Superconducting magnetic energy storage

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HTS wire made of YBCO with a superconducting transition temperature of around 90 K shows promise.Typically, the higher the superconducting transition temperature, the higher the maximum current density the superconductor can sustain before Cooper pair breakdown. A substance with a high critical temperature will generally have a higher critical current at low temperature than a superconductor with a lower critical temperature. This higher critical current will raise the energy storage quadratically, which may make SMES and other industrial applications of superconductors cost-effective.

525:(EMF). EMF is defined as electromagnetic work done on a unit charge when it has traveled one round of a conductive loop. The energy could now be seen as stored in the electric field. This process uses energy from the wire with power equal to the electric potential times the total charge divided by time. Where ℰ is the voltage or EMF. By defining the power we can calculate the work that is needed to create such an electric field. Due to energy conservation this amount of work also has to be equal to the energy stored in the field. 1469:

when the generated power is higher than the demand/Load, and release power when the load is higher than the generated power. Thereby compensating for power fluctuations. Using these systems makes it possible for conventional generating units to operate at a constant output that is more efficient and convenient. However, when the power imbalance between supply and demand lasts for a long time, the SMES may get completely discharged.

1245:(LTSC) toroidal coils for the baseline temperatures of 77 K, 20 K, and 4.2 K, increases in that order. The refrigeration requirements here is defined as electrical power to operate the refrigeration system. As the stored energy increases by a factor of 100, refrigeration cost only goes up by a factor of 20. Also, the savings in refrigeration for an HTSC system is larger (by 60% to 70%) than for an LTSC systems. 1368:, has been shown to be a small part compared to the large coil cost. The combined costs of conductors, structure and refrigerator for toroidal coils are dominated by the cost of the superconductor. The same trend is true for solenoid coils. HTSC coils cost more than LTSC coils by a factor of 2 to 4. We expect to see a cheaper cost for HTSC due to lower refrigeration requirements but this is not the case. 1259: 77: 1508:(UPS) are used to protect against power surges and shortfalls by supplying a continuous power supply. This compensation is done by switching from the failing power supply to a SMES systems that can almost instantaneously supply the necessary power to continue the operation of essential systems. The SMES based UPS are most useful in systems that need to be kept at certain critical loads. 36: 179: 1419:

7 T in this case. If the field is increased past the optimum, further volume reductions are possible with minimal increase in cost. The limit to which the field can be increased is usually not economic but physical and it relates to the impossibility of bringing the inner legs of the toroid any closer together and still leave room for the bucking cylinder.

1383:) value than LTSC wire, it will take much more wire to create the same inductance. Therefore, the cost of wire is much higher than LTSC wire. Also, as the SMES size goes up from 2 to 20 to 200 MW·h, the LTSC conductor cost also goes up about a factor of 10 at each step. The HTSC conductor cost rises a little slower but is still by far the costliest item. 1567:

Future developments in the components of SMES systems could make them more viable for other applications; specifically, superconductors with higher critical temperatures and critical current densities. These limits are the same faced in other industrial usage of superconductors. Recent development of

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is too large, protective relays prevent the reclosing of the circuit breakers. SMES systems can be used in these situations to reduce the power angle difference across the circuit breaker. Thereby allowing the reclosing of the circuit breaker. These systems allow the quick restoration of system power

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Whether HTSC or LTSC systems are more economical depends because there are other major components determining the cost of SMES: Conductor consisting of superconductor and copper stabilizer and cold support are major costs in themselves. They must be judged with the overall efficiency and cost of the

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Due to the large amount of energy stored, certain measures need to be taken to protect the coils from damage in the case of coil failure. The rapid release of energy in case of coil failure might damage surrounding systems. Some conceptual designs propose to incorporate a superconducting cable into

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is the extra generating capacity that is available by increasing the power generation of systems that are connected to the grid. This capacity reserved by the system operator for the compensation of disruptions in the power grid. Due to the fast recharge times and fast alternating current to direct

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Under steady state conditions and in the superconducting state, the coil resistance is negligible. However, the refrigerator necessary to keep the superconductor cool requires electric power and this refrigeration energy must be considered when evaluating the efficiency of SMES as an energy storage

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The energy content of current SMES systems is usually quite small. Methods to increase the energy stored in SMES often resort to large-scale storage units. As with other superconducting applications, cryogenics are a necessity. A robust mechanical structure is usually required to contain the very

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Superconducting fault current limiters (SFCL) are used to limit current under a fault in the grid. In this system a superconductor is quenched (raised in temperature) when a fault in the gridline is detected. By quenching the superconductor the resistance rises and the current is diverted to other

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The use of electric power requires a stable energy supply that delivers a constant power. This stability is dependent on the amount of power used and the amount of power created. The power usage varies throughout the day, and also varies during the seasons. SMES systems can be used to store energy

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from warmer to colder surfaces, AC losses in the conductor (during charge and discharge), and losses from the cold–to-warm power leads that connect the cold coil to the power conditioning system. Conduction and radiation losses are minimized by proper design of thermal surfaces. Lead losses can be

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This system includes the superconducting coil, a magnet and the coil protection. Here the energy is stored by disconnecting the coil from the larger system and then using electromagnetic induction from the magnet to induce a current in the superconducting coil. This coil then preserves the current

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here are two manufacturing issues around SMES. The first is the fabrication of bulk cable suitable to carry the current. The HTSC superconducting materials found to date are relatively delicate ceramics, making it difficult to use established techniques to draw extended lengths of superconducting

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An increase in peak magnetic field yields a reduction in both volume (higher energy density) and cost (reduced conductor length). Smaller volume means higher energy density and cost is reduced due to the decrease of the conductor length. There is an optimum value of the peak magnetic field, about

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To gain some insight into costs consider a breakdown by major components of both HTSC and LTSC coils corresponding to three typical stored energy levels, 2, 20 and 200 MW·h. The conductor cost dominates the three costs for all HTSC cases and is particularly important at small sizes. The principal

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There are several reasons for using superconducting magnetic energy storage instead of other energy storage methods. The most important advantage of SMES is that the time delay during charge and discharge is quite short. Power is available almost instantaneously and very high power output can be

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Electromagnetic launchers are electric projectile weapons that use a magnetic field to accelerate projectiles to a very high velocity. These launchers require high power pulse sources in order to work. These launchers can be realised by the use of the quick release capability and the high power

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Clearly, the volume of superconducting coils increases with the stored energy. Also, we can see that the LTSC torus maximum diameter is always smaller for a HTSC magnet than LTSC due to higher magnetic field operation. In the case of solenoid coils, the height or length is also smaller for HTSC

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Above a certain field strength, known as the critical field, the superconducting state is destroyed. This means that there exists a maximum charging rate for the superconducting material, given that the magnitude of the magnetic field determines the flux captured by the superconducting coil.

1495:-based wind power generators. This load disparity can be compensated by power output from SMES systems that store energy when the generation is larger than the load. SMES based load frequency control systems have the advantage of a fast response when compared to contemporary control systems. 1434:

The energy density, efficiency and the high discharge rate make SMES useful systems to incorporate into modern energy grids and green energy initiatives. The SMES system's uses can be categorized into three categories: power supply systems, control systems and emergency/contingency systems.

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in an energized coil. Among them, the strain tolerance is crucial not because of any electrical effect, but because it determines how much structural material is needed to keep the SMES from breaking. For small SMES systems, the optimistic value of 0.3% strain tolerance is selected.

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by the outer hoops and two disks, one of which is on the top and the other is on the bottom to avoid breakage. Currently, there is little need for toroidal geometry for small SMES, but as the size increases, mechanical forces become more important and the toroidal coil is needed.

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power authority in 1980. This system uses SMES systems to damp the low frequencies, which contributes to the stabilization of the power grid. In 2000, SMES based FACTS systems were introduced at key points in the northern Winston power grid to enhance the stability of the grid.

1453:. These devices are used to enhance the controllability and power transfer capability of an electric power grid. The application of SMES in FACTS devices was the first application of SMES systems. The first realization of SMES using FACTS devices were installed by the 456:, a string of distributed SMES units were deployed to enhance stability of a transmission loop. The transmission line is subject to large, sudden load changes due to the operation of a paper mill, with the potential for uncontrolled fluctuations and voltage collapse. 1609:), a SMES installation would need a loop of around 800 m. This is traditionally pictured as a circle, though in practice it could be more like a rounded rectangle. In either case it would require access to a significant amount of land to house the installation. 1386:

The structure costs of either HTSC or LTSC go up uniformly (a factor of 10) with each step from 2 to 20 to 200 MW·h. But HTSC structure cost is higher because the strain tolerance of the HTSC (ceramics cannot carry much tensile load) is less than LTSC, such as

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In general power systems look to maximize the current they are able to handle. This makes any losses due to inefficiencies in the system relatively insignificant. Unfortunately, large currents may generate magnetic fields greater than the critical field due to

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These still pose problems for superconducting applications but are improving over time. Advances have been made in the performance of superconducting materials. Furthermore, the reliability and efficiency of refrigeration systems has improved significantly.

910: 1048:(delta) are two parameters to characterize the dimensions of the coil. We can therefore write the magnetic energy stored in such a cylindrical coil as shown below. This energy is a function of coil dimensions, number of turns and carrying current. 1185:

geometry can help to lessen the external magnetic forces and therefore reduces the size of mechanical support needed. Also, due to the low external magnetic field, toroidal SMES can be located near a utility or customer load.

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It is worth noting here that the refrigerator cost in all cases is so small that there is very little percentage savings associated with reduced refrigeration demands at high temperature. This means that if a HTSC,

2345:"Development of ultra-high field superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) for use in the ARPA-E project titled "Superconducting Magnet Energy Storage System with Direct Power Electronics Interface"" 508:

The control system monitors the power demand of the grid and controls the power flow from and to the coil. The control system also manages the condition of the SMES coil by controlling the refrigerator.

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for instance, works better at a low temperature, say 20K, it will certainly be operated there. For very small SMES, the reduced refrigerator cost will have a more significant positive impact.

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wire. Much research has focused on layer deposit techniques, applying a thin film of material onto a stable substrate, but this is currently only suitable for small-scale electrical circuits.

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reason lies in the comparative current density of LTSC and HTSC materials. The critical current of HTSC wire is lower than LTSC wire generally in the operating magnetic field, about 5 to 10

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As said earlier the work has to be equal to the energy stored in the field. This entire calculation is based on a single looped wire. For wires that are looped multiple times the inductance

370:, power conditioning system and cryogenically cooled refrigerator. Once the superconducting coil is energized, the current will not decay and the magnetic energy can be stored indefinitely. 1121: 1280: 94: 49: 1577:

large Lorentz forces generated by and on the magnet coils. The dominant cost for SMES is the superconductor, followed by the cooling system and the rest of the mechanical structure.

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The Engineering Test Model is a large SMES with a capacity of approximately 20 MW·h, capable of providing 40 MW of power for 30 minutes or 10 MW of power for 2 hours.

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control in installations around the world, especially to provide power quality at manufacturing plants requiring ultra-clean power, such as microchip fabrication facilities.

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the design with as goal the absorption of energy after coil failure. The system also needs to be kept in excellent electric isolation in order to prevent loss of energy.

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solenoid approximately 100 m in diameter buried in earth. At the low extreme of size is the concept of micro-SMES solenoids, for energy storage range near 1 MJ.

385:(AC) power to direct current or convert DC back to AC power. The inverter/rectifier accounts for about 2–3% energy loss in each direction. SMES loses the least amount of 757:

is just a linearity constant called the inductance measured in Henry. Now that the power is found, all that is left to do is fill in the work equation to find the work.

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Conference: International Conference on Nanotechnology and Condensed Matter Physics 2018 (ICNCMP 2018)At: January 11–12, 2018, Civil Building, BUET –Dhaka, Bangladesh

1403:, which demands more structure materials. Thus, in the very large cases, the HTSC cost can not be offset by simply reducing the coil size at a higher magnetic field. 421:

back into electricity. Thus if demand is immediate, SMES is a viable option. Another advantage is that the loss of power is less than other storage methods because

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takes place in moderate magnetic fields around a temperature lower than this critical temperature. The heat loads that must be removed by the cooling system include

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grid lines. This is done without interrupting the larger grid. Once the fault is cleared, the SFCL temperature is lowered and becomes invisible to the larger grid.

2539:"Enhancing Low-Voltage Ride-Through Capability and Smoothing Output Power of DFIG With a Superconducting Fault-Current Limiter–Magnetic Energy Storage System" 389:

in the energy storage process compared to other methods of storing energy. SMES systems are highly efficient; the round-trip efficiency is greater than 95%.

521:, any loop of wire that generates a changing magnetic field in time, also generates an electric field. This process takes energy out of the wire through the 55: 2755: 2238:"Improving dynamic performance of wind energy conversion systems using fuzzy-based hysteresis current-controlled superconducting magnetic energy storage" 1422:

The superconductor material is a key issue for SMES. Superconductor development efforts focus on increasing Jc and strain range and on reducing the wire

1693:. This also means that the SMES takes equally long to return to operating temperature after maintenance and when restarting after operating failures. 1537:

current conversion process of SMES systems, these systems can be used as a spinning reserve when a major grid of transmission line is out of service.

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is simply defined as the ratio between the voltage and rate of change of the current. In conclusion the stored energy in the coil is equal to:

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Sheahen, T., P. (1994). Introduction to High-Temperature Superconductivity. Plenum Press, New York. pp. 66, 76–78, 425–430, 433–446.

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generated by the strong magnetic field acting on the coil, and the strong magnetic field generated by the coil on the larger structure.

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Wolsky, A., M. (2002). The status and prospects for flywheels and SMES that incorporate HTS. Physica C 372–376, pp. 1,495–1,499.

189: 20: 2280:"Application of SMES Unit to Improve DFIG Power Dispatch and Dynamic Performance During Intermittent Misfire and Fire-Through Faults" 1963: 1350: 1299: 498:

The power conditioning system typically contains a power conversion system that converts DC to AC current and the other way around.

232: 214: 160: 109: 63: 1905:"Overview of current development in electrical energy storage technologies and the application potential in power system operation" 1479:

When the load does not meet the generated power output, due to a load perturbation, this can cause the load to be larger than the

2484:"Stochastic Method for the Operation of a Power System With Wind Generators and Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storages (SMESs)" 1664:. Current materials struggle, therefore, to carry sufficient current to make a commercial storage facility economically viable. 1631: 1446: 1218: 1284: 98: 1788: 1193:

are usually used because they are easy to coil and no pre-compression is needed. In toroidal SMES, the coil is always under

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The refrigeration system maintains the superconducting state of the coil by cooling the coil to the operating temperature.

578: 518: 410: 2086:"A Set-Membership Affine Projection Algorithm-Based Adaptive-Controlled SMES Units for Wind Farms Output Power Smoothing" 1505: 1661: 1242: 645: 449: 1324: 1269: 373:

The stored energy can be released back to the network by discharging the coil. The power conditioning system uses an

134: 1054: 2795: 1173: 1288: 1273: 396:, SMES is currently used for short duration energy storage. Therefore, SMES is most commonly devoted to improving 87: 2775: 1454: 1014: 2397:"Application of a SMES to protect a sensitive load in distribution networks from two consecutive voltage sags" 2800: 2710:

Hassenzahl, W.V. (March 2001). "Superconductivity, an enabling technology for 21st century power systems?".

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https://hebergement.universite-paris-saclay.fr/supraconductivite/supra/en/applications-electricite-smes.php

929: 701: 1488: 1194: 1169: 905:{\displaystyle W=\int _{0}^{T}Pdt=\int _{0}^{I}IL{\frac {dI}{dt}}dt=\int _{0}^{I}ILdI={\frac {LI^{2}}{2}}} 2031:"The Beneficial Role of SMES Coil in DC Lines as an Energy Buffer for Integrating Large Scale Wind Power" 572:

This formula can be rewritten in the easier to measure variable of electric current by the substitution.

531: 2652:"High-temperature superconductor fault current limiters: concepts, applications, and development status" 2368: 1690: 1226: 426: 422: 374: 284: 1743: 1172:

aspect. There are three factors that affect the design and the shape of the coil – they are: Inferior

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Besides the properties of the wire, the configuration of the coil itself is an important issue from a

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until the coil is reconnected to the larger system, after which the coil partly or fully discharges.

393: 24: 1713: 1638:. This in turn would require stable support, most commonly envisioned by burying the installation. 1007: 522: 382: 2760: 2679: 2574: 2519: 2422: 2325: 2179: 2121: 2066: 1934: 1423: 1365: 363:. This use of superconducting coils to store magnetic energy was invented by M. Ferrier in 1970. 1415:

coils, but still much higher than in a toroidal geometry (due to low external magnetic field).

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minimized by good design of the leads. AC losses depend on the design of the conductor, the

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is the electric current in Ampere. The EMF ℰ is an inductance and can thus be rewritten as:

429:. Additionally the main parts in a SMES are motionless, which results in high reliability. 1634:

are found, the 800 m loop of wire would have to be contained within a vacuum flask of

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provided for a brief period of time. Other energy storage methods, such as pumped hydro or

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El-Wakil, M., M. (1984). Powerplant Technology. McGraw-Hill, pp. 685–689, 691–695.

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stability in distribution systems. SMES is also used in utility applications. In northern

418: 251: 2199:"Empowering the electric grid: Can SMES coupled to wind turbines improve grid stability?" 2723: 2554: 2499: 2295: 2159: 2101: 2046: 1177: 348: 344: 274: 2789: 2683: 2667: 2593: 1602: 1588: 442: 397: 328: 2594:"An overview of Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) and Its Applications" 2578: 2523: 2426: 2329: 2183: 2125: 2070: 1938: 1674:

Existence and continued development of adequate technologies using normal conductors

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Expensive refrigeration units and high power cost to maintain operating temperatures

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Cheung K.Y.C, Cheung S.T.H, Navin De Silvia R.G, Juvonen M.P.T, Singh R, Woo J.J.

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use and several larger test bed projects. Several 1 MW·h units are used for

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At the moment it takes four months to cool the coil from room temperature to its

2651: 2396: 1874: 1396: 1376:(T). Assume the wire costs are the same by weight. Because HTSC wire has lower ( 1258: 386: 76: 2483: 2408: 2279: 2237: 2143: 2085: 2030: 1667:

Several issues at the onset of the technology have hindered its proliferation:

2538: 2507: 2312: 2303: 2253: 2167: 2109: 2054: 1235: 356: 19:"SMES" redirects here. For the school in San Juan Capistrano, California, see 2739: 2675: 2636: 2570: 2562: 2515: 2468: 2321: 2261: 2222: 2175: 2117: 2062: 1930: 1630:

The second problem is the infrastructure required for an installation. Until

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don't spin due to a sudden lack of wind. This load perturbation can cause a

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is called form function, which is different for different shapes of coil.

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Cost Analysis of Energy Storage Systems for Electric Utility Applications

1953: 1190: 438: 367: 2612: 2445:"Superconducting magnetic energy storage for power system applications" 2444: 2731: 2628: 2460: 2360: 1903:

Luo, Xing; Wang, Jihong; Dooner, Mark; Clarke, Jonathan (2015-01-01).

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Shiddiq Yunus, A. M.; Abu-Siada, A.; Masoum, M. A. S. (August 2013).

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Due to the energy requirements of refrigeration and the high cost of

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may be in need of reorganization to comply with Knowledge (XXG)'s

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Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage: Status and Perspective.

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2010 2nd International Conference on Advanced Computer Control

2144:"An Overview of SMES Applications in Power and Energy Systems" 1867:

High Temperature Superconductors (HTS) for Energy Applications

1789:"Magnetic Energy Storage - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics" 1252: 172: 70: 29: 1995:, Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 1–16, 1820:, Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 1–16, 2592:

Zaman, Md. Abdullah; Sabbir, Ahmed; Nusrath, Monira (2018).

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A typical SMES system includes three parts: superconducting

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Shiddiq Yunus, A.M.; Abu-Siada, A.; Masoum, M.A.S. (2012).

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To achieve commercially useful levels of storage, around 5

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output of the generators. This for example can happen when

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Ali, Mohd. Hasan; Wu, Bin; Dougal, Roger A. (April 2010).

1989:"Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) Systems" 1863:"Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) systems" 1814:"Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) Systems" 1209:

Low-temperature versus high-temperature superconductors

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Lee, Jaehee; Kim, Ji-Hui; Joo, Sung-Kwan (June 2011).

1449:) devices are static devices that can be installed in 1201:

The older large SMES concepts usually featured a low

1057: 932: 766: 704: 648: 581: 534: 2537:

Guo, Wenyong; Xiao, Liye; Dai, Shaotao (June 2012).

625:{\displaystyle P=Q{\mathcal {E}}/t=I{\mathcal {E}},} 413:, have a substantial time delay associated with the 2029:Taesik Nam; Jae Woong Shim; Kyeon Hur (June 2012). 323: 315: 307: 283: 273: 250: 101:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2611:Rohlf, J. W.; Collings, Peter J. (December 1994). 1115: 963: 904: 742: 684: 624: 561: 1364:device. Other components, such as vacuum vessel 437:There are several small SMES units available for 1176:tolerance, thermal contraction upon cooling and 685:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}=L{\frac {dI}{dt}}} 448:These facilities have also been used to provide 2197:Antony, Anish P.; Shaw, David T. (April 2016). 471:Superconducting magnet and supporting structure 467:A SMES system typically consists of four parts 2712:IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity 2488:IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity 2284:IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity 2035:IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity 1116:{\displaystyle E=RN^{2}I^{2}f(\xi ,\delta )/2} 337:Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) 199:to make improvements to the overall structure. 2650:Noe, Mathias; Steurer, Michael (2007-01-15). 8: 1241:The refrigeration requirements for HTSC and 404:Advantages over other energy storage methods 245: 1778:. Imperial College London: ISE2, 2002/2003. 1287:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 64:Learn how and when to remove these messages 2756:"New Hunt for Ideal Energy Storage System" 2449:IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications 1491:problem. This problem can be amplified in 1153:) = form function, joules per ampere-meter 2311: 1920: 1739: 1737: 1735: 1733: 1731: 1729: 1518:When the power angle difference across a 1351:Learn how and when to remove this message 1300:"Superconducting magnetic energy storage" 1105: 1081: 1071: 1056: 949: 939: 931: 890: 880: 859: 854: 821: 809: 804: 782: 777: 765: 717: 703: 662: 650: 649: 647: 613: 612: 598: 592: 591: 580: 551: 545: 544: 533: 233:Learn how and when to remove this message 215:Learn how and when to remove this message 161:Learn how and when to remove this message 110:"Superconducting magnetic energy storage" 2343:Li, Qiang; Furey, Michael (2014-09-03). 1221:(HTS) have higher critical temperature, 2148:IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy 2090:IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy 1987:Yuan, Weijia; Zhang, Min (2015-07-16), 1812:Yuan, Weijia; Zhang, Min (2015-07-16), 1762:SMES webpage, Université Paris-Saclay, 1725: 1523:after major transmission line outages. 246:Superconducting magnetic energy storage 2754:Browne, Malcome W. (January 6, 1988). 2543:IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion 2395:Heydari, H.; Mohammadpour, G. (2010). 2377: 2366: 1036:are width and depth of the conductor. 244: 2656:Superconductor Science and Technology 2438: 2436: 2273: 2271: 2137: 2135: 964:{\displaystyle E={\frac {LI^{2}}{2}}} 743:{\displaystyle P=IL{\frac {dI}{dt}},} 7: 1958:(2nd ed.). New York: Springer. 1856: 1854: 1852: 1850: 1563:Future developments for SMES systems 1285:adding citations to reliable sources 1238:of the device and the power rating. 361:superconducting critical temperature 99:adding citations to reliable sources 562:{\displaystyle P=Q{\mathcal {E}}/t} 2084:Hasanien, Hany M. (October 2014). 1776:Large-Scale Energy Storage Systems 359:cooled to a temperature below its 14: 45:This article has multiple issues. 1993:Handbook of Clean Energy Systems 1818:Handbook of Clean Energy Systems 1632:room-temperature superconductors 1257: 1219:high-temperature superconductors 177: 75: 34: 2443:Hsu, C.-S.; Lee, W.-J. (1993). 1447:flexible AC transmission system 86:needs additional citations for 53:or discuss these issues on the 21:St. Margaret's Episcopal School 1922:10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.09.081 1869:, Elsevier, pp. 294–319, 1506:Uninterruptible Power Supplies 1499:Uninterruptible power supplies 1243:low-temperature superconductor 1102: 1090: 1: 2613:"Modern Physics from α to Z°" 2001:10.1002/9781118991978.hces210 1826:10.1002/9781118991978.hces210 1139:= current measured in amperes 2215:10.1016/j.renene.2015.12.015 1955:Engineering electromagnetics 1559:density of the SMES system. 1229:through the support system, 1875:10.1533/9780857095299.2.294 1133:= energy measured in joules 308:Charge/discharge efficiency 2817: 2668:10.1088/0953-2048/20/3/r01 2409:10.1109/icacc.2010.5486984 2403:. IEEE. pp. 344–347. 1010:coil with conductors of a 519:Faraday's law of induction 18: 2508:10.1109/tasc.2010.2096491 2304:10.1109/tasc.2013.2256352 2254:10.1049/iet-pel.2012.0135 2168:10.1109/tste.2010.2044901 2110:10.1109/tste.2014.2340471 2055:10.1109/tasc.2011.2175686 1552:Electromagnetic launchers 1512:Circuit breaker reclosing 1159:= number of turns of coil 990:= inductance measured in 492:Power conditioning system 2563:10.1109/tec.2012.2187654 1587:Needed because of large 695:Substitution now gives: 16:Energy storage technique 1642:Critical magnetic field 347:created by the flow of 2376:Cite journal requires 1489:load-frequency control 1473:Load frequency control 1170:mechanical engineering 1164:Solenoid versus toroid 1117: 999:= current measured in 965: 906: 744: 686: 626: 563: 279:less than 40 kJ/L 23:. For other uses, see 2242:IET Power Electronics 1952:Ida, Nathan. (2004). 1793:www.sciencedirect.com 1691:operating temperature 1118: 981:= energy measured in 966: 907: 745: 687: 627: 564: 1861:Tixador, P. (2012), 1753:Tixador, P. Jan 2008 1683:Long precooling time 1572:Technical challenges 1281:improve this section 1223:flux lattice melting 1055: 930: 764: 702: 646: 579: 532: 517:As a consequence of 482:Refrigeration system 425:encounter almost no 394:superconducting wire 95:improve this article 25:SME (disambiguation) 2781:Loyola SMES summary 2724:2001ITAS...11.1447H 2555:2012ITEnC..27..277G 2500:2011ITAS...21.2144L 2296:2013ITAS...2301712S 2160:2010ITSE....1...38A 2102:2014ITSE....5.1226H 2047:2012ITAS...2257014N 1714:Grid energy storage 864: 814: 787: 523:electromotive force 463:System architecture 383:alternating current 355:coil that has been 316:Self-discharge rate 247: 197:editing the article 2761:The New York Times 2313:20.500.11937/19832 1749:2015-12-11 at the 1581:Mechanical support 1424:manufacturing cost 1113: 961: 902: 850: 800: 773: 740: 682: 622: 559: 2796:Superconductivity 2732:10.1109/77.920045 2629:10.1063/1.2808751 2461:10.1109/28.245724 2418:978-1-4244-5845-5 2010:978-1-118-99197-8 1884:978-0-85709-012-6 1835:978-1-118-99197-8 1451:electricity grids 1361: 1360: 1353: 1335: 959: 900: 839: 735: 680: 513:Working principle 423:electric currents 419:mechanical energy 415:energy conversion 334: 333: 243: 242: 235: 225: 224: 217: 190:layout guidelines 171: 170: 163: 145: 68: 2808: 2765: 2743: 2718:(1): 1447–1453. 2688: 2687: 2647: 2641: 2640: 2608: 2602: 2601: 2589: 2583: 2582: 2534: 2528: 2527: 2494:(3): 2144–2148. 2479: 2473: 2472: 2440: 2431: 2430: 2392: 2386: 2385: 2379: 2374: 2372: 2364: 2340: 2334: 2333: 2315: 2275: 2266: 2265: 2233: 2227: 2226: 2203:Renewable Energy 2194: 2188: 2187: 2139: 2130: 2129: 2096:(4): 1226–1233. 2081: 2075: 2074: 2026: 2020: 2019: 2018: 2017: 1984: 1978: 1977: 1949: 1943: 1942: 1924: 1900: 1894: 1893: 1892: 1891: 1858: 1845: 1844: 1843: 1842: 1809: 1803: 1802: 1800: 1799: 1785: 1779: 1772: 1766: 1760: 1754: 1741: 1653:Critical current 1534:Spinning reserve 1527:Spinning reserve 1356: 1349: 1345: 1342: 1336: 1334: 1293: 1261: 1253: 1189:For small SMES, 1122: 1120: 1119: 1114: 1109: 1086: 1085: 1076: 1075: 970: 968: 967: 962: 960: 955: 954: 953: 940: 911: 909: 908: 903: 901: 896: 895: 894: 881: 863: 858: 840: 838: 830: 822: 813: 808: 786: 781: 749: 747: 746: 741: 736: 734: 726: 718: 691: 689: 688: 683: 681: 679: 671: 663: 655: 654: 631: 629: 628: 623: 618: 617: 602: 597: 596: 568: 566: 565: 560: 555: 550: 549: 324:Cycle durability 303: 301: 295: 294: 269: 258: 248: 238: 231: 220: 213: 209: 206: 200: 181: 180: 173: 166: 159: 155: 152: 146: 144: 103: 79: 71: 60: 38: 37: 30: 2816: 2815: 2811: 2810: 2809: 2807: 2806: 2805: 2786: 2785: 2772: 2753: 2750: 2748:Further reading 2709: 2697: 2692: 2691: 2649: 2648: 2644: 2610: 2609: 2605: 2591: 2590: 2586: 2536: 2535: 2531: 2481: 2480: 2476: 2442: 2441: 2434: 2419: 2394: 2393: 2389: 2375: 2365: 2353:10.2172/1209920 2342: 2341: 2337: 2277: 2276: 2269: 2235: 2234: 2230: 2196: 2195: 2191: 2141: 2140: 2133: 2083: 2082: 2078: 2028: 2027: 2023: 2015: 2013: 2011: 1986: 1985: 1981: 1966: 1951: 1950: 1946: 1902: 1901: 1897: 1889: 1887: 1885: 1860: 1859: 1848: 1840: 1838: 1836: 1811: 1810: 1806: 1797: 1795: 1787: 1786: 1782: 1773: 1769: 1761: 1757: 1751:Wayback Machine 1742: 1727: 1722: 1710: 1636:liquid nitrogen 1574: 1565: 1520:circuit breaker 1485:wind generators 1432: 1400: 1392: 1382: 1357: 1346: 1340: 1337: 1294: 1292: 1278: 1262: 1251: 1211: 1166: 1077: 1067: 1053: 1052: 945: 941: 928: 927: 886: 882: 831: 823: 762: 761: 727: 719: 700: 699: 672: 664: 644: 643: 577: 576: 530: 529: 515: 465: 435: 406: 353:superconducting 327:Unlimited 299: 297: 292: 290: 260: 259: 257:4–40 kJ/kg 256: 252:Specific energy 239: 228: 227: 226: 221: 210: 204: 201: 195:Please help by 194: 182: 178: 167: 156: 150: 147: 104: 102: 92: 80: 39: 35: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 2814: 2812: 2804: 2803: 2801:Energy storage 2798: 2788: 2787: 2784: 2783: 2778: 2771: 2770:External links 2768: 2767: 2766: 2749: 2746: 2745: 2744: 2707: 2704: 2701: 2696: 2693: 2690: 2689: 2662:(3): R15–R29. 2642: 2603: 2584: 2549:(2): 277–295. 2529: 2474: 2455:(5): 990–996. 2432: 2417: 2387: 2378:|journal= 2335: 2290:(4): 5701712. 2267: 2228: 2189: 2131: 2076: 2041:(3): 5701404. 2021: 2009: 1979: 1964: 1944: 1909:Applied Energy 1895: 1883: 1846: 1834: 1804: 1780: 1767: 1755: 1724: 1723: 1721: 1718: 1717: 1716: 1709: 1706: 1701: 1700: 1698: 1687: 1686: 1684: 1676: 1675: 1672: 1657: 1656: 1654: 1646: 1645: 1643: 1628: 1627: 1625: 1624:Infrastructure 1617: 1616: 1614: 1599: 1598: 1596: 1589:Lorentz forces 1585: 1584: 1582: 1573: 1570: 1564: 1561: 1556: 1555: 1553: 1545: 1544: 1542: 1531: 1530: 1528: 1516: 1515: 1513: 1503: 1502: 1500: 1477: 1476: 1474: 1466: 1465: 1463: 1443: 1442: 1440: 1431: 1428: 1398: 1390: 1380: 1359: 1358: 1265: 1263: 1256: 1250: 1247: 1210: 1207: 1178:Lorentz forces 1165: 1162: 1161: 1160: 1154: 1140: 1134: 1124: 1123: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1101: 1098: 1095: 1092: 1089: 1084: 1080: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1063: 1060: 1004: 1003: 994: 985: 972: 971: 958: 952: 948: 944: 938: 935: 919:increases, as 913: 912: 899: 893: 889: 885: 879: 876: 873: 870: 867: 862: 857: 853: 849: 846: 843: 837: 834: 829: 826: 820: 817: 812: 807: 803: 799: 796: 793: 790: 785: 780: 776: 772: 769: 751: 750: 739: 733: 730: 725: 722: 716: 713: 710: 707: 693: 692: 678: 675: 670: 667: 661: 658: 653: 633: 632: 621: 616: 611: 608: 605: 601: 595: 590: 587: 584: 570: 569: 558: 554: 548: 543: 540: 537: 514: 511: 506: 505: 503: 502:Control system 496: 495: 493: 486: 485: 483: 475: 474: 472: 464: 461: 434: 431: 411:compressed air 405: 402: 349:direct current 345:magnetic field 332: 331: 325: 321: 320: 317: 313: 312: 309: 305: 304: 287: 285:Specific power 281: 280: 277: 275:Energy density 271: 270: 254: 241: 240: 223: 222: 185: 183: 176: 169: 168: 83: 81: 74: 69: 43: 42: 40: 33: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2813: 2802: 2799: 2797: 2794: 2793: 2791: 2782: 2779: 2777: 2774: 2773: 2769: 2763: 2762: 2757: 2752: 2751: 2747: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2708: 2705: 2702: 2699: 2698: 2694: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2646: 2643: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2623:(12): 62–63. 2622: 2618: 2617:Physics Today 2614: 2607: 2604: 2599: 2595: 2588: 2585: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2533: 2530: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2478: 2475: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2439: 2437: 2433: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2391: 2388: 2383: 2370: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2339: 2336: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2314: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2274: 2272: 2268: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2232: 2229: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2193: 2190: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2138: 2136: 2132: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2080: 2077: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2025: 2022: 2012: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1983: 1980: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1965:0-387-20156-4 1961: 1957: 1956: 1948: 1945: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1923: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1899: 1896: 1886: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1857: 1855: 1853: 1851: 1847: 1837: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1808: 1805: 1794: 1790: 1784: 1781: 1777: 1771: 1768: 1765: 1759: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1745: 1740: 1738: 1736: 1734: 1732: 1730: 1726: 1719: 1715: 1712: 1711: 1707: 1705: 1699: 1696: 1695: 1694: 1692: 1685: 1682: 1681: 1680: 1673: 1670: 1669: 1668: 1665: 1663: 1655: 1652: 1651: 1650: 1644: 1641: 1640: 1639: 1637: 1633: 1626: 1623: 1622: 1621: 1615: 1613:Manufacturing 1612: 1611: 1610: 1608: 1604: 1597: 1594: 1593: 1592: 1590: 1583: 1580: 1579: 1578: 1571: 1569: 1562: 1560: 1554: 1551: 1550: 1549: 1543: 1540: 1539: 1538: 1535: 1529: 1526: 1525: 1524: 1521: 1514: 1511: 1510: 1509: 1507: 1501: 1498: 1497: 1496: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1475: 1472: 1471: 1470: 1464: 1462:Load leveling 1461: 1460: 1459: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1441: 1438: 1437: 1436: 1429: 1427: 1425: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1410: 1404: 1402: 1394: 1384: 1379: 1375: 1369: 1367: 1355: 1352: 1344: 1333: 1330: 1326: 1323: 1319: 1316: 1312: 1309: 1305: 1302: – 1301: 1297: 1296:Find sources: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1276: 1275: 1271: 1266:This section 1264: 1260: 1255: 1254: 1248: 1246: 1244: 1239: 1237: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1215: 1208: 1206: 1204: 1199: 1196: 1192: 1187: 1184: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1163: 1158: 1155: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1141: 1138: 1135: 1132: 1129: 1128: 1127: 1110: 1106: 1099: 1096: 1093: 1087: 1082: 1078: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1061: 1058: 1051: 1050: 1049: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1020: 1016: 1015:cross section 1013: 1009: 1002: 998: 995: 993: 989: 986: 984: 980: 977: 976: 975: 956: 950: 946: 942: 936: 933: 926: 925: 924: 922: 918: 897: 891: 887: 883: 877: 874: 871: 868: 865: 860: 855: 851: 847: 844: 841: 835: 832: 827: 824: 818: 815: 810: 805: 801: 797: 794: 791: 788: 783: 778: 774: 770: 767: 760: 759: 758: 756: 737: 731: 728: 723: 720: 714: 711: 708: 705: 698: 697: 696: 676: 673: 668: 665: 659: 656: 642: 641: 640: 638: 619: 609: 606: 603: 599: 588: 585: 582: 575: 574: 573: 556: 552: 541: 538: 535: 528: 527: 526: 524: 520: 512: 510: 504: 501: 500: 499: 494: 491: 490: 489: 484: 481: 480: 479: 473: 470: 469: 468: 462: 460: 457: 455: 451: 446: 444: 443:power quality 440: 432: 430: 428: 424: 420: 416: 412: 403: 401: 399: 398:power quality 395: 390: 388: 384: 381:to transform 380: 376: 371: 369: 364: 362: 358: 357:cryogenically 354: 350: 346: 342: 338: 330: 326: 322: 318: 314: 310: 306: 288: 286: 282: 278: 276: 272: 268: 264: 255: 253: 249: 237: 234: 219: 216: 208: 198: 192: 191: 186:This article 184: 175: 174: 165: 162: 154: 143: 140: 136: 133: 129: 126: 122: 119: 115: 112: – 111: 107: 106:Find sources: 100: 96: 90: 89: 84:This article 82: 78: 73: 72: 67: 65: 58: 57: 52: 51: 46: 41: 32: 31: 26: 22: 2759: 2715: 2711: 2695:Bibliography 2659: 2655: 2645: 2620: 2616: 2606: 2597: 2587: 2546: 2542: 2532: 2491: 2487: 2477: 2452: 2448: 2400: 2390: 2369:cite journal 2338: 2287: 2283: 2245: 2241: 2231: 2206: 2202: 2192: 2154:(1): 38–47. 2151: 2147: 2093: 2089: 2079: 2038: 2034: 2024: 2014:, retrieved 1992: 1982: 1954: 1947: 1912: 1908: 1898: 1888:, retrieved 1866: 1839:, retrieved 1817: 1807: 1796:. Retrieved 1792: 1783: 1775: 1770: 1758: 1702: 1688: 1677: 1666: 1662:Ampere's Law 1658: 1647: 1629: 1618: 1600: 1586: 1575: 1566: 1557: 1546: 1532: 1517: 1504: 1478: 1467: 1444: 1433: 1430:Applications 1421: 1417: 1413: 1405: 1385: 1377: 1370: 1362: 1347: 1338: 1328: 1321: 1314: 1307: 1295: 1279:Please help 1267: 1240: 1216: 1212: 1203:aspect ratio 1200: 1188: 1167: 1156: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1136: 1130: 1125: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1005: 996: 987: 978: 973: 920: 916: 914: 754: 752: 694: 636: 634: 571: 516: 507: 497: 487: 476: 466: 458: 447: 436: 407: 391: 372: 365: 341:store energy 336: 335: 229: 211: 202: 187: 157: 148: 138: 131: 124: 117: 105: 93:Please help 88:verification 85: 61: 54: 48: 47:Please help 44: 2248:(8): 1305. 2209:: 224–230. 1915:: 511–536. 1481:rated power 1341:August 2023 1195:compression 1024:of coil is 1012:rectangular 1008:cylindrical 1006:Consider a 433:Current use 387:electricity 302: kW/kg 2790:Categories 2016:2021-01-23 1890:2021-01-23 1841:2021-01-26 1798:2022-06-24 1720:References 1697:Protection 1455:Bonneville 1366:insulation 1311:newspapers 1236:duty cycle 1227:conduction 439:commercial 427:resistance 417:of stored 261:1–10 205:March 2021 121:newspapers 50:improve it 2740:1051-8223 2684:110303108 2676:0953-2048 2637:0031-9228 2571:0885-8969 2516:1051-8223 2469:0093-9994 2322:1051-8223 2262:1755-4535 2223:0960-1481 2176:1949-3029 2118:1949-3029 2063:1051-8223 1931:0306-2619 1268:does not 1231:radiation 1217:Although 1191:solenoids 1100:δ 1094:ξ 1044:(xi) and 852:∫ 802:∫ 775:∫ 454:Wisconsin 379:rectifier 151:June 2012 56:talk page 2579:23736602 2524:35431324 2427:12963968 2330:44212801 2184:12256242 2126:24492238 2071:41243161 1974:53038204 1939:15831002 1747:Archived 1708:See also 1214:device. 1183:Toroidal 375:inverter 339:systems 2720:Bibcode 2551:Bibcode 2496:Bibcode 2361:1209920 2292:Bibcode 2156:Bibcode 2098:Bibcode 2043:Bibcode 1445:FACTS ( 1325:scholar 1289:removed 1274:sources 1001:amperes 992:henries 343:in the 135:scholar 2738: 2682: 2674: 2635: 2577: 2569: 2522: 2514: 2467: 2425: 2415: 2359: 2328: 2320: 2260: 2221: 2182: 2174: 2124: 2116: 2069: 2061: 2007: 1972: 1962: 1937: 1929: 1881: 1832: 1374:teslas 1327: 1320: 1313: 1306: 1298: 1174:strain 1126:where 1022:radius 1017:. The 983:joules 974:where 753:where 635:where 351:in a 329:cycles 137: 130: 123: 116: 108: 2680:S2CID 2575:S2CID 2520:S2CID 2423:S2CID 2326:S2CID 2180:S2CID 2122:S2CID 2067:S2CID 1935:S2CID 1439:FACTS 1409:BSCCO 1332:JSTOR 1318:books 142:JSTOR 128:books 2736:ISSN 2672:ISSN 2633:ISSN 2567:ISSN 2512:ISSN 2465:ISSN 2413:ISBN 2382:help 2357:OSTI 2318:ISSN 2258:ISSN 2219:ISSN 2172:ISSN 2114:ISSN 2059:ISSN 2005:ISBN 1970:OCLC 1960:ISBN 1927:ISSN 1879:ISBN 1830:ISBN 1605:(18 1603:GW·h 1595:Size 1541:SFCL 1493:DFIG 1304:news 1272:any 1270:cite 1249:Cost 1032:and 1019:mean 450:grid 368:coil 114:news 2728:doi 2664:doi 2625:doi 2559:doi 2504:doi 2457:doi 2405:doi 2349:doi 2308:hdl 2300:doi 2250:doi 2211:doi 2164:doi 2106:doi 2051:doi 1997:doi 1917:doi 1913:137 1871:doi 1822:doi 1395:or 1283:by 311:95% 300:000 298:100 293:000 263:W·h 97:by 2792:: 2758:. 2734:. 2726:. 2716:11 2714:. 2678:. 2670:. 2660:20 2658:. 2654:. 2631:. 2621:47 2619:. 2615:. 2596:. 2573:. 2565:. 2557:. 2547:27 2545:. 2541:. 2518:. 2510:. 2502:. 2492:21 2490:. 2486:. 2463:. 2453:29 2451:. 2447:. 2435:^ 2421:. 2411:. 2399:. 2373:: 2371:}} 2367:{{ 2355:. 2347:. 2324:. 2316:. 2306:. 2298:. 2288:23 2286:. 2282:. 2270:^ 2256:. 2244:. 2240:. 2217:. 2207:89 2205:. 2201:. 2178:. 2170:. 2162:. 2150:. 2146:. 2134:^ 2120:. 2112:. 2104:. 2092:. 2088:. 2065:. 2057:. 2049:. 2039:22 2037:. 2033:. 2003:, 1991:, 1968:. 1933:. 1925:. 1911:. 1907:. 1877:, 1865:, 1849:^ 1828:, 1816:, 1791:. 1728:^ 1607:TJ 1426:. 1401:Sn 1397:Nb 1393:Ti 1389:Nb 1149:, 1028:. 400:. 319:0% 291:10 267:kg 59:. 2764:. 2742:. 2730:: 2722:: 2686:. 2666:: 2639:. 2627:: 2600:. 2581:. 2561:: 2553:: 2526:. 2506:: 2498:: 2471:. 2459:: 2429:. 2407:: 2384:) 2380:( 2363:. 2351:: 2332:. 2310:: 2302:: 2294:: 2264:. 2252:: 2246:5 2225:. 2213:: 2186:. 2166:: 2158:: 2152:1 2128:. 2108:: 2100:: 2094:5 2073:. 2053:: 2045:: 1999:: 1976:. 1941:. 1919:: 1873:: 1824:: 1801:. 1399:3 1391:3 1381:c 1378:J 1354:) 1348:( 1343:) 1339:( 1329:· 1322:· 1315:· 1308:· 1291:. 1277:. 1157:N 1151:δ 1147:ξ 1145:( 1143:f 1137:I 1131:E 1111:2 1107:/ 1103:) 1097:, 1091:( 1088:f 1083:2 1079:I 1073:2 1069:N 1065:R 1062:= 1059:E 1046:δ 1042:ξ 1038:f 1034:b 1030:a 1026:R 997:I 988:L 979:E 957:2 951:2 947:I 943:L 937:= 934:E 921:L 917:L 898:2 892:2 888:I 884:L 878:= 875:I 872:d 869:L 866:I 861:I 856:0 848:= 845:t 842:d 836:t 833:d 828:I 825:d 819:L 816:I 811:I 806:0 798:= 795:t 792:d 789:P 784:T 779:0 771:= 768:W 755:L 738:, 732:t 729:d 724:I 721:d 715:L 712:I 709:= 706:P 677:t 674:d 669:I 666:d 660:L 657:= 652:E 637:I 620:, 615:E 610:I 607:= 604:t 600:/ 594:E 589:Q 586:= 583:P 557:t 553:/ 547:E 542:Q 539:= 536:P 377:/ 296:– 289:~ 265:/ 236:) 230:( 218:) 212:( 207:) 203:( 193:. 164:) 158:( 153:) 149:( 139:· 132:· 125:· 118:· 91:. 66:) 62:( 27:.

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