146:
2034:D. Edwards, H. Kerp; Hass, H. (1998).
1579:Willmer, Colin; Fricker, Mark (1996).
1551:Weyers, J. D. B.; Meidner, H. (1990).
1321:being almost 10 times as effective as
1294:, which induce the stomata to reopen.
1290:plant leaves can release the chemical
384:. Then, because of rings of cellulose
236:Electron micrograph of a stoma from a
3053:perception to stomatal development".
2179:"Stomatal Development in Arabidopsis"
1846:10.1046/j.0028-646X.2001.NPH328.doc.x
1840:(3 Special Issue: Stomata): 415â424.
1317:Stomata are responsive to light with
7:
2919:"Plant breeding and climate changes"
1626:. Springer Netherlands. p. 18.
152:, passes through stomata by gaseous
2923:The Journal of Agricultural Science
171:generation of the vast majority of
110:
91:
64:A stoma in horizontal cross section
2453:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1970.tb02321.x
2422:Metcalfe, C.R.; Chalk, L. (1950).
1453:Free-Air Carbon dioxide Enrichment
816:, intrinsic water use efficiency (
25:
4237:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
1620:Fricker, M.; Willmer, C. (2012).
4400:
4399:
2899:10.1111/j.1755-0238.2011.00124.x
2236:Current Opinion in Plant Biology
2053:10.1093/jxb/49.Special_Issue.255
2009:, March 20, 2013, archived from
2071:. In Wasser, Solomon P. (ed.).
2067:Krassilov, Valentin A. (2004).
894:(Epidermal Patterning Factor),
546:is conductance to water vapor (
306:phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase
208:lower leaf surfaces are called
2841:Buckley, TN; Mott, KA (2013).
2664:11858/00-001M-0000-0012-394E-B
2040:Journal of Experimental Botany
1867:Hopkin, Michael (2007-07-26).
1777:Journal of Experimental Botany
1280:Stomata as pathogenic pathways
910:). Whereas, disruption of the
745:
719:
592:
566:
1:
3003:Principles of Plant Nutrition
2763:Principles of Plant Nutrition
2738:Photobiology of Higher Plants
2736:McDonald, Maurice S. (2003).
538:is atmospheric pressure, and
4278:History of plant systematics
3865:Thorns, spines, and prickles
1553:Methods in stomatal research
871:, called protodermal cells:
346:Opening and closing of stoma
326:crassulacean acid metabolism
54:scanning electron microscope
3049:signalling pathway links CO
2847:Plant, Cell and Environment
1813:"Guard Cell Photosynthesis"
1483:levels. The existence of a
167:Stomata are present in the
4457:
4094:Alternation of generations
2655:10.1016/j.cell.2006.08.020
2611:10.1016/j.cell.2006.06.054
2510:American Journal of Botany
2381:Journal of Applied Ecology
2046:(Special Issue): 255â278.
1790:10.1093/jexbot/52.363.1959
1526:. Wiley and Sons. p.
1298:Stomata and climate change
335:
117:), is a pore found in the
105:, "mouth"), also called a
36:
29:
4395:
4244:Cultivated plant taxonomy
4207:Biological classification
3204:
3011:10.1007/978-94-010-1009-2
3005:. Springer. p. 223.
2936:10.1017/s0021859610000651
2815:10.1017/9781108486392.006
2771:10.1007/978-94-010-1009-2
2765:. Springer. p. 205.
2248:10.1016/j.pbi.2009.08.005
1928:. Sinauer. Archived from
1589:10.1007/978-94-011-0579-8
1443:Agricultural implications
1427:, but in the âwild typeâ
1310:, plant water transport (
1124:. It is sometimes called
1076:. It is sometimes called
1050:. It is sometimes called
1016:. It is sometimes called
700:) can be calculated from
431:rate is dependent on the
286:ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate
52:leaf shown via colorized
4104:Evolutionary development
1583:. Springer. p. 16.
1555:. Longman Group UK Ltd.
904:MAP kinase kinase kinase
175:, with the exception of
30:Not to be confused with
3755:Hypanthium (Floral cup)
3134:10.1073/pnas.0701728104
2424:Anatomy of Dicotyledons
2125:10.1126/science.1096014
1952:Photosynthesis Research
1926:Plant Physiology Online
1658:. Encyclopedia of Earth
1366:). Although changes in
1141:gramineous or graminoid
451:) can be calculated as
4370:by author abbreviation
4294:Plant taxonomy systems
4212:Botanical nomenclature
2740:. Wiley. p. 293.
1522:Anatomy of Seed Plants
1475:plants, and 10â25% in
848:
769:
683:
610:
511:
412:. This makes the cell
347:
321:
280:Alternative approaches
245:
79:
65:
57:
4377:Botanical expeditions
2561:10.1104/pp.109.146969
1489:phenotypic plasticity
1078:caryophyllaceous type
869:shoot apical meristem
846:
798:photosynthesis system
770:
684:
611:
512:
345:
336:Further information:
319:
288:(RuBP) by the enzyme
235:
71:
63:
47:
4109:Evolutionary history
4099:Double fertilization
3951:Cellular respiration
2183:The Arabidopsis Book
2016:on December 15, 2017
1740:10.1104/pp.102.2.497
1500:agricultural systems
1461:water use efficiency
1420:Arabidopsis thaliana
1394:It is expected that
964:Julien Joseph Vesque
802:water use efficiency
707:
630:
557:
458:
441:stomatal conductance
361:electrical potential
260:, a key reactant in
75:Tradescantia zebrina
3328:Non-vascular plants
3125:2007PNAS..10419686T
3119:(50): 19686â19690.
3067:2000Natur.408..713G
2522:10.3732/ajb.2007333
2393:1983JApEc..20..352J
2291:10.1038/nature08682
2283:2010Natur.463..241S
2117:2004Sci...304.1494B
2111:(5676): 1494â1497.
1885:2007Natur.448..396H
1052:ranunculaceous type
890:components such as
888:signal transduction
332:Opening and closing
268:are saturated with
253:gain and water loss
148:, which is used in
140:, which is used in
3833:Surface structures
3628:Flower development
2357:10.1242/dev.109181
1964:10.1007/BF00029799
1783:(363): 1959â1967.
1691:10.1093/aob/mcf002
1485:feedback mechanism
898:(ERecta Like) and
849:
765:
679:
606:
507:
348:
322:
246:
242:Brassica chinensis
179:, as well as some
80:
66:
58:
4413:
4412:
4052:Herbaceous plants
3878:
3877:
3061:(6813): 713â716.
3020:978-94-010-1009-2
2966:(6813): 656â657.
2860:10.1111/pce.12140
2824:978-1-108-48639-2
2780:978-94-010-1009-2
2747:978-0-470-85523-2
2714:10.1111/nph.12339
2485:10.1111/tpj.14552
2472:The Plant Journal
2350:(16): 3165â3176.
2277:(7278): 241â244.
2082:978-1-4020-1693-6
1879:(7152): 396â397.
1674:Ceratonia siliqua
1633:978-94-011-0579-8
1598:978-94-010-4256-7
1537:978-0-471-24520-9
1518:Esau, K. (1977).
1463:(WUE). Increased
760:
742:
729:
692:Photosynthetic CO
674:
670:
657:
589:
576:
502:
490:
477:
16:(Redirected from
4448:
4436:Plant physiology
4403:
4402:
4382:Individual trees
4057:Secondary growth
4028:Succulent plants
4016:Prostrate shrubs
3899:Apical dominance
3884:Plant physiology
3845:Epicuticular wax
3390:
3383:
3374:Plant morphology
3191:
3184:
3177:
3168:
3157:
3156:
3146:
3136:
3104:
3095:
3094:
3075:10.1038/35047071
3042:
3033:
3032:
2998:
2992:
2991:
2972:10.1038/35047202
2955:
2949:
2948:
2938:
2914:
2903:
2902:
2882:
2873:
2872:
2862:
2853:(9): 1691â1699.
2838:
2829:
2828:
2802:
2793:
2792:
2758:
2752:
2751:
2733:
2727:
2726:
2716:
2692:
2677:
2676:
2666:
2638:
2632:
2631:
2613:
2589:
2583:
2582:
2572:
2555:(4): 2018â2027.
2549:Plant Physiology
2540:
2534:
2533:
2504:
2498:
2497:
2487:
2463:
2457:
2456:
2434:
2428:
2427:
2419:
2413:
2412:
2376:
2370:
2369:
2359:
2335:
2329:
2328:
2302:
2266:
2260:
2259:
2231:
2225:
2224:
2214:
2195:10.1199/tab.0162
2174:
2159:
2158:
2152:
2144:
2096:
2087:
2086:
2064:
2058:
2057:
2055:
2031:
2025:
2024:
2023:
2021:
2015:
2008:
1998:
1992:
1991:
1947:
1941:
1940:
1938:
1937:
1918:
1907:
1906:
1896:
1864:
1858:
1857:
1829:
1823:
1822:
1820:
1819:
1809:
1803:
1802:
1792:
1768:
1762:
1761:
1751:
1728:Plant Physiology
1719:
1713:
1712:
1702:
1679:Annals of Botany
1667:
1661:
1651:
1645:
1644:
1642:
1640:
1617:
1611:
1610:
1576:
1567:
1566:
1548:
1542:
1541:
1525:
1515:
1479:under doubled CO
1429:recessive allele
1349:Stomatal density
1241:
1240:
1231:
1230:
1221:
1220:
1210:
1209:
1177:
1176:
1163:
1162:
1106:
1105:
1088:
1087:
1062:
1061:
1032:irregular celled
1028:
1027:
1018:cruciferous type
998:
997:
980:
979:
927:angiosperm trees
774:
772:
771:
766:
761:
759:
751:
744:
743:
740:
731:
730:
727:
717:
688:
686:
685:
680:
675:
673:
672:
671:
668:
659:
658:
655:
648:
640:
615:
613:
612:
607:
602:
591:
590:
587:
578:
577:
574:
516:
514:
513:
508:
503:
501:
493:
492:
491:
488:
479:
478:
475:
468:
299:photorespiration
112:
93:
39:Stoma (medicine)
21:
18:Stomatal density
4456:
4455:
4451:
4450:
4449:
4447:
4446:
4445:
4416:
4415:
4414:
4409:
4391:
4360:Botanical terms
4353:
4339:
4303:
4249:Citrus taxonomy
4227:Author citation
4193:
4087:
4066:
3988:
3982:
3978:Turgor pressure
3886:
3874:
3828:
3643:Floral symmetry
3561:
3553:
3483:
3472:Vascular bundle
3467:Vascular tissue
3426:
3386:
3377:
3376:
3362:
3333:Vascular plants
3298:
3294:Plant pathology
3218:
3200:
3195:
3165:
3160:
3106:
3105:
3098:
3052:
3044:
3043:
3036:
3021:
3000:
2999:
2995:
2957:
2956:
2952:
2916:
2915:
2906:
2884:
2883:
2876:
2840:
2839:
2832:
2825:
2804:
2803:
2796:
2781:
2760:
2759:
2755:
2748:
2735:
2734:
2730:
2701:New Phytologist
2694:
2693:
2680:
2640:
2639:
2635:
2591:
2590:
2586:
2542:
2541:
2537:
2506:
2505:
2501:
2465:
2464:
2460:
2436:
2435:
2431:
2421:
2420:
2416:
2401:10.2307/2403413
2378:
2377:
2373:
2337:
2336:
2332:
2268:
2267:
2263:
2233:
2232:
2228:
2176:
2175:
2162:
2145:
2098:
2097:
2090:
2083:
2066:
2065:
2061:
2033:
2032:
2028:
2019:
2017:
2013:
2006:
2000:
1999:
1995:
1949:
1948:
1944:
1935:
1933:
1920:
1919:
1910:
1894:10.1038/448396b
1866:
1865:
1861:
1834:New Phytologist
1831:
1830:
1826:
1817:
1815:
1811:
1810:
1806:
1770:
1769:
1765:
1721:
1720:
1716:
1669:
1668:
1664:
1652:
1648:
1638:
1636:
1634:
1619:
1618:
1614:
1599:
1578:
1577:
1570:
1563:
1550:
1549:
1545:
1538:
1517:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1494:
1491:in response to
1482:
1470:
1458:
1450:
1445:
1438:
1434:
1401:
1397:
1392:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1354:
1305:
1300:
1282:
1259:Nerium oleander
1250:
1248:Stomatal crypts
1238:
1237:
1228:
1227:
1218:
1217:
1207:
1206:
1174:
1173:
1160:
1159:
1126:rubiaceous type
1110:parallel celled
1103:
1102:
1085:
1084:
1070:Caryophyllaceae
1059:
1058:
1025:
1024:
995:
994:
977:
976:
960:
865:
841:
834:
830:
795:
791:
784:
752:
735:
722:
718:
705:
704:
695:
663:
650:
649:
641:
628:
627:
619:and solved for
582:
569:
555:
554:
533:
526:
494:
483:
470:
469:
456:
455:
447:. Evaporation (
425:
406:water potential
382:turgor pressure
374:water potential
340:
334:
314:
282:
255:
252:
230:
129:cells known as
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4454:
4452:
4444:
4443:
4441:Photosynthesis
4438:
4433:
4428:
4418:
4417:
4411:
4410:
4408:
4407:
4396:
4393:
4392:
4390:
4389:
4384:
4379:
4374:
4373:
4372:
4362:
4356:
4354:
4352:
4351:
4350:Related topics
4348:
4344:
4341:
4340:
4338:
4337:
4332:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4311:
4309:
4305:
4304:
4302:
4301:
4299:Taxonomic rank
4296:
4291:
4285:
4280:
4275:
4274:
4273:
4272:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4251:
4241:
4240:
4239:
4234:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4217:Botanical name
4209:
4203:
4201:
4199:Plant taxonomy
4195:
4194:
4192:
4191:
4190:
4189:
4184:
4183:
4182:
4175:Megasporangium
4172:
4171:
4170:
4163:Microsporangia
4155:
4154:
4153:
4148:
4143:
4138:
4128:
4123:
4118:
4117:
4116:
4106:
4101:
4096:
4090:
4088:
4086:
4085:
4080:
4074:
4068:
4067:
4065:
4064:
4059:
4054:
4049:
4048:
4047:
4046:
4045:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4024:
4023:
4018:
4008:
4003:
4001:Cushion plants
3992:
3990:
3984:
3983:
3981:
3980:
3975:
3970:
3965:
3960:
3955:
3954:
3953:
3948:
3938:
3936:Plant hormones
3933:
3928:
3927:
3926:
3919:Photosynthesis
3916:
3911:
3906:
3901:
3896:
3890:
3888:
3880:
3879:
3876:
3875:
3873:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3842:
3836:
3834:
3830:
3829:
3827:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3805:
3804:
3799:
3794:
3784:
3783:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3757:
3752:
3751:
3750:
3749:
3748:
3743:
3738:
3737:
3736:
3731:
3711:
3706:
3701:
3700:
3699:
3698:
3697:
3692:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3652:
3651:
3650:
3645:
3640:
3638:Floral formula
3635:
3633:Floral diagram
3630:
3625:
3615:
3614:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3602:
3601:
3596:
3586:
3576:
3571:
3565:
3563:
3562:(incl. Flower)
3555:
3554:
3552:
3551:
3550:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3538:
3537:
3532:
3522:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3491:
3489:
3485:
3484:
3482:
3481:
3476:
3475:
3474:
3464:
3462:Storage organs
3459:
3454:
3453:
3452:
3442:
3436:
3434:
3428:
3427:
3425:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3398:
3396:
3387:
3385:
3384:
3370:
3364:
3363:
3361:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3348:Spermatophytes
3345:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3318:Archaeplastida
3315:
3309:
3307:
3300:
3299:
3297:
3296:
3291:
3286:
3281:
3280:
3279:
3272:Phytogeography
3269:
3267:Phytochemistry
3264:
3259:
3254:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3234:
3228:
3226:
3224:Subdisciplines
3220:
3219:
3217:
3216:
3211:
3205:
3202:
3201:
3196:
3194:
3193:
3186:
3179:
3171:
3164:
3163:External links
3161:
3159:
3158:
3096:
3050:
3034:
3019:
2993:
2950:
2929:(6): 627â637.
2904:
2893:(2): 147â152.
2874:
2830:
2823:
2794:
2779:
2753:
2746:
2728:
2707:(4): 956â965.
2678:
2649:(5): 831â834.
2633:
2604:(5): 969â980.
2584:
2535:
2516:(5): 521â530.
2499:
2478:(4): 780â799.
2458:
2447:(3): 235â246.
2429:
2414:
2371:
2330:
2261:
2226:
2160:
2088:
2081:
2059:
2026:
1993:
1958:(3): 345â357.
1942:
1908:
1859:
1824:
1804:
1763:
1734:(2): 497â502.
1714:
1662:
1646:
1632:
1612:
1597:
1568:
1562:978-0582034839
1561:
1543:
1536:
1509:
1507:
1504:
1492:
1480:
1468:
1456:
1448:
1444:
1441:
1436:
1432:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1388:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1352:
1308:Photosynthesis
1304:
1301:
1299:
1296:
1281:
1278:
1269:Drimys winteri
1249:
1246:
1245:
1244:
1234:
1224:
1214:
1195:
1194:
1191:Asclepiadaceae
1170:
1156:
1130:
1129:
1118:Convolvulaceae
1099:
1081:
1055:
1044:Chenopodiaceae
1021:
1002:unequal celled
991:
959:
956:
877:pavement cells
864:
861:
840:
837:
832:
828:
793:
789:
782:
776:
775:
764:
758:
755:
750:
747:
738:
734:
725:
721:
715:
712:
696:assimilation (
693:
690:
689:
678:
666:
662:
653:
647:
644:
638:
635:
617:
616:
605:
601:
597:
594:
585:
581:
572:
568:
565:
562:
531:
524:
518:
517:
506:
500:
497:
486:
482:
473:
466:
463:
424:
421:
333:
330:
313:
310:
281:
278:
262:photosynthesis
258:Carbon dioxide
254:
250:
247:
229:
226:
218:hyperstomatous
210:amphistomatous
193:Monocotyledons
150:photosynthesis
146:carbon dioxide
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4453:
4442:
4439:
4437:
4434:
4432:
4429:
4427:
4426:Plant anatomy
4424:
4423:
4421:
4406:
4398:
4397:
4394:
4388:
4385:
4383:
4380:
4378:
4375:
4371:
4368:
4367:
4366:
4363:
4361:
4358:
4357:
4355:
4349:
4346:
4345:
4342:
4336:
4335:Phytochemical
4333:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4312:
4310:
4306:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4256:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4246:
4245:
4242:
4238:
4235:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4215:
4214:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4204:
4202:
4200:
4196:
4188:
4185:
4181:
4178:
4177:
4176:
4173:
4169:
4166:
4165:
4164:
4161:
4160:
4159:
4156:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4133:
4132:
4129:
4127:
4124:
4122:
4119:
4115:
4112:
4111:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4102:
4100:
4097:
4095:
4092:
4091:
4089:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4075:
4073:
4069:
4063:
4060:
4058:
4055:
4053:
4050:
4044:
4041:
4040:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4026:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4013:
4012:
4009:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3998:
3997:
3994:
3993:
3991:
3985:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3973:Transpiration
3971:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3944:
3943:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3925:
3922:
3921:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3910:
3907:
3905:
3902:
3900:
3897:
3895:
3892:
3891:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3838:
3837:
3835:
3831:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3790:
3789:
3788:
3785:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3762:
3761:
3760:Inflorescence
3758:
3756:
3753:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3739:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3726:
3725:
3722:
3721:
3720:
3717:
3716:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3702:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3688:
3687:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3657:
3656:
3653:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3620:
3619:
3616:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3591:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3581:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3566:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3540:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3528:
3527:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3517:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3492:
3490:
3486:
3480:
3477:
3473:
3470:
3469:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3451:
3448:
3447:
3446:
3445:Ground tissue
3443:
3441:
3438:
3437:
3435:
3433:
3429:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3399:
3397:
3395:
3391:
3388:
3381:
3375:
3372:
3371:
3369:
3368:Plant anatomy
3365:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3301:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3289:Plant ecology
3287:
3285:
3284:Plant anatomy
3282:
3278:
3275:
3274:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3232:Archaeobotany
3230:
3229:
3227:
3225:
3221:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3206:
3203:
3199:
3192:
3187:
3185:
3180:
3178:
3173:
3172:
3169:
3162:
3154:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3103:
3101:
3097:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3048:
3041:
3039:
3035:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3004:
2997:
2994:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2954:
2951:
2946:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2913:
2911:
2909:
2905:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2881:
2879:
2875:
2870:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2837:
2835:
2831:
2826:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2801:
2799:
2795:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2757:
2754:
2749:
2743:
2739:
2732:
2729:
2724:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2691:
2689:
2687:
2685:
2683:
2679:
2674:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2637:
2634:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2588:
2585:
2580:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2539:
2536:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2503:
2500:
2495:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2462:
2459:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2441:
2433:
2430:
2425:
2418:
2415:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2375:
2372:
2367:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2334:
2331:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2265:
2262:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2230:
2227:
2222:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2173:
2171:
2169:
2167:
2165:
2161:
2156:
2150:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2095:
2093:
2089:
2084:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2063:
2060:
2054:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2030:
2027:
2012:
2005:
2004:
1997:
1994:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1946:
1943:
1932:on 2008-06-16
1931:
1927:
1923:
1917:
1915:
1913:
1909:
1904:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1863:
1860:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1828:
1825:
1814:
1808:
1805:
1800:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1767:
1764:
1759:
1755:
1750:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1718:
1715:
1710:
1706:
1701:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1666:
1663:
1659:
1657:
1650:
1647:
1635:
1629:
1625:
1624:
1616:
1613:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1575:
1573:
1569:
1564:
1558:
1554:
1547:
1544:
1539:
1533:
1529:
1524:
1523:
1514:
1511:
1505:
1503:
1501:
1496:
1490:
1486:
1478:
1474:
1466:
1462:
1454:
1442:
1440:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1421:
1416:
1412:
1407:
1405:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1384:abscisic acid
1381:
1375:
1373:
1372:transpiration
1356:
1350:
1346:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1329:. Guard cell
1328:
1324:
1320:
1315:
1313:
1309:
1302:
1297:
1295:
1293:
1289:
1288:
1279:
1277:
1275:
1271:
1270:
1265:
1261:
1260:
1255:
1247:
1242:
1235:
1232:
1225:
1222:
1215:
1211:
1204:
1203:
1202:
1200:
1192:
1188:
1187:
1182:
1178:
1171:
1168:
1164:
1157:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1139:
1138:
1137:
1135:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1100:
1097:
1093:
1092:Molluginaceae
1089:
1086:hemiparacytic
1082:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1056:
1053:
1049:
1048:Cucurbitaceae
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1022:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
992:
989:
985:
981:
974:
973:
972:
970:
965:
957:
955:
953:
949:
945:
941:
936:
932:
928:
923:
920:
915:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
884:
880:
878:
874:
870:
862:
860:
858:
854:
845:
838:
836:
827:
823:
819:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
788:
781:
762:
756:
753:
748:
736:
732:
723:
713:
710:
703:
702:
701:
699:
676:
664:
660:
651:
645:
642:
636:
633:
626:
625:
624:
622:
603:
599:
595:
583:
579:
570:
563:
560:
553:
552:
551:
549:
545:
541:
537:
530:
523:
504:
498:
495:
484:
480:
471:
464:
461:
454:
453:
452:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
429:transpiration
422:
420:
417:
415:
411:
407:
402:
398:
397:abscisic acid
393:
391:
387:
383:
379:
375:
371:
366:
362:
358:
354:
351:humidity), a
344:
339:
331:
329:
327:
318:
312:C.A.M. plants
311:
309:
307:
302:
300:
295:
291:
287:
279:
277:
275:
274:transpiration
271:
267:
263:
259:
248:
243:
239:
234:
227:
225:
223:
219:
215:
214:hypostomatous
211:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
165:
163:
162:transpiration
159:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
134:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
108:
104:
101:
97:
89:
85:
77:
76:
70:
62:
55:
51:
46:
40:
33:
19:
4330:Horticulture
4320:Floriculture
4222:Correct name
4072:Reproduction
4062:Woody plants
3987:Plant growth
3946:Gas Exchange
3931:Phytomelanin
3859:
3809:Plant embryo
3559:Reproductive
3407:Phragmoplast
3116:
3112:
3058:
3054:
3046:
3002:
2996:
2963:
2959:
2953:
2926:
2922:
2890:
2886:
2850:
2846:
2806:
2762:
2756:
2737:
2731:
2704:
2700:
2646:
2642:
2636:
2601:
2597:
2587:
2552:
2548:
2538:
2513:
2509:
2502:
2475:
2471:
2461:
2444:
2438:
2432:
2423:
2417:
2384:
2380:
2374:
2347:
2343:
2333:
2274:
2270:
2264:
2242:(1): 90â95.
2239:
2235:
2229:
2186:
2182:
2149:cite journal
2108:
2104:
2072:
2062:
2043:
2039:
2029:
2018:, retrieved
2011:the original
2002:
1996:
1955:
1951:
1945:
1934:. Retrieved
1930:the original
1925:
1876:
1872:
1862:
1837:
1833:
1827:
1816:. Retrieved
1807:
1780:
1776:
1766:
1731:
1727:
1717:
1685:(1): 23â29.
1682:
1678:
1673:
1665:
1655:
1649:
1637:. Retrieved
1622:
1615:
1580:
1552:
1546:
1521:
1513:
1497:
1446:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1408:
1393:
1376:
1357:
1347:
1316:
1306:
1286:
1283:
1274:cloud forest
1267:
1263:
1262:, conifers,
1258:
1251:
1236:
1226:
1216:
1205:
1196:
1189:and several
1184:
1180:
1172:
1166:
1158:
1144:
1140:
1131:
1125:
1109:
1101:
1083:
1077:
1066:cross-celled
1065:
1057:
1051:
1040:Boraginaceae
1031:
1023:
1017:
1014:Crassulaceae
1006:Brassicaceae
1001:
993:
983:
975:
961:
952:silver maple
924:
916:
911:
907:
902:(a putative
899:
895:
891:
885:
881:
866:
853:conceptacles
850:
825:
821:
817:
813:
809:
805:
786:
779:
777:
697:
691:
620:
618:
547:
543:
539:
535:
528:
521:
519:
448:
426:
418:
394:
386:microfibrils
349:
323:
303:
283:
270:water vapour
256:
241:
217:
213:
209:
189:Dicotyledons
166:
158:Water vapour
135:
123:gas exchange
114:
106:
102:
95:
87:
81:
73:
4431:Plant cells
4146:Pollen tube
4141:Pollinators
4131:Pollination
4126:Germination
3941:Respiration
3924:Chlorophyll
3770:Pedicellate
3704:Gametophyte
3623:Aestivation
3574:Antheridium
3569:Archegonium
3417:Plasmodesma
3394:Plant cells
3257:Paleobotany
3252:Ethnobotany
3237:Astrobotany
2344:Development
2020:October 20,
1331:protoplasts
1327:chlorophyll
1287:Arabidopsis
1181:four-celled
1074:Acanthaceae
1036:Apocynaceae
984:star-celled
978:actinocytic
948:sugar maple
944:white birch
863:Development
414:plasmolysed
353:proton pump
173:land plants
142:respiration
131:guard cells
48:Stoma in a
4420:Categories
4168:Microspore
4158:Sporangium
4136:Artificial
3824:Sporophyte
3819:Sporophyll
3814:Receptacle
3709:Gynandrium
3579:Androecium
3488:Vegetative
3358:Angiosperm
3353:Gymnosperm
3247:Dendrology
2300:2433/91250
1936:2013-02-24
1818:2015-10-04
1506:References
1487:results a
1417:gene using
1343:Zeaxanthin
1319:blue light
1292:coronatine
1229:desmocytic
1175:tetracytic
1167:six-celled
1153:Cyperaceae
1145:grass-like
1026:anomocytic
1010:Solanaceae
996:anisocytic
338:Guard cell
177:liverworts
169:sporophyte
127:parenchyma
4365:Botanists
4283:Herbarium
4180:Megaspore
4078:Evolution
4021:Subshrubs
3989:and habit
3914:Nutrition
3909:Cellulose
3904:Bulk flow
3887:Materials
3850:Epidermis
3714:Gynoecium
3695:Endosperm
3690:Dispersal
3606:Staminode
3542:Sessility
3530:Cataphyll
3450:Mesophyll
3402:Cell wall
3343:Lycophyte
3323:Bryophyte
3277:Geobotany
3262:Phycology
2387:(1): 14.
2309:0028-0836
2203:1543-8120
2189:: e0162.
1972:1573-5079
1607:224833888
1409:The gene
1404:genotypes
1335:potassium
1323:red light
1239:polocytic
1219:pericytic
1208:hypocytic
1179:(meaning
1165:(meaning
1161:hexacytic
1143:(meaning
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1108:(meaning
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1096:Aizoaceae
1064:(meaning
1030:(meaning
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982:(meaning
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873:trichomes
839:Evolution
733:−
661:−
580:−
481:−
433:diffusion
390:epidermal
365:potassium
294:mesophyll
185:hornworts
154:diffusion
119:epidermis
4405:Category
4325:Forestry
4315:Agronomy
4308:Practice
4259:Cultivar
4254:Cultigen
4114:timeline
4006:Rosettes
3894:Aleurone
3870:Trichome
3787:Perianth
3599:Filament
3457:Meristem
3380:glossary
3242:Bryology
3153:18077401
3091:83843467
3083:11130071
2988:39010041
2980:11130053
2945:86237270
2869:23730938
2723:23731256
2673:16959560
2628:13612107
2620:16959575
2579:19864375
2530:21632378
2494:31571301
2366:25063454
2317:20010603
2256:19781980
2221:23864836
2141:32009729
2133:15178800
1988:28367821
1980:24442366
1903:17653153
1854:33863211
1799:11559731
1758:12231838
1709:12096815
1213:opening.
1134:monocots
1122:Fabaceae
1060:diacytic
437:humidity
238:bok choy
228:Function
195:such as
115:stomates
4083:Ecology
3840:Cuticle
3670:Capsule
3660:Anatomy
3611:Tapetum
3535:Petiole
3510:Rhizome
3505:Rhizoid
3432:Tissues
3422:Vacuole
3412:Plastid
3214:Outline
3209:History
3144:2148358
3121:Bibcode
3063:Bibcode
3029:9332099
2789:9332099
2570:2785996
2409:2403413
2389:Bibcode
2325:4302041
2279:Bibcode
2212:3711358
2113:Bibcode
2105:Science
1881:Bibcode
1700:4233769
1656:Stomata
1639:15 June
1623:Stomata
1581:Stomata
1465:biomass
1339:sucrose
1149:Poaceae
935:willows
931:Poplars
857:cuticle
824:), and
410:osmosis
401:cytosol
378:osmosis
357:protons
355:drives
290:RuBisCO
107:stomate
98:, from
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4387:Plants
4290:(IAPT)
4043:Lianas
4011:Shrubs
3963:Starch
3855:Nectar
3775:Raceme
3741:Stigma
3729:Locule
3719:Carpel
3680:Pyrena
3618:Flower
3594:Anther
3589:Stamen
3584:Pollen
3306:groups
3198:Botany
3151:
3141:
3089:
3081:
3055:Nature
3027:
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2960:Nature
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1447:The CO
1425:allele
1380:turgor
1046:, and
1012:, and
969:dicots
778:where
520:where
370:malate
244:) leaf
181:mosses
144:, and
138:oxygen
84:botany
50:tomato
32:Stroma
4347:Lists
4264:Group
4187:Spore
4121:Flora
4038:Vines
4033:Trees
3996:Habit
3968:Sugar
3860:Stoma
3802:Sepal
3797:Petal
3792:Tepal
3780:Umbel
3765:Bract
3746:Style
3734:Ovule
3724:Ovary
3665:Berry
3655:Fruit
3648:Whorl
3515:Shoot
3313:Algae
3304:Plant
3087:S2CID
3025:S2CID
2984:S2CID
2941:S2CID
2785:S2CID
2624:S2CID
2405:JSTOR
2321:S2CID
2137:S2CID
2014:(PDF)
2007:(PDF)
1984:S2CID
1603:S2CID
1312:xylem
1264:Hakea
1199:ferns
1186:Tilia
958:Types
925:Most
919:Auxin
445:ozone
205:maize
197:onion
103:ÏÏÏΞι
100:Greek
88:stoma
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4269:Grex
4151:Self
3685:Seed
3547:Stem
3525:Leaf
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3479:Wood
3440:Cork
3338:Fern
3149:PMID
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3015:ISBN
2976:PMID
2865:PMID
2819:ISBN
2775:ISBN
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2719:PMID
2669:PMID
2643:Cell
2616:PMID
2598:Cell
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2526:PMID
2490:PMID
2362:PMID
2313:PMID
2305:ISSN
2252:PMID
2217:PMID
2199:ISSN
2155:link
2129:PMID
2077:ISBN
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1976:PMID
1968:ISSN
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1120:and
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950:and
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912:SPCH
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785:and
527:and
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3675:Nut
3520:Bud
3139:PMC
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2968:doi
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2927:148
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2767:doi
2709:doi
2705:199
2659:hdl
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2606:doi
2602:126
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2553:151
2518:doi
2480:doi
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2352:doi
2348:141
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2191:doi
2121:doi
2109:304
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1960:doi
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