1076:, such as desert racers, use straps called "limiting straps" to limit the suspensions' downward travel to a point within safe limits for the linkages and shock absorbers. This is necessary, since these trucks are intended to travel over very rough terrain at high speeds, and even become airborne at times. Without something to limit the travel, the suspension bushings would take all the force, when suspension reaches "full droop", and it can even cause the coil springs to come out of their "buckets", if they are held in by compression forces only. A limiting strap is a simple strap, often from nylon of a predetermined length, that stops downward movement at a pre-set point before theoretical maximum travel is reached. The opposite of this is the "bump-stop", which protects the suspension and the vehicle (as well as the occupants) from the violent "bottoming" of the suspension, caused when an obstruction (or a hard landing) causes suspension to run out of upward travel without fully absorbing the energy of the stroke. Without bump-stops, a vehicle that "bottoms out", will experience a very hard shock when the suspension contacts the bottom of the frame or body, which is transferred to the occupants and every connector and weld on the vehicle. Factory vehicles often come with plain rubber "nubs" to absorb the worst of the forces, and insulate the shock. A desert race vehicle, which must routinely absorb far higher impact forces, might be provided with pneumatic or hydro-pneumatic bump-stops. These are essentially miniature shock absorbers (dampers) that are fixed to the vehicle in a location, such, that the suspension will contact the end of the piston when it nears the upward travel limit. These absorb the impact far more effectively than a solid rubber bump-stop will, essential, because a rubber bump-stop is considered a "last-ditch" emergency insulator for the occasional accidental bottoming of the suspension; it is entirely insufficient to absorb repeated and heavy bottoming, such as a high-speed off-road vehicle encounters.
248:
2105:, had overlapping and sometimes interleaved road wheels to distribute the load more evenly on the tank's track, and therefore on the ground. This apparently made a significant contribution to speed, range and track life, as well as providing a continuous band of protection. It has not been used since the end of that war, probably due to the maintenance requirements of more complicated mechanical parts working in mud, sand, rocks, snow, and ice; as well as due to cost. Rocks and frozen mud often got stuck between the overlapping wheels, which could prevent them from turning, or would cause damage to the road wheels. If one of the interior road wheels were damaged, it would require other road wheels to be removed in order to access the damaged road wheel, making the process more complicated and time-consuming.
1175:, which are subject to decay over time. For high-stress suspensions, such as off-road vehicles, polyurethane bushings are available, which offer more longevity under greater stresses. However, due to weight and cost considerations, structures are not made more rigid than necessary. Some vehicles exhibit detrimental vibrations involving the flexing of structural parts, such as when accelerating while turning sharply. Flexibility of structures, such as frames and suspension links, can also contribute to springing, especially to damping out high-frequency vibrations. The flexibility of wire wheels contributed to their popularity in times when cars had less advanced suspensions.
815:
width, CG height, spring and damper rates, roll centre heights of front and rear, anti-roll bar stiffness and tire pressure/construction. The roll rate of a vehicle can, and usually, does differ front-to-rear, which allows for the tuning ability of a vehicle for transient and steady-state handling. The roll rate of a vehicle does not change the total amount of weight transfer on the vehicle, but shifts the speed and percentage of weight transferred on a particular axle to another axle through the vehicle chassis. Generally, the higher the roll rate on an axle of a vehicle, the faster and higher percentage the weight transfer on that
278:
1529:, fore-aft linked suspension system, together with in-board front brakes, had a much smaller unsprung weight than existing coil spring or leaf designs. The interconnection transmitted some of the force deflecting a front wheel up over a bump, to push the rear wheel down on the same side. When the rear wheel met that bump a moment later, it did the same in reverse, keeping the car level front to rear. The 2CV had a design brief to be able to be driven at speed over a ploughed field, such as by a farmer transporting chicken eggs. It originally featured friction dampers and
2094:, getting spring force from twisting bars inside the hull — this sometimes had less travel than the Christie type, but was significantly more compact, allowing more space inside the hull, with the consequent possibility to install larger turret rings, and thus, heavier main armament. Torsion-bar suspension, sometimes including shock absorbers, has been the dominant heavy armored vehicle suspension since World War II. Torsion bars may take space under or near the floor, which may interfere with making the tank low to reduce exposure.
1105:
rear, can be used to tune handling. Some racecars are tuned with -2 to -7° camber, depending on the type of handling desired, and tire construction. Often, too much camber will result in the decrease of braking performance due to a reduced contact patch size through excessive camber variation in suspension geometry. The amount of camber change in bump is determined by the instantaneous front view swing arm (FVSA) length of suspension geometry, or in other words, the tendency of the tire to camber inward when compressed in bump.
180:
1627:
363:
1770:
779:
they both have heavy springs, the actual spring rates for a 2,000 lb (910 kg) racecar and a 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) truck are very different. A luxury car, taxi, or passenger bus would be described as having soft springs, for the comfort of their passengers or driver. Vehicles with worn-out or damaged springs ride lower to the ground, which reduces the overall amount of compression available to the suspension, and increases the amount of body lean.
1929:(motorbikes) lean towards the center of curvature while turning, which improves stability and decreases the chances of toppling. But vehicles with more than two wheels, and equipped with a conventional suspension system, could not do the same until now, so the passengers feel the outward inertial force, which reduces the stability of riders and their comfort as well. This kind of tilting suspension system is the solution to the problem. If the road does not have
795:
wheel 1 in (2.5 cm) (without moving the car), the spring more than likely compresses a smaller amount. If the spring moved 0.75 in (19 mm), the lever arm ratio would be 0.75:1. The wheel rate is calculated by taking the square of the ratio (0.5625) times the spring rate, thus obtaining 281.25 lbs/inch (49.25 N/mm). The ratio is squared because it has two effects on the wheel rate: it applies to both the force and the distance traveled.
156:
799:
are not independent, when viewed from the side under acceleration or braking, the pivot point is at infinity (because both wheels have moved) and the spring is directly inline with the wheel contact patch. The result is often, that the effective wheel rate under cornering is different from what it is under acceleration and braking. This variation in wheel rate may be minimised by locating the spring as close to the wheel as possible.
1163:
values of anti-squat commonly cause wheel hop during braking. It is important to note, that the value of 100% means, that all of the weight transfer is being carried through suspension linkage. However, this does not mean that the suspension is incapable of carrying additional loads (aerodynamic, cornering, etc.) during an episode of braking, or forward acceleration. In other words, no "binding" of the suspension is to be implied.
1514:: two Championships; Lexus GX470 2004 as the 4×4 of the year with KDSS; the 2005 PACE award). These systems by Kinetic generally decouple at least two vehicle modes (roll, warp (articulation), pitch, and/or heave (bounce)) to simultaneously control each mode's stiffness and damping by using interconnected shock absorbers, and other methods. In 1999, Kinetic was bought out by Tenneco. Later developments by the Catalan company
1065:
wheel can cause serious control problems, or directly cause damage. "Bottoming" can be caused by the suspension, tires, fenders, etc. running out of space to move, or the body or other components of the car hitting the road. Control problems caused by lifting a wheel are less severe, if the wheel lifts when the spring reaches its unloaded shape than they are, if travel is limited by contact of suspension members (See
1156:
of braking effort at the front wheels must be known. Then, multiply the tangent by the front wheel braking effort percentage and divide by the ratio of the center of gravity height to the wheelbase. A value of 50% would mean, that half of the weight transfer to the front wheels; during braking, it is being transmitted through front suspension linkage, and half is being transmitted through front suspension springs.
3779:
3769:
1565:) with suspension units on each side connected to each other by a fluid-filled pipe. The fluid transmitted the force of road bumps from one wheel to the other (on the same principle as Citroën 2CV's mechanical system described above), and because each suspension unit contained valves to restrict the flow of fluid, also served as a shock absorber. Moulton went on to develop a replacement for
999:
860:
664:
458:
59:
1312:
259:-drawn carts had the platform swing on iron chains attached to the wheeled frame of the carriage. This system remained the basis for most suspension systems until the turn of the 19th century, although the iron chains were replaced with the use of leather straps called thoroughbraces by the 17th century. No modern automobiles have used the thoroughbrace suspension system.
382:. With the advantage of a damped suspension system on his 'Mors Machine', Henri Fournier won the prestigious Paris-to-Berlin race on 20 June 1901. Fournier's superior time was 11 hours 46 minutes and 10 seconds, while the best competitor was Léonce Girardot in a Panhard with a time of 12 hours, 15 minutes, and 40 seconds.
164:
725:
1525:. Suspension in the 2CV was extremely soft — the longitudinal link was making pitch softer, instead of making roll stiffer. It relied on extreme anti-dive and anti-squat geometries to compensate for that. This resulted in a softer axle-crossing stiffness that anti-roll bars would have otherwise compromised. The leading arm / trailing arm
1994:
225:, which are at odds with each other. The tuning of suspensions involves finding the right compromise. It is important for the suspension to keep the road wheel in contact with the road surface as much as possible, because all the road or ground forces acting on the vehicle do so through the contact patches of the
1881:
In semi-independent suspensions, the wheels of an axle are able to move relative to one another, as in an independent suspension, but the position of one wheel has an effect on the position and attitude of the other wheel. This effect is achieved through the twisting or deflecting of suspension parts
1151:
The method of determining anti-dive or anti-squat depends on whether suspension linkages react to the torque of braking and accelerating. For example, with inboard brakes and half-shaft-driven rear wheels, the suspension linkages do not react, but with outboard brakes and a swing-axle driveline, they
1138:
In this respect, the instant centers are more important to the handling of the vehicle, than the kinematic roll center alone, in that the ratio of geometric-to-elastic weight transfer is determined by the forces at the tires and their directions in relation to the position of their respective instant
1104:
changes due to wheel travel, body roll and suspension system deflection or compliance. In general, a tire wears and brakes best at -1 to -2° of camber from vertical. Depending on the tire and the road surface, it may hold the road best at a slightly different angle. Small changes in camber, front and
946:
Unsprung weight transfer is calculated based on weight of the vehicle's components that are not supported by the springs. This includes tires, wheels, brakes, spindles, half the control arm's weight, and other components. These components are then (for calculation purposes) assumed to be connected to
798:
Wheel rate on independent suspension is fairly straightforward. However, special consideration must be taken with some non-independent suspension designs. Take the case of the straight axle. When viewed from the front or rear, the wheel rate can be measured by the means above. Yet, because the wheels
769:
of the spring. Vehicles that carry heavy loads, will often have heavier springs to compensate for the additional weight that would otherwise collapse a vehicle to the bottom of its travel (stroke). Heavier springs are also used in performance applications, where the loading conditions experienced are
1861:
Because the wheels are not constrained to remain perpendicular to a flat road surface in turning, braking, and varying load conditions, control of the wheel camber is an important issue. Swinging-arm was common in small cars that were sprung softly, and could carry large loads, because the camber is
1505:
have also been explored in some recent studies, and their potential benefits in enhancing vehicle ride and handling have been demonstrated. The control system can also be used for further improving performance of interconnected suspensions. Apart from academic research, an
Australian company Kinetic
1497:
Interconnected suspension, unlike semi-active/active suspensions, could easily decouple different vehicle vibration modes in a passive manner. Interconnections can be realized by various means, such as mechanical, hydraulic, and pneumatic. Anti-roll bars are one of the typical examples of mechanical
1155:
To determine the percentage of front suspension braking anti-dive for outboard brakes, it is first necessary to determine the tangent of the angle between a line drawn, in side view, through the front tire patch and the front suspension instant center, and the horizontal. In addition, the percentage
1064:
Travel is the measure of distance from the bottom of the suspension stroke (such as when the vehicle is on a jack, and the wheel hangs freely) to the top of the suspension stroke (such as when the vehicle's wheel can no longer travel in an upward direction toward the vehicle). Bottoming or lifting a
1162:
Forward acceleration anti-squat is calculated in a similar manner and with the same relationship between percentage and weight transfer. Anti-squat values of 100% and more are commonly used in drag racing, but values of 50% or less are more common in cars that have to undergo severe braking. Higher
1147:
Anti-dive and anti-squat are percentages that indicate the degree to which the front dives under braking, and the rear squats under acceleration. They can be thought of as the counterparts for braking and acceleration, as jacking forces are to cornering. The main reason for the difference is due to
1091:
Damping controls the travel speed and resistance of the vehicle's suspension. An undamped car will oscillate up and down. With proper damping levels, the car will settle back to a normal state in a minimal amount of time. Most damping in modern vehicles can be controlled by increasing or decreasing
937:
In most conventional applications, when weight is transferred through intentionally compliant elements, such as springs, dampers, and anti-roll bars, the weight transfer is said to be "elastic", while the weight which is transferred through more rigid suspension links, such as A-arms and toe links,
794:
Wheel rate is usually equal to or considerably less than the spring rate. Commonly, springs are mounted on control arms, swing arms or some other pivoting suspension member. Consider the example above, where the spring rate was calculated to be 500 lbs/inch (87.5 N/mm), if one were to move the
1134:
of the vertical load on the tire and the lateral force generated by it points directly into the instant center, the suspension links will not move. In this case, all weight transfer at that end of the vehicle will be geometric in nature. This is key information used in finding the force-based roll
814:
Roll rate is analogous to a vehicle's ride rate, but for actions that include lateral accelerations, causing a vehicle's sprung mass to roll. It is expressed as torque per degree of roll of the vehicle sprung mass. It is influenced by factors including but not limited to vehicle sprung mass, track
773:
Springs that are too hard or too soft cause the suspension to become ineffective – mostly because they fail to properly isolate the vehicle from the road. Vehicles that commonly experience suspension loads heavier than normal, have heavy or hard springs, with a spring rate close to the upper limit
2097:
As with cars, wheel travel and spring rate affect the bumpiness of ride, and the speed at which rough terrain can be negotiated. It may be significant, that a smooth ride, which is often associated with comfort, increases the accuracy when firing on the move. It also reduces shock on optics and
1760:
Because it assures constant camber, dependent (and semi-independent) suspension is most common on vehicles that need to carry large loads as a proportion of the vehicle's weight, that have relatively soft springs and that do not (for cost and simplicity reasons) use active suspensions. The use of
1196:
For most purposes, the weight of suspension components is unimportant. But at high frequencies caused by road surface roughness, the parts isolated by rubber bushings act as a multi-stage filter to suppress noise and vibration better than can be done with only tires and springs. (The springs work
1183:
Automobiles can be heavily laden with luggage, passengers, and trailers. This loading will cause a vehicle's tail to sink downwards. Maintaining a steady chassis level is essential to achieving the proper handling that the vehicle was designed for. Oncoming drivers can be blinded by the headlight
1126:
Due to the fact that the wheel and tire's motion is constrained by the vehicle's suspension links, the motion of the wheel package in the front view will scribe an imaginary arc in space with an "instantaneous center" of rotation at any given point along its path. The instant center for any wheel
778:
of the load. Riding in an empty truck meant for carrying loads can be uncomfortable for passengers, because of its high spring rate relative to the weight of the vehicle. A race car could also be described as having heavy springs, and would also be uncomfortably bumpy. However, even though we say
1928:
The tilting suspension system improves stability, traction, the turning radius of a vehicle, and the comfort of riders as well. While turning right or left, passengers or objects on a vehicle feel the G-force or inertial force outward the radius of the curvature, which is why two-wheeler riders
1488:
With the help of a control system, various semi-active/active suspensions realize an improved design compromise among different vibration modes of the vehicle; namely: bounce, roll, pitch and warp modes. However, the applications of these advanced suspensions are constrained by cost, packaging,
841:
percentage is a simplified method of describing lateral load transfer distribution front to rear, and subsequently handling balance. It is the effective wheel rate, in roll, of each axle of the vehicle as a ratio of the vehicle's total roll rate. It is commonly adjusted through the use of
929:
The total amount of weight transfer is only affected by four factors: the distance between wheel centers (wheelbase in the case of braking, or track width in the case of cornering), the height of the center of gravity, the mass of the vehicle, and the amount of acceleration experienced.
933:
The speed at which weight transfer occurs, as well as through which components it transfers, is complex, and is determined by many factors; including, but not limited to: roll center height, spring and damper rates, anti-roll bar stiffness, and the kinematic design of suspension links.
1666:
that holds wheels parallel to each other and perpendicular to the axle. When the camber of one wheel changes, the camber of the opposite wheel changes in the same way (by convention, on one side, this is a positive change in the camber, and on the other side, this a negative change).
1484:
have also been developed for vehicles. Examples include the electromagnetic suspension of Bose, and the electromagnetic suspension developed by prof. Laurentiu Encica. In addition, the new
Michelin wheel with embedded suspension functioning on an electric motor is also similar.
963:(total weight less the unsprung weight), the front and rear roll center heights, and the sprung center of gravity height (used to calculate the roll moment arm length). Calculating the front and rear sprung weight transfer will also require knowing the roll couple percentage.
1959:
system is a suspension arrangement, in which there are some trailing arms fitted with some idler wheels. Due to articulation between the driving section and the followers, this suspension is very flexible. This kind of suspension is appropriate for extremely rough terrain.
971:
times the sprung weight times the roll moment arm length divided by the effective track width. The front sprung weight transfer is calculated by multiplying the roll couple percentage times the total sprung weight transfer. The rear is the total minus the front transfer.
289:
Automobiles were initially developed as self-propelled versions of horse-drawn vehicles. However, horse-drawn vehicles had been designed for relatively slow speeds, and their suspension was not well suited to the higher speeds permitted by the internal combustion engine.
631:, or their equivalent from the centre of the differential to each wheel. But the wheels cannot entirely rise and fall independently of each other; they are tied by a yoke that goes around the differential, below and behind it. This method has had little use in the
966:
The roll axis is the line through the front and rear roll centers that the vehicle rolls around during cornering. The distance from this axis to the sprung center of gravity height is the roll moment arm length. The total sprung weight transfer is equal to the
1087:
is the control of motion or oscillation, as seen with the use of hydraulic gates and valves in a vehicle's shock absorber. This may also vary, intentionally or unintentionally. Like spring rate, the optimal damping for comfort may be less, than for control.
731:
729:
726:
1340:
Automakers are aware of the inherent limitations of steel springs — that these springs tend to produce undesirable oscillations, and carmakers have developed other types of suspension materials and mechanisms in attempts to improve performance:
1113:
Roll center height is a product of suspension instant center heights and is a useful metric in analyzing weight transfer effects, body roll and front to rear roll stiffness distribution. Conventionally, roll stiffness distribution is tuned adjusting
730:
756:
The spring rate (or suspension rate) is a component in setting the vehicle's ride height or its location in the suspension stroke. When a spring is compressed or stretched, the force it exerts, is proportional to its change in length. The
980:
Jacking forces are the sum of the vertical force components experienced by suspension links. The resultant force acts to lift the sprung mass, if the roll center is above ground, or compress it, if underground. Generally, the higher the
1373:
Shock absorbers damp out the (otherwise simple harmonic) motions of a vehicle up and down on its springs. They must also damp out much of the wheel bounce when the unsprung weight of a wheel, hub, axle, and sometimes brakes and the
728:
950:
The weight transfer for cornering in the front would be equal to the total unsprung front weight times the G-force times the front unsprung center of gravity height divided by the front track width. The same is true for the rear.
604:, invented by Albert Hotchkiss, was the most popular rear suspension system used in American cars from the 1930s to the 1970s. The system uses longitudinal leaf springs attached both forward and behind the differential of the
1579:, worked with the same principle, but instead of rubber spring units, it used metal spheres divided internally by a rubber diaphragm. The top half contained pressurised gas, and the lower half the same fluid as used on the
1869:
Wishbone and multi-link allow the engineer more control over the geometry, to arrive at the best compromise, than swing axle, MacPherson strut, or swinging arm do; however, the cost and space requirements may be greater.
1933:
or banking, it will not affect the comfort with this suspension system, the vehicle tilt and decrease in the height of the center of gravity with an increase in stability. This suspension is also used in fun vehicles.
1243:
in order to improve aerodynamics and fuel efficiency. Modern formula cars that have exposed wheels and suspension typically use streamlined tubing rather than simple round tubing for their suspension arms to reduce
2019:, have specialized suspension requirements. They can weigh more than seventy tons, and are required to move as quickly as possible over very rough or soft ground. Their suspension components must be protected from
2497:
1248:. Also typical is the use of rocker-arm, push rod, or pull rod-type suspensions, that, among other things, place the spring/damper unit inboard and out of the air stream to further reduce air resistance.
1834:
Transverse leaf springs when used as a suspension link, or four-quarter elliptics on one end of a car are similar to wishbones in geometry, but are more compliant. Examples are the front of the original
1395:
For example, a hydropneumatic Citroën will "know" how far off the ground the car is supposed to be, and constantly resets to achieve that level, regardless of load. However, this type of suspension will
1736:
Longitudinal semi-elliptical springs used to be common, and are still used in heavy-duty trucks and aircraft. They have the advantage, that the spring rate can easily be made progressive (non-linear).
1208:
This is the main functional advantage of aluminum wheels over steel wheels. Aluminum suspension parts have been used in production cars, and carbon fiber suspension parts are common in racing cars.
1118:
rather than roll center height (as both tend to have a similar effect on the sprung mass), but the height of the roll center is significant when considering the amount of jacking forces experienced.
1130:
A component of the tire's force vector points from the contact patch of the tire through instant center. The larger this component is, the less suspension motion will occur. Theoretically, if the
1256:
Production methods improve, but cost is always a factor. The continued use of the solid rear axle, with unsprung differential, especially on heavy vehicles, seems to be the most obvious example.
1583:
system. The fluid transmitted suspension forces between the units on each side, whilst the gas acted as the springing medium through the diaphragm. This is the same principle as the Citroën
959:
Sprung weight transfer is the weight transferred by only the weight of the vehicle resting on its springs, and not by total vehicle weight. Calculating this requires knowing the vehicle's
2807:
247:
2673:
1654:
Suspension systems can be broadly classified into two subgroups: dependent and independent. These terms refer to the ability of opposite wheels to move independently of each other. A
1701:
Dependent systems may be differentiated by the system of linkages used to locate them, both longitudinally and transversely. Often, both functions are combined in a set of linkages.
1437:
systems use electronic monitoring of vehicle conditions, coupled with the means to change the behavior of vehicle suspension in real time to directly control the motion of the car.
1518:
have devised a simpler system design based on single-acting cylinders. After some projects on competition, Creuat is active in providing retrofit systems for some vehicle models.
332:
was later refined and made to work years later. Springs were not only made of metal; a sturdy tree branch could be used as a spring, such as with a bow. Horse-drawn carriages and
727:
2031:
to reduce ground loading on poor surfaces. Some wheels are too big and too confined to turn, so skid steering is used with some wheeled, as well as with tracked vehicles.
2098:
other equipment. The unsprung weight and track link weight may limit speed on roads, and can affect the useful lifetime of the vehicle's track, and its other components.
2501:
1607:
in 2002. The system was changed in favour of coil springs over dampers due to cost reasons towards the end of the vehicle's life. When it was decommissioned in 2006, the
1498:
interconnections, while it has been stated, that fluidic interconnections offer greater potential and flexibility in improving both the stiffness and damping properties.
1925:)). With the addition of these suspension systems, there is a further tilting or leaning mechanism that connects the suspension system with the vehicle body (chassis).
3037:
2994:
926:
Weight transfer during cornering, acceleration, or braking is usually calculated per individual wheel, and compared with the static weights for the same wheels.
3099:
1430:, whose viscosity can be changed electromagnetically — thereby giving variable control without switching valves, which is faster and thus more effective.
3808:
1392:
If suspension is externally controlled, then it is a semi-active or active suspension — the suspension is reacting to signals from an electronic controller.
616:
to manufacture. Also, the dynamic defects of this design were suppressed by the enormous weight of U.S. passenger vehicles before the implementation of the
3803:
1689:
suspension is a third type. In this case, the motion of one wheel does affect the position of the other, but they are not rigidly attached to each other.
2727:
1148:
the different design goals between front and rear suspension, whereas suspension is usually symmetrical between the left and the right of the vehicle.
2789:
2811:
1985:
that are part of the vehicle. Although either sort helps to smooth the path and reduce ground pressure, many of the same considerations apply.
806:
in ride (also referred to as "heave"). This can be useful in creating a metric for suspension stiffness and travel requirements for a vehicle.
1465:, announced in 2009, uses linear electric motors in place of hydraulic or pneumatic actuators that have generally been used up until recently.
2399:
3013:
2970:
2941:
3382:
2114:
1757:, depending on whether or not differential is carried on the axle. Live-axle is simpler, but unsprung weight contributes to wheel bounce.
1457:
1990 as an option that added an extra 20% to the price of luxury models. Citroën has also developed several active suspension models (see
2746:
2643:
2613:
2583:
2553:
2523:
2355:
2282:
1400:
instantly compensate for body roll due to cornering. Citroën's system adds about 1% to the cost of the car versus passive steel springs.
2027:
weapons. Tracked AFVs can have as many as nine road wheels on each side. Many wheeled AFVs have six or eight large wheels. Some have a
802:
Wheel rates are usually summed and compared with the sprung mass of a vehicle to create a "ride rate" and the corresponding suspension
3498:
3299:
2481:
293:
The first workable spring-suspension required advanced metallurgical knowledge and skill, and only became possible with the advent of
2700:
1862:
independent of load. Some active and semi-active suspensions maintain ride height, and therefore the camber, independent of load. In
3092:
2430:
2259:
1910:) is not a different type or geometry of construction; moreover, it is a technology addition to the conventional suspension system.
1046:
907:
711:
585:
at the extreme rear of the transmission, which was attached to the engine. A similar method like this was used in the late 1930s by
505:
142:
3508:
1747:, even on expensive models. It had the advantages of simplicity and low unsprung weight (compared to other solid-axle designs).
1020:
881:
685:
612:
to the frame. Although scorned by many
European car makers of the time, it was accepted by American car makers, because it was
479:
76:
3063:
359:
re-introduced leather strap suspension, which gave a swinging motion instead of the jolting up-and-down of spring suspension.
3455:
1220:
are the most compact arrangement for front-engined vehicles, where space between the wheels is required to place the engine.
1024:
885:
689:
617:
483:
123:
80:
277:
31:
2071:
was a variation which used a combination of bell crank and exterior coil springs, in use from the 1930s to the 1990s. The
95:
3533:
2028:
1679:
allows wheels to rise and fall on their own without affecting the opposite wheel. Suspensions with other devices, such as
1275:
systems, which can be treated as an integrated unit of gas spring and damping components, used by the French manufacturer
791:
Wheel rate is the effective spring rate when measured at the wheel, as opposed to simply measuring the spring rate alone.
774:
for that vehicle's weight. This allows the vehicle to perform properly under a heavy load, when control is limited by the
429:
1591:, but is self-contained, and does not require an engine-driven pump to provide hydraulic pressure. The downside is, that
229:. The suspension also protects the vehicle itself and any cargo or luggage from damage and wear. The design of front and
3140:
3085:
1826:
1240:
635:. Its use around 1900 was probably due to the poor quality of tires, which wore out quickly. By removing a good deal of
251:
American carriage showcasing thoroughbrace suspension—note the black straps running across the side of the undercarriage
1650:
This diagram is not exhaustive; notably, it excludes elements, such as trailing arm links, and those that are flexible.
3813:
3608:
2141:
1426:
Toyota introduced switchable shock absorbers in the 1983 Soarer. Delphi currently sells shock absorbers filled with a
102:
38:
1303:
Traditional springs and dampers are referred to as passive suspensions — most vehicles are suspended in this manner.
1205:
These are usually small, except that the suspension is related to whether the brakes and differential(s) are sprung.
1873:
Semi-trailing arm is in between, being a variable compromise between the geometries of swinging arm and swing axle.
3445:
3294:
3276:
2214:
1922:
1886:
1815:
1739:
A single transverse leaf spring for both front wheels and/or both back wheels, supporting solid axles, was used by
1690:
1481:
1223:
Inboard brakes (which reduce unsprung weight) are probably avoided more due to space considerations than to cost.
3818:
3744:
3633:
3573:
3538:
3328:
2204:
2046:
suspensions adopted from agricultural, automotive, or railway machinery, but even these had very limited travel.
2012:
1584:
1540:
1521:
Historically, the first mass-production car with front-to-rear mechanical interconnected suspension was the 1948
1502:
1501:
Considering the considerable commercial potentials of hydro-pneumatic technology (Corolla, 1996), interconnected
1408:
1358:
1288:
1185:
738:
1159:
For inboard brakes, the same procedure is followed, but using the wheel center instead of contact patch center.
297:. Obadiah Elliott registered the first patent for a spring-suspension vehicle; each wheel had two durable steel
109:
3523:
3375:
3180:
3155:
2385:
1507:
1375:
1009:
870:
766:
674:
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468:
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of wheel suspension using a geared flywheel, but without adding significant mass. It was initially employed in
1127:
package can be found by following imaginary lines drawn through suspension links to their intersection point.
2049:
Speeds increased due to more powerful engines, and the quality of ride had to be improved. In the 1930s, the
3493:
3465:
1028:
1013:
889:
874:
693:
678:
487:
472:
69:
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2038:
had fixed suspension with no designed movement whatsoever. This unsatisfactory situation was improved with
179:
91:
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3473:
3286:
2226:
2091:
1978:
1782:
1675:
1474:
1329:
1216:
Designs differ as to how much space they take up, and where it is located. It is generally accepted, that
543:
532:
415:
404:
356:
45:
3323:
3135:
2833:
2124:
1821:
643:
627:, which is sometimes called "semi-independent". Like true independent rear suspension, this employs two
352:
336:
used this system, and it is still used today in larger vehicles, mainly mounted in the rear suspension.
294:
269:
By the middle of the 19th century, elliptical springs might additionally start to be used on carriages.
362:
301:
on each side and the body of the carriage was fixed directly to the springs which were attached to the
3578:
3513:
3165:
2157:
2068:
206:
1626:
3603:
3583:
3368:
3306:
3120:
2174:
2050:
1769:
1733:
Fully elliptical springs usually need supplementary location links, and are no longer in common use
1470:
780:
218:
3768:
2249:
2217:— also known as "unequal length A arm", one of the design parameters of double wishbone suspension
2057:
inside a vehicle's armored hull, by changing the direction of force deforming the spring, using a
3749:
3654:
3031:
2988:
2169:
1740:
1346:
838:
389:
542:, rear suspension has many constraints, and the development of the superior, but more expensive
2083:
vehicles was similar to the
Hortsmann type, with suspension sequestered within the track oval.
3543:
3430:
3412:
3343:
3019:
3009:
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2947:
2937:
2651:
2621:
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2426:
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2255:
1965:
1716:
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1434:
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521:
371:
263:
262:
By approximately 1750, leaf springs began appearing on certain types of carriage, such as the
217:
and allows relative motion between the two. Suspension systems must support both road holding/
3618:
3425:
3311:
3190:
2318:
2119:
1982:
1930:
1914:
1801:
1774:
1462:
1245:
1217:
1073:
590:
536:
433:
309:
were equipped with springs; wooden springs in the case of light one-horse vehicles to avoid
116:
3638:
3568:
3205:
3195:
3072:
2200:
1570:
1265:
1231:
The suspension attachment must match the frame design in geometry, strength and rigidity.
921:
636:
628:
601:
230:
198:
2936:. Geoffrey Howard, John P. Whitehead (4th ed.). Warrendale, Pa.: SAE International.
1753:
In a front-engine rear-drive vehicle, dependent rear suspension is either "live-axle" or
2336:
2160:- independent suspension combined with a transverse fiber reinforced plastic leaf spring
155:
3739:
3553:
3548:
3439:
3435:
3229:
3224:
3125:
1840:
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1404:
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1172:
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400:
393:
379:
202:
1188:
counteracts this by inflating cylinders in the suspension to lift the chassis higher.
366:
Henri
Fournier on his uniquely damped and racewinning 'Mors Machine', photo taken 1902
339:
Leaf springs were the first modern suspension system, and, along with advances in the
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3185:
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a vehicle with zero sprung weight. They are then put through the same dynamic loads.
735:
632:
411:
348:
343:, heralded the single greatest improvement in road transport until the advent of the
242:
3051:
2874:
2771:
2101:
Most German WWII half-tracks and their tanks introduced during the war, such as the
1671:
suspensions are also in this category, as they rigidly connect the wheels together.
3691:
3628:
3598:
3593:
3338:
3260:
3058:
2209:
2179:
2146:
2102:
2087:
1950:
1744:
1668:
1604:
1588:
1561:, and used rubber cones as the springing medium (these were first used on the 1959
1558:
1526:
1115:
1101:
1066:
647:
642:
Rear-wheel drive vehicles today frequently use a fairly complex fully-independent,
624:
333:
325:
314:
282:
222:
324:. Ancient military engineers used leaf springs in the form of bows to power their
2901:"Leaning vehicle with tilting front wheels and suspension therefor US 8317207 B2"
1981:
fixed to the ground; and some, such as tractors, snow vehicles, and tanks run on
17:
3772:
3696:
3669:
3664:
3528:
3518:
3478:
3219:
3214:
3145:
2728:"The Bose 'Magic Carpet' Car Suspension System Is Finally Headed For Production"
2186:
2054:
2043:
2039:
2035:
1913:
This kind of suspension system mainly consists of independent suspension (e.g.,
1844:
1754:
1727:
1711:
1575:
1545:
1511:
1444:
1416:
1334:
1323:
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998:
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can sometimes have spring rate requirements other than vehicle weight and load.
751:
663:
613:
574:
562:
457:
441:
385:
298:
159:
Part of car suspension system consists of shock absorber, axle, frame and spring
58:
1311:
3754:
3716:
3558:
3391:
3333:
3023:
2980:
2951:
2900:
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2080:
2058:
1863:
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dependent front suspension has become limited to heavier commercial vehicles.
1458:
1440:
1362:
1276:
1268:
to absorb impacts and dampers (or shock absorbers) to control spring motions.
582:
578:
554:
539:
524:
414:, and became more common in mass market cars from 1932. Today, most cars have
344:
183:
172:
1319:
The majority of land vehicles are suspended by steel springs of these types:
597:
in 1948, which used helical springs that could not take fore-and-aft thrust.
3711:
3701:
3623:
3588:
3255:
3175:
3130:
2851:
2220:
2163:
2020:
1663:
1659:
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803:
605:
528:
422:
396:
made by the Brush Motor
Company. Today, coil springs are used in most cars.
321:
3003:
2960:
2931:
765:
of a spring is the change in the force it exerts, divided by the change in
3503:
3160:
2196:
2152:
2129:
2024:
1998:
1852:
1836:
1680:
1595:
is, unlike the Citroën system, not height-adjustable, or self-levelling.
1427:
1420:
1284:
329:
310:
306:
168:
2790:"After 30 years, Bose-developed suspension tech will go into production"
1573:. This system, manufactured under licence by Dunlop in Coventry, called
1543:
was also an early adopter of interconnected suspension. A system dubbed
1615:
1443:
developed several prototypes from 1982 onwards, and introduced them to
968:
775:
570:
558:
437:
340:
210:
163:
3077:
3674:
3488:
2076:
1848:
1537:
at the front with telescopic dampers/shock absorbers front and rear.
1450:
609:
1683:
that link the wheels in some way, are still classed as independent.
1993:
1447:, where they have been fairly effective, but have now been banned.
3659:
3563:
2072:
2003:
1992:
1918:
1811:
1625:
1310:
723:
586:
375:
361:
276:
246:
214:
194:
178:
162:
154:
2747:"Bose's Revolutionary Adaptive Suspension Gets a Reboot for 2019"
2448:"2022 Rivian R1T First Drive Review: Electric Off-Road Dominance"
2317:. Wilkesbarre, Pennsylvania: Sheldon Axle Company. 1912. p.
313:, and steel springs in larger vehicles. These were often made of
3681:
3170:
2314:
Leaf
Springs: Their Characteristics and Methods of Specification
2062:
2016:
1562:
1292:
846:, but can also be changed through the use of different springs.
816:
639:, as independent rear suspensions do, it made them last longer.
302:
226:
3364:
3081:
1603:, and was used on several models; the last car to use it being
3402:
2001:
tank's suspension has road wheels mounted on wheel trucks, or
1506:
had some success with various passive or semi-active systems (
992:
853:
657:
451:
421:
The part on which pre-1950 springs were supported is called a
52:
3360:
2701:"Bose Sells Off Its Revolutionary Electromagnetic Suspension"
1787:
The variety of independent systems is greater, and includes:
2837:
2065:'s suspension was directly descended from Christie designs.
347:. The British steel springs were not well-suited for use on
1885:
The most common type of semi-independent suspension is the
646:
to locate the rear wheels securely, while providing decent
328:, with little success at first. The use of leaf springs in
256:
3005:
Car suspension : repair, maintenance and modification
317:
and usually took the form of multiple layer leaf springs.
1866:, optimal camber change when turning, is more important.
577:
and two narrow rods. The torque tube surrounded the true
2166:— a Greek all-terrain supercar, with a unique suspension
1515:
527:, rear suspension has few constraints, and a variety of
2498:"BMW Technology Guide : Self-levelling suspension"
448:
Difference between rear suspension and front suspension
410:
In 1922, independent front suspension was pioneered on
171:
mechanism: tie rod, steering arm, king pin axis (using
1295:. A number of different types of each have been used:
1167:
Flexibility and vibration modes of suspension elements
444:
in secrecy, but has since spread to wider motorsport.
1553:, and went on to be used on a variety of BMC models.
1092:
the resistance to fluid flow in the shock absorber.
3732:
3647:
3464:
3411:
3285:
3269:
3248:
3238:
3204:
3113:
83:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2341:. London, United Kingdom: Charles Knight & Co.
1378:bounces up and down on the springiness of a tire.
1403:Semi-active suspensions include devices, such as
436:. This has the ability to increase the effective
428:In 2002, a new passive suspension component, the
1618:models also featured interconnected suspension.
1326:– AKA Hotchkiss, Cart, or semi-elliptical spring
1201:Contribution to unsprung weight and total weight
2223:— a part to make a suspension setup more rigid.
1730:used for location (transverse or longitudinal)
2644:"Suspension Basics 9 - Hydropneumatic Springs"
2425:. London: Tata McGraw-Hill. pp. 293–294.
2075:, but nonetheless independent, suspensions of
1489:weight, reliability, and/or other challenges.
1469:introduced an active suspension system called
1171:In some modern cars, flexibility is mainly in
320:Leaf springs have been around since the early
3376:
3093:
2915:Encyclopedia of German Tanks of World War Two
2472:Milliken, William; Milliken, Douglas (1994).
8:
2962:Automotive suspension & steering systems
2524:"Suspension Basics 4 - Torsion Bar Springs"
1977:Some vehicles, such as trains, run on long
1453:introduced low-bandwidth active suspension
1027:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
888:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
692:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
486:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
3383:
3369:
3361:
3245:
3100:
3086:
3078:
3036:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2993:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2810:. Amt.nl. 19 November 2008. Archived from
2402:. chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. 30 June 1901
1941:) which increases the speed at cornering.
1611:manufacturing line was over 40 years old.
1264:Most conventional suspensions use passive
3066:The ABCs of Chassis Frame and Suspensions
2251:Vehicle Dynamics: Theory and Applications
1937:Some trains also use tilting suspension (
1630:Common types seen from behind; in order:
1357:Gas and hydraulic fluid under pressure -
1047:Learn how and when to remove this message
985:, the more jacking force is experienced.
908:Learn how and when to remove this message
712:Learn how and when to remove this message
506:Learn how and when to remove this message
143:Learn how and when to remove this message
2053:was developed, which allowed the use of
1963:This kind of suspension was used in the
1768:
1407:and switchable shock absorbers, various
44:For broader coverage of this topic, see
2476:. SAE International. pp. 617–620.
2237:
1704:Examples of location linkages include:
3029:
2986:
2584:"Suspension Basics 6 - Rubber Springs"
2283:"Suspension Basics 1 - Why We Need It"
305:. Within a decade, most British horse
2446:Moloughney, Tom (28 September 2021).
2350:
2348:
2203:- conceptually similar to automobile
1662:(a simple 'cart' axle) or a (driven)
1557:was developed by suspension engineer
1100:See dependent and independent below.
822:By 2021, some vehicles were offering
281:The front suspension components of a
7:
2913:Peter Chamberlain and Hilary Doyle,
2836:. Australia: Kinetic. Archived from
2554:"Suspension Basics 5 - Coil Springs"
2356:"Suspension Basics 3 - Leaf Springs"
2138:– a test rig for high-speed vehicles
2115:Automotive suspension design process
1989:Armoured fighting vehicle suspension
1411:solutions, as well as systems, like
1287:and rubber cone systems used by the
1025:adding citations to reliable sources
886:adding citations to reliable sources
690:adding citations to reliable sources
484:adding citations to reliable sources
81:adding citations to reliable sources
3809:Armoured fighting vehicle equipment
3052:Tie Rods Part of Suspension Systems
2614:"Suspension Basics 8 - Air Springs"
1197:mainly in the vertical direction.)
1192:Isolation from high frequency shock
351:'s rough roads of the time, so the
3804:Automotive suspension technologies
3499:Continuously variable transmission
2421:Jain, K.K.; Asthana, R.B. (2002).
1773:Rear independent suspension on an
1382:Semi-active and active suspensions
741:- maximum to minimum demonstration
25:
2699:Howard, Bill (15 November 2017).
2674:"Technical Development | Chassis"
1315:Pneumatic spring on a semitrailer
167:Part of car front suspension and
3778:
3777:
3767:
997:
858:
662:
565:to restrain this force, for his
456:
378:first fitted an automobile with
57:
2873:Harris, William (11 May 2005).
2834:"Kinetic Suspension Technology"
2726:Cheromcha, Kyle (22 May 2018).
2335:Adams, William Bridges (1837).
623:Another Frenchman invented the
255:An early form of suspension on
68:needs additional citations for
27:Suspension system for a vehicle
3073:Suspension Geometry Calculator
1461:). A fully active system from
618:Corporate Average Fuel Economy
1:
3534:Automated manual transmission
2029:Central Tire Inflation System
1587:system, and provides similar
1239:Certain modern vehicles have
654:Spring, wheel, and roll rates
581:and exerted the force to its
3141:Electronic Stability Control
2808:"Electromagnetic suspension"
2195:- design used in most large
2090:, the other common type was
1843:, and the early examples of
1827:Semi-trailing arm suspension
1634:Live axle with a Watt's link
1271:Some notable exceptions are
1241:height adjustable suspension
826:with ride-height adjustable
3609:Semi-automatic transmission
2965:(7th ed.). Australia.
2933:Car suspension and handling
2852:"Alex Moulton Mgf Hydragas"
2745:Chin, Chris (21 May 2018),
2388:. Encyclopaedia Britannica.
2142:Ackermann steering geometry
1877:Semi-independent suspension
1510:: three Championships; the
1482:electromagnetic suspensions
938:is said to be "geometric".
546:layout has been difficult.
233:of a car may be different.
186:RF01 Racing Car Suspension.
39:Suspension (disambiguation)
32:Driver's license suspension
3835:
3446:Internal combustion engine
2875:"How Car Suspensions Work"
2772:"How Car Suspensions Work"
2338:English Pleasure Carriages
2215:Short long arms suspension
2199:, with compressed gas and
2189:- vehicle ground clearance
2013:armoured fighting vehicles
1948:
1780:
1691:Twist-beam rear suspension
1643:Double wishbone suspension
1614:Some of the last post-war
1599:was introduced in 1973 on
1549:was introduced in 1962 on
1503:hydropneumatic suspensions
1493:Interconnected suspensions
1385:
1369:Dampers or shock absorbers
919:
749:
240:
43:
36:
29:
3763:
3745:Hybrid vehicle drivetrain
3634:Transmission control unit
3574:Limited-slip differential
3539:Electrorheological clutch
3398:
2474:Race Car Vehicle Dynamics
2205:Hydropneumatic suspension
2149:– self centering steering
1908:Leaning Suspension System
1904:Tilting Suspension System
1898:Tilting Suspension System
1541:British Motor Corporation
1428:magneto-rheological fluid
1359:hydropneumatic suspension
1289:British Motor Corporation
1186:Self-levelling suspension
739:Hydropneumatic suspension
608:. These springs transmit
3524:Dual-clutch transmission
3059:How Car Suspensions Work
3002:Spender, Julian (2019).
1743:, before and soon after
1143:Anti-dive and anti-squat
942:Unsprung weight transfer
407:in a suspension system.
30:Not to be confused with
3494:Constant-velocity joint
2959:Schnubel, Mark (2020).
2930:Bastow, Donald (2004).
2254:. Spring. p. 455.
1765:Independent suspensions
1473:in its top-of-the-line
533:independent suspensions
3474:Automatic transmission
2423:Automobile Engineering
2400:"The Washington Times"
2092:torsion bar suspension
2034:The earliest tanks of
2008:
1945:Rocker bogie mechanism
1783:Independent suspension
1778:
1676:Independent suspension
1651:
1475:Mercedes-Benz CL-Class
1330:Torsion bar suspension
1316:
1291:, most notably on the
955:Sprung weight transfer
834:Roll couple percentage
830:and adaptive dampers.
742:
544:independent suspension
416:independent suspension
367:
357:Concord, New Hampshire
286:
252:
187:
176:
160:
46:Suspension (mechanics)
2500:. BMW. Archived from
2125:Multi-link suspension
1996:
1822:Multi-link suspension
1772:
1697:Dependent suspensions
1629:
1351:Gas under pressure -
1314:
1235:Air resistance (drag)
750:Further information:
734:
644:multi-link suspension
365:
353:Abbot-Downing Company
341:construction of roads
280:
250:
182:
166:
158:
3579:Locking differential
3514:Direct-shift gearbox
2386:"wagon and carriage"
2158:Corvette leaf spring
2069:Horstmann suspension
1656:dependent suspension
1569:for BMC's successor
1021:improve this section
882:improve this section
824:dynamic roll control
781:Performance vehicles
686:improve this section
569:was attached to the
480:improve this section
418:on all four wheels.
388:first appeared on a
77:improve this article
37:For other uses, see
3604:Preselector gearbox
3584:Manual transmission
3108:Automotive handling
2594:on 28 November 2014
2175:Magnetic levitation
2051:Christie suspension
1906:(also known as the
1847:, and the backs of
1533:. Later models had
1471:Active Body Control
1299:Passive suspensions
1260:Springs and dampers
3814:Vehicle technology
3750:Electric generator
3655:Wheel hub assembly
3064:Robert W. Temple,
2678:75 Years of TOYOTA
2654:on 29 January 2015
2624:on 29 January 2015
2293:on 29 January 2015
2170:List of auto parts
2015:(AFVs), including
2009:
1779:
1741:Ford Motor Company
1693:is such a system.
1652:
1535:tuned mass dampers
1531:tuned mass dampers
1317:
1227:Force distribution
1109:Roll center height
770:more significant.
743:
432:, was invented by
390:production vehicle
368:
287:
253:
188:
177:
161:
3791:
3790:
3544:Epicyclic gearing
3413:Automotive engine
3358:
3357:
3354:
3353:
3347:
3344:Semi-trailing arm
3320:
3303:
3015:978-1-78500-661-6
2972:978-1-337-56733-6
2943:978-1-4686-0339-2
2840:on 11 April 2009.
2814:on 4 January 2010
1983:continuous tracks
1435:active suspension
1388:Active suspension
1218:MacPherson struts
1074:off-road vehicles
1057:
1056:
1049:
918:
917:
910:
804:natural frequency
732:
722:
721:
714:
620:(CAFE) standard.
522:front-wheel drive
516:
515:
508:
295:industrialisation
273:Modern suspension
193:is the system of
153:
152:
145:
127:
18:Suspension system
16:(Redirected from
3826:
3819:Vehicle dynamics
3781:
3780:
3771:
3648:Wheels and tires
3619:Torque converter
3385:
3378:
3371:
3362:
3341:
3314:
3312:MacPherson strut
3297:
3270:Semi-independent
3246:
3191:Vehicle dynamics
3102:
3095:
3088:
3079:
3068:, September 1969
3041:
3035:
3027:
2998:
2992:
2984:
2955:
2918:
2911:
2905:
2904:
2897:
2891:
2890:
2888:
2886:
2870:
2864:
2863:
2861:
2859:
2848:
2842:
2841:
2830:
2824:
2823:
2821:
2819:
2804:
2798:
2797:
2786:
2780:
2779:
2768:
2762:
2761:
2760:
2758:
2742:
2736:
2735:
2723:
2717:
2716:
2714:
2712:
2696:
2690:
2689:
2687:
2685:
2670:
2664:
2663:
2661:
2659:
2650:. Archived from
2640:
2634:
2633:
2631:
2629:
2620:. Archived from
2610:
2604:
2603:
2601:
2599:
2590:. Archived from
2580:
2574:
2573:
2571:
2569:
2560:. Archived from
2550:
2544:
2543:
2541:
2539:
2530:. Archived from
2520:
2514:
2513:
2511:
2509:
2494:
2488:
2487:
2469:
2463:
2462:
2460:
2458:
2443:
2437:
2436:
2418:
2412:
2411:
2409:
2407:
2396:
2390:
2389:
2382:
2376:
2375:
2373:
2371:
2362:. Archived from
2352:
2343:
2342:
2332:
2326:
2325:
2309:
2303:
2302:
2300:
2298:
2289:. Archived from
2279:
2273:
2272:
2270:
2268:
2242:
2227:Other suspension
2120:MacPherson strut
1973:Tracked vehicles
1915:MacPherson strut
1810:Upper and lower
1802:MacPherson strut
1463:Bose Corporation
1246:aerodynamic drag
1135:center as well.
1052:
1045:
1041:
1038:
1032:
1001:
993:
989:Other properties
913:
906:
902:
899:
893:
862:
854:
733:
717:
710:
706:
703:
697:
666:
658:
629:universal joints
537:rear-wheel drive
511:
504:
500:
497:
491:
460:
452:
434:Malcolm C. Smith
315:low-carbon steel
209:that connects a
148:
141:
137:
134:
128:
126:
92:"Car suspension"
85:
61:
53:
21:
3834:
3833:
3829:
3828:
3827:
3825:
3824:
3823:
3794:
3793:
3792:
3787:
3759:
3728:
3643:
3639:Universal joint
3569:Hotchkiss drive
3460:
3407:
3394:
3389:
3359:
3350:
3295:Double wishbone
3281:
3265:
3234:
3200:
3196:Weight transfer
3109:
3106:
3048:
3028:
3016:
3001:
2985:
2973:
2958:
2944:
2929:
2926:
2924:Further reading
2921:
2912:
2908:
2899:
2898:
2894:
2884:
2882:
2881:. United States
2872:
2871:
2867:
2857:
2855:
2850:
2849:
2845:
2832:
2831:
2827:
2817:
2815:
2806:
2805:
2801:
2794:Motor Authority
2788:
2787:
2783:
2770:
2769:
2765:
2756:
2754:
2744:
2743:
2739:
2725:
2724:
2720:
2710:
2708:
2698:
2697:
2693:
2683:
2681:
2672:
2671:
2667:
2657:
2655:
2642:
2641:
2637:
2627:
2625:
2612:
2611:
2607:
2597:
2595:
2582:
2581:
2577:
2567:
2565:
2552:
2551:
2547:
2537:
2535:
2522:
2521:
2517:
2507:
2505:
2496:
2495:
2491:
2484:
2471:
2470:
2466:
2456:
2454:
2445:
2444:
2440:
2433:
2420:
2419:
2415:
2405:
2403:
2398:
2397:
2393:
2384:
2383:
2379:
2369:
2367:
2354:
2353:
2346:
2334:
2333:
2329:
2311:
2310:
2306:
2296:
2294:
2281:
2280:
2276:
2266:
2264:
2262:
2244:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2201:hydraulic fluid
2111:
1991:
1975:
1953:
1947:
1931:super-elevation
1923:double wishbone
1900:
1895:
1893:Other instances
1879:
1816:double wishbone
1785:
1767:
1724:Mumford linkage
1699:
1658:normally has a
1649:
1624:
1571:British Leyland
1495:
1390:
1384:
1371:
1309:
1301:
1262:
1254:
1237:
1229:
1214:
1203:
1194:
1181:
1173:rubber bushings
1169:
1145:
1124:
1111:
1098:
1082:
1062:
1053:
1042:
1036:
1033:
1018:
1002:
991:
978:
957:
944:
924:
922:Weight transfer
914:
903:
897:
894:
879:
863:
852:
850:Weight transfer
836:
812:
789:
763:spring constant
754:
748:
724:
718:
707:
701:
698:
683:
667:
656:
637:unsprung weight
602:Hotchkiss drive
552:
512:
501:
495:
492:
477:
461:
450:
392:in 1906 in the
380:shock absorbers
275:
245:
239:
231:rear suspension
203:shock absorbers
149:
138:
132:
129:
86:
84:
74:
62:
49:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3832:
3830:
3822:
3821:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3796:
3795:
3789:
3788:
3786:
3785:
3775:
3764:
3761:
3760:
3758:
3757:
3752:
3747:
3742:
3740:Electric motor
3736:
3734:
3730:
3729:
3727:
3726:
3725:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3689:
3679:
3678:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3657:
3651:
3649:
3645:
3644:
3642:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3554:Friction drive
3551:
3549:Fluid coupling
3546:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3481:
3476:
3470:
3468:
3462:
3461:
3459:
3458:
3453:
3448:
3443:
3440:Plug-in hybrid
3433:
3428:
3423:
3417:
3415:
3409:
3408:
3399:
3396:
3395:
3390:
3388:
3387:
3380:
3373:
3365:
3356:
3355:
3352:
3351:
3349:
3348:
3336:
3331:
3329:Sliding pillar
3326:
3321:
3309:
3304:
3291:
3289:
3283:
3282:
3280:
3279:
3273:
3271:
3267:
3266:
3264:
3263:
3258:
3252:
3250:
3243:
3236:
3235:
3233:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3211:
3209:
3202:
3201:
3199:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3168:
3163:
3158:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3126:Center of mass
3123:
3117:
3115:
3111:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3104:
3097:
3090:
3082:
3076:
3075:
3070:
3061:
3055:
3054:
3047:
3046:External links
3044:
3043:
3042:
3014:
3008:. Wiltshire .
2999:
2971:
2956:
2942:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2919:
2906:
2892:
2865:
2843:
2825:
2799:
2796:. 15 May 2018.
2781:
2778:. 11 May 2005.
2763:
2751:Digital Trends
2737:
2718:
2691:
2680:. Toyota. 2012
2665:
2635:
2605:
2575:
2545:
2534:on 10 May 2010
2515:
2504:on 16 May 2018
2489:
2483:978-1560915263
2482:
2464:
2438:
2431:
2413:
2391:
2377:
2344:
2327:
2304:
2274:
2260:
2246:Jazar, Reza N.
2236:
2234:
2231:
2230:
2229:
2224:
2218:
2212:
2207:
2190:
2184:
2183:
2182:
2172:
2167:
2161:
2155:
2150:
2144:
2139:
2133:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2110:
2107:
1990:
1987:
1974:
1971:
1949:Main article:
1946:
1943:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1878:
1875:
1859:
1858:
1857:
1856:
1841:Panhard Dyna Z
1829:
1824:
1819:
1808:
1799:
1797:Sliding pillar
1794:
1781:Main article:
1766:
1763:
1751:
1750:
1749:
1748:
1737:
1734:
1725:
1722:
1719:
1717:Watt's linkage
1714:
1709:
1698:
1695:
1687:Semi-dependent
1648:
1647:
1644:
1641:
1638:
1637:Sliding pillar
1635:
1631:
1623:
1620:
1601:Austin Allegro
1585:hydropneumatic
1494:
1491:
1413:hydropneumatic
1409:self-levelling
1386:Main article:
1383:
1380:
1370:
1367:
1366:
1365:
1355:
1349:
1338:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1308:
1305:
1300:
1297:
1273:hydropneumatic
1261:
1258:
1253:
1250:
1236:
1233:
1228:
1225:
1213:
1212:Space occupied
1210:
1202:
1199:
1193:
1190:
1180:
1179:Load levelling
1177:
1168:
1165:
1144:
1141:
1123:
1122:Instant center
1120:
1110:
1107:
1097:
1096:Camber control
1094:
1081:
1078:
1061:
1058:
1055:
1054:
1005:
1003:
996:
990:
987:
977:
976:Jacking forces
974:
956:
953:
943:
940:
920:Main article:
916:
915:
866:
864:
857:
851:
848:
844:anti-roll bars
835:
832:
828:air suspension
811:
808:
788:
785:
747:
744:
720:
719:
670:
668:
661:
655:
652:
551:
548:
535:are used. For
514:
513:
464:
462:
455:
449:
446:
401:Leyland Motors
394:Brush Runabout
274:
271:
238:
235:
151:
150:
65:
63:
56:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3831:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3801:
3799:
3784:
3776:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3765:
3762:
3756:
3753:
3751:
3748:
3746:
3743:
3741:
3738:
3737:
3735:
3731:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3684:
3683:
3680:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3662:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3652:
3650:
3646:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3614:Shift-by-wire
3612:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3471:
3469:
3467:
3463:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3451:Petrol engine
3449:
3447:
3444:
3441:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3421:Diesel engine
3419:
3418:
3416:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3404:
3397:
3393:
3386:
3381:
3379:
3374:
3372:
3367:
3366:
3363:
3345:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3318:
3317:Chapman strut
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3301:
3296:
3293:
3292:
3290:
3288:
3284:
3278:
3275:
3274:
3272:
3268:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3253:
3251:
3247:
3244:
3241:
3237:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3203:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3186:Unsprung mass
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3151:Inboard brake
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3118:
3116:
3112:
3103:
3098:
3096:
3091:
3089:
3084:
3083:
3080:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3067:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3056:
3053:
3050:
3049:
3045:
3039:
3033:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3011:
3007:
3006:
3000:
2996:
2990:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2968:
2964:
2963:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2939:
2935:
2934:
2928:
2927:
2923:
2916:
2910:
2907:
2902:
2896:
2893:
2880:
2879:HowStuffWorks
2876:
2869:
2866:
2853:
2847:
2844:
2839:
2835:
2829:
2826:
2813:
2809:
2803:
2800:
2795:
2791:
2785:
2782:
2777:
2776:HowStuffWorks
2773:
2767:
2764:
2752:
2748:
2741:
2738:
2733:
2729:
2722:
2719:
2706:
2702:
2695:
2692:
2679:
2675:
2669:
2666:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2639:
2636:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2609:
2606:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2579:
2576:
2564:on 1 May 2012
2563:
2559:
2555:
2549:
2546:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2519:
2516:
2503:
2499:
2493:
2490:
2485:
2479:
2475:
2468:
2465:
2453:
2449:
2442:
2439:
2434:
2432:0-07-044529-X
2428:
2424:
2417:
2414:
2401:
2395:
2392:
2387:
2381:
2378:
2366:on 8 May 2010
2365:
2361:
2357:
2351:
2349:
2345:
2340:
2339:
2331:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2315:
2308:
2305:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2278:
2275:
2263:
2261:9780387742434
2257:
2253:
2252:
2247:
2241:
2238:
2232:
2228:
2225:
2222:
2219:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2191:
2188:
2185:
2181:
2178:
2177:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2165:
2162:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2137:
2136:7 post shaker
2134:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2112:
2108:
2106:
2104:
2099:
2095:
2093:
2089:
2084:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2047:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2032:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2006:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1988:
1986:
1984:
1980:
1972:
1970:
1968:
1967:
1961:
1958:
1952:
1944:
1942:
1940:
1939:Tilting Train
1935:
1932:
1926:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1911:
1909:
1905:
1897:
1892:
1890:
1888:
1883:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1867:
1865:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1833:
1832:
1831:Swinging arm
1830:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1807:
1806:Chapman strut
1803:
1800:
1798:
1795:
1793:
1790:
1789:
1788:
1784:
1776:
1771:
1764:
1762:
1758:
1756:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1735:
1732:
1731:
1729:
1726:
1723:
1720:
1718:
1715:
1713:
1710:
1708:Satchell link
1707:
1706:
1705:
1702:
1696:
1694:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1682:
1678:
1677:
1672:
1670:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1645:
1642:
1639:
1636:
1633:
1632:
1628:
1621:
1619:
1617:
1612:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1577:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1547:
1542:
1538:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1519:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1492:
1490:
1486:
1483:
1478:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1436:
1431:
1429:
1424:
1423:suspensions.
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1401:
1399:
1393:
1389:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1354:
1350:
1348:
1344:
1343:
1342:
1336:
1333:
1331:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1321:
1320:
1313:
1306:
1304:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1269:
1267:
1259:
1257:
1251:
1249:
1247:
1242:
1234:
1232:
1226:
1224:
1221:
1219:
1211:
1209:
1206:
1200:
1198:
1191:
1189:
1187:
1178:
1176:
1174:
1166:
1164:
1160:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1142:
1140:
1136:
1133:
1128:
1121:
1119:
1117:
1116:antiroll bars
1108:
1106:
1103:
1095:
1093:
1089:
1086:
1079:
1077:
1075:
1070:
1068:
1059:
1051:
1048:
1040:
1037:December 2016
1030:
1026:
1022:
1016:
1015:
1011:
1006:This section
1004:
1000:
995:
994:
988:
986:
984:
975:
973:
970:
964:
962:
961:sprung weight
954:
952:
948:
941:
939:
935:
931:
927:
923:
912:
909:
901:
898:December 2016
891:
887:
883:
877:
876:
872:
867:This section
865:
861:
856:
855:
849:
847:
845:
840:
833:
831:
829:
825:
820:
818:
809:
807:
805:
800:
796:
792:
786:
784:
782:
777:
771:
768:
764:
760:
753:
745:
740:
737:
716:
713:
705:
702:December 2016
695:
691:
687:
681:
680:
676:
671:This section
669:
665:
660:
659:
653:
651:
649:
645:
640:
638:
634:
633:United States
630:
626:
621:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
598:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
573:by a lateral
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
549:
547:
545:
541:
538:
534:
530:
526:
523:
518:
510:
507:
499:
489:
485:
481:
475:
474:
470:
465:This section
463:
459:
454:
453:
447:
445:
443:
439:
435:
431:
426:
424:
419:
417:
413:
412:Lancia Lambda
408:
406:
402:
397:
395:
391:
387:
383:
381:
377:
373:
364:
360:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
337:
335:
331:
327:
326:siege engines
323:
318:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
291:
284:
279:
272:
270:
267:
265:
260:
258:
249:
244:
243:Concord coach
236:
234:
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224:
220:
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208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
185:
181:
174:
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157:
147:
144:
136:
125:
122:
118:
115:
111:
108:
104:
101:
97:
94: –
93:
89:
88:Find sources:
82:
78:
72:
71:
66:This article
64:
60:
55:
54:
51:
47:
40:
33:
19:
3692:Racing slick
3629:Transfer box
3599:Park-by-wire
3594:Parking pawl
3509:Differential
3484:Direct-drive
3466:Transmission
3456:Steam engine
3401:Part of the
3400:
3339:Trailing arm
3261:De Dion tube
3239:
3121:Car handling
3065:
3004:
2961:
2932:
2917:, 1978, 1999
2914:
2909:
2895:
2883:. Retrieved
2878:
2868:
2856:. Retrieved
2846:
2838:the original
2828:
2816:. Retrieved
2812:the original
2802:
2793:
2784:
2775:
2766:
2755:, retrieved
2750:
2740:
2731:
2721:
2709:. Retrieved
2704:
2694:
2682:. Retrieved
2677:
2668:
2656:. Retrieved
2652:the original
2648:Initial Dave
2647:
2638:
2626:. Retrieved
2622:the original
2618:Initial Dave
2617:
2608:
2596:. Retrieved
2592:the original
2588:Initial Dave
2587:
2578:
2566:. Retrieved
2562:the original
2558:Initial Dave
2557:
2548:
2536:. Retrieved
2532:the original
2528:Initial Dave
2527:
2518:
2506:. Retrieved
2502:the original
2492:
2473:
2467:
2455:. Retrieved
2451:
2441:
2422:
2416:
2404:. Retrieved
2394:
2380:
2368:. Retrieved
2364:the original
2360:Initial Dave
2359:
2337:
2330:
2323:leaf spring.
2322:
2313:
2307:
2295:. Retrieved
2291:the original
2287:Initial Dave
2286:
2277:
2265:. Retrieved
2250:
2240:
2210:Scrub radius
2180:Maglev train
2147:Caster angle
2132:– a test rig
2103:Panther tank
2100:
2096:
2088:World War II
2085:
2067:
2055:coil springs
2048:
2033:
2010:
2002:
1976:
1964:
1962:
1957:rocker-bogie
1956:
1954:
1951:Rocker-bogie
1936:
1927:
1912:
1907:
1903:
1901:
1884:
1882:under load.
1880:
1872:
1868:
1860:
1786:
1759:
1752:
1745:World War II
1728:Leaf springs
1703:
1700:
1686:
1685:
1674:
1673:
1655:
1653:
1613:
1608:
1596:
1592:
1589:ride quality
1580:
1574:
1566:
1559:Alex Moulton
1554:
1544:
1539:
1527:swinging arm
1520:
1500:
1496:
1487:
1479:
1454:
1449:
1439:
1432:
1425:
1402:
1397:
1394:
1391:
1376:differential
1372:
1339:
1318:
1302:
1270:
1263:
1255:
1238:
1230:
1222:
1215:
1207:
1204:
1195:
1182:
1170:
1161:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1137:
1131:
1129:
1125:
1112:
1099:
1090:
1083:
1071:
1067:Triumph TR3B
1063:
1043:
1034:
1019:Please help
1007:
979:
965:
958:
949:
945:
936:
932:
928:
925:
904:
895:
880:Please help
868:
837:
823:
821:
813:
801:
797:
793:
790:
772:
762:
758:
755:
708:
699:
684:Please help
672:
648:ride quality
641:
625:De Dion tube
622:
599:
594:
567:differential
553:
519:
517:
502:
493:
478:Please help
466:
427:
420:
409:
405:torsion bars
398:
386:Coil springs
384:
369:
338:
334:Ford Model T
319:
299:leaf springs
292:
288:
283:Ford Model T
268:
261:
254:
223:ride quality
197:, tire air,
190:
189:
139:
130:
120:
113:
106:
99:
87:
75:Please help
70:verification
67:
50:
3670:Alloy wheel
3529:Drive wheel
3519:Drive shaft
3479:Chain drive
3287:Independent
3171:Tire / Tyre
3146:Fishtailing
3114:Main topics
2854:. Mgfcar.de
2705:ExtremeTech
2187:Ride height
2079:/Grant and
2044:coil spring
2040:leaf spring
2036:World War I
1979:rail tracks
1864:sports cars
1845:Peugeot 403
1755:deDion axle
1712:Panhard rod
1581:Hydrolastic
1567:Hydrolastic
1555:Hydrolastic
1551:Morris 1100
1546:Hydrolastic
1523:Citroën 2CV
1512:Dakar Rally
1445:Formula One
1417:hydrolastic
1405:air springs
1363:oleo struts
1353:air springs
1335:Coil spring
1324:Leaf spring
1281:hydrolastic
983:roll center
839:Roll couple
759:spring rate
752:Spring rate
746:Spring rate
614:inexpensive
595:bathtub car
575:leaf spring
563:torque tube
442:Formula One
173:ball joints
3798:Categories
3755:Alternator
3403:Automobile
3392:Powertrain
3334:Swing axle
3324:Multi-link
3300:Jaguar IRS
3277:Twist beam
3240:Suspension
3181:Understeer
3166:Suspension
3024:1137029310
2981:1084318123
2952:1269617688
2885:6 February
2757:29 January
2711:29 January
2658:29 January
2628:29 January
2598:29 January
2568:29 January
2538:29 January
2370:29 January
2297:29 January
2233:References
2193:Oleo strut
2081:M4 Sherman
2059:bell crank
2021:land mines
1887:twist beam
1792:Swing axle
1646:MacPherson
1640:Swing axle
1459:hydractive
1441:Lotus Cars
1279:; and the
787:Wheel rate
767:deflection
736:Citroën BX
583:ball joint
579:driveshaft
555:Henry Ford
529:beam axles
345:automobile
241:See also:
191:Suspension
184:Van Diemen
133:April 2010
103:newspapers
3624:Transaxle
3589:Manumatic
3559:Gearshift
3431:Fuel cell
3256:Beam axle
3249:Dependent
3225:Pneumatic
3176:Transaxle
3156:Oversteer
3131:Downforce
3032:cite book
2989:cite book
2858:16 August
2818:16 August
2732:The Drive
2457:5 October
2452:InsideEVs
2406:16 August
2221:Strut bar
2164:Korres P4
2011:Military
1966:Curiosity
1681:sway bars
1664:live axle
1477:in 1999.
1139:centers.
1132:resultant
1008:does not
869:does not
810:Roll rate
673:does not
606:live axle
467:does not
423:dumb iron
399:In 1920,
370:In 1901,
330:catapults
322:Egyptians
307:carriages
3783:Category
3722:Tubeless
3707:Run-flat
3687:Off-road
3504:Coupling
3426:Electric
3307:Dubonnet
3161:Steering
3136:Drifting
2248:(2008).
2197:aircraft
2153:Coilover
2130:4-poster
2109:See also
2025:antitank
1853:AC Aceca
1837:Fiat 500
1609:Hydragas
1597:Hydragas
1593:Hydragas
1576:Hydragas
1480:Several
1467:Mercedes
1421:hydragas
1347:bushings
1285:hydragas
496:May 2014
311:taxation
219:handling
207:linkages
169:steering
3230:Torsion
2267:24 June
2061:. The
1999:Grant I
1969:rover.
1839:, then
1721:WOBLink
1669:De Dion
1616:Packard
1345:Rubber
1307:Springs
1277:Citroën
1266:springs
1085:Damping
1080:Damping
1029:removed
1014:sources
969:G-force
890:removed
875:sources
776:inertia
694:removed
679:sources
589:and by
571:chassis
561:used a
559:Model T
550:History
488:removed
473:sources
438:inertia
430:inerter
349:America
237:History
213:to its
211:vehicle
199:springs
117:scholar
3773:Portal
3733:Hybrid
3697:Radial
3675:Hubcap
3489:Clutch
3436:Hybrid
3405:series
3206:Spring
3022:
3012:
2979:
2969:
2950:
2940:
2684:16 May
2508:16 May
2480:
2429:
2258:
2077:M3 Lee
2004:bogies
1849:AC Ace
1516:Creuat
1451:Nissan
1433:Fully
1419:, and
1184:beam.
1102:Camber
1060:Travel
610:torque
591:Hudson
264:Landau
215:wheels
119:
112:
105:
98:
90:
3717:Spare
3660:Wheel
3564:Giubo
3242:types
3208:types
2073:bogie
2017:tanks
1997:This
1919:A-arm
1812:A-arm
1622:Types
1455:circa
1072:Many
587:Buick
403:used
376:Paris
303:axles
227:tires
195:tires
124:JSTOR
110:books
3712:Snow
3702:Rain
3682:Tire
3220:Leaf
3215:Coil
3038:link
3020:OCLC
3010:ISBN
2995:link
2977:OCLC
2967:ISBN
2948:OCLC
2938:ISBN
2887:2020
2860:2012
2820:2012
2759:2020
2753:, US
2713:2020
2707:. US
2686:2018
2660:2015
2630:2015
2600:2015
2570:2015
2540:2015
2510:2018
2478:ISBN
2459:2021
2427:ISBN
2408:2012
2372:2015
2299:2015
2269:2012
2256:ISBN
2063:T-34
2023:and
1955:The
1902:The
1851:and
1777:car.
1660:beam
1605:MG F
1563:Mini
1361:and
1293:Mini
1252:Cost
1152:do.
1012:any
1010:cite
873:any
871:cite
817:axle
677:any
675:cite
600:The
540:cars
531:and
525:cars
520:For
471:any
469:cite
372:Mors
221:and
205:and
96:news
3665:Rim
2086:By
2042:or
1775:AWD
1508:WRC
1398:not
1069:.)
1023:by
884:by
761:or
688:by
593:'s
557:'s
482:by
374:of
355:of
79:by
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