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Assisted Human
Reproduction Act to regulate the financial aspects of contracts between intended parents and surrogate mothers. According to research, surrogate mothers are mostly motivated by their low socioeconomic status or family debt; they are more likely to be forced into surrogacy due to financial pressures. In 2020, Section 12 of the Assisted Human Reproduction Act provides for the reimbursement of expenses and monetary compensation to the surrogate mother to alleviate the financial burden associated with surrogacy. According to this proposed regulation, the reimbursement of eligible expenses is not obligatory. Aiming at emphasizing the voluntary nature of the gesture. The proposed regulation provides a non-exhaustive list of different categories of eligible expenses, such as parking fees, travel expenses, caregiver expenses, meals, psychological consultations, etc. Additionally, the surrogate mother can be reimbursed for any lost wages during pregnancy if she obtains written confirmation from a qualified physician that the work posed a risk to the pregnancy.
590:
women facing poverty in developing countries, others purport that the lack of legislation in such countries often leads to much of the profit accruing to middlemen and commercial agencies rather than the gestational carriers themselves. It has been argued that under laws of countries where surrogacy falls under the umbrella of adoption, commercial surrogacy can be considered problematic as payment for adoption is unethical, but not paying a gestational carrier for her service is a form of exploitation. Both opponents and supporters of surrogacy have agreed that implementing international laws on surrogacy can limit the social justice issues that gestational carriers face in transnational surrogacy.
817:, the wicked king of Mathura, had imprisoned his sister Devaki and her husband Vasudeva because oracles had informed him that her child would be his killer. Every time she delivered a child, he smashed its head on the floor. He killed six children. When the seventh child was conceived, the gods intervened. They summoned the goddess Yogamaya and had her transfer the fetus from the womb of Devaki to the womb of Rohini (Vasudeva's other wife who lived with her sister Yashoda across the river Yamuna, in the village of cowherds at Gokulam). Thus the child conceived in one womb was incubated in and delivered through another womb.
547:
2014a: 84â94). According to U.S. Department of State, Bureau of
Consular Affairs, for a child born abroad to be a U.S. citizen one or both of the child's genetic parents must be a U.S. citizen. In other words, the only way for a foreign born surrogate child to acquire U.S. citizenship automatically at birth is if they are the biological child of a U.S. citizen. Furthermore, in some countries, the child will not be a citizen of the country in which they are born because the gestational carrier is not legally the parent of said child. This could result in a child being born without citizenship.
213:
cannot be achieved either. All these precarious factors increases the safety risks of artificial surgeries such as egg retrieval and insemination. Moreover, the underground contracts can inflict serious physiological harm on surrogate mothers. Surrogacy agencies ignore surrogate mothers' health risks and deaths: enforced fetal sex selection through forced abortions are very common, and multiple implantations and fetal reduction procedures may also be repeated on the same surrogate mother, causing health hazards such as miscarriage, infertility, and even death.
855:
1016:
40:
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to the agreement has a change of heart: if a surrogate changes her mind and decides to keep the child, the intended mother has no claim to the child even if it is her genetic offspring, and the couple cannot get back any money they may have paid the surrogate; if the intended parents change their mind and do not want the child after all, the surrogate cannot get any money to make up for the expenses, or any promised payment, and she will be left with legal custody of the child.
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survival but about human dignity and respect. Thus, decisions cannot be defined as involving agency if they are driven by coercion, violence, or extreme poverty, which is often the case with women in developing countries who pursue surrogacy due to economic need or aggressive persuasion from their husbands. On the other end of the spectrum, it has been argued that bans on surrogacy are violations of human rights under the existing laws of the
990:. Eligibility, processes and costs differ from country to country. Fertility tourism for surrogacy is driven by legal restrictions in the home country or the incentive of lower prices abroad. Previously popular destinations, India, Nepal and Thailand have all recently implemented bans on commercial surrogacy for non-residents. China is also a famous destination, even though surrogacy is legally banned.
670:). When Chinese people regard blood relations as an important pathway to demonstrate filial piety and family intimacy, these traditional concepts are rooted in the cognitive norm of society. Such emphasis on biological parents and blood relations undoubtedly resulted in conflicts with the practice of surrogacy, which regards childbirth as only a physiological process.
674:
do not participate in the upbringing process. However, there are also opinions that this separation from the children is not voluntary for surrogate mothers, but is forced by third-party agencies or restricted by unfair contracts. They can only give up the right to raise their children and send them away despite suffering great psychological and emotional trauma.
1002:
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parentage of a child. These orders usually require the consent of all parties involved, sometimes even including the husband of a married gestational surrogate. Most jurisdictions provide for only a post-birth order, often out of an unwillingness to force the gestational carrier to give up parental rights if she changes her mind after the birth.
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couple denies the child any claim to its "gestational carrier" and to its biological parents if the egg and/or sperm is/are not that of the contracting parents. In addition, they claim that the child has no right to information about any siblings he or she may have in the latter instance. The relevance of disclosing the use of surrogacy as an
598:, it is argued that gestational carriers may face psychological challenges that cannot be offset by the (limited) economic benefits of surrogacy. Other psychological issues are noted, such as the implications of gestational carriers emotionally detaching themselves from their babies in anticipation of birth departure.
66:
of surrogacy. Surrogate mothers are usually introduced to parent(s) in need of surrogacy through third-party agencies, or other matching channels. They are usually required to participate in processes of insemination (no matter traditional or IVF), pregnancy, delivery, and newborn feeding early after birth.
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Another point of contention surrounding surrogacy within the Jewish community is the issue of defining motherhood. There are generally three conflicting views on this topic: 1) the ovum donor is the mother, 2) the gestational carrier is the mother, and 3) the child has two mothersâboth the ovum donor
940:
wherein women's bodies are exploited and children are commodified. As Jews possess the religious obligation to "actively engage in the redemption of those who are enslaved", practices seen as involving human exploitation are morally condemned. This thinking aligns with concerns brought forth by other
773:
of the
Catholic Church states that: "Techniques that entail the dissociation of husband and wife, by the intrusion of a person other than the couple (donation of sperm or ovum, surrogate uterus), are gravely immoral." Many proponents of this stance express concern that the sanctity of marriage may be
673:
Correspondingly, this value of kinship relations strongly affects the social status of surrogate mothers. They are easily considered "heartless" or "don't care about their own children" in
Chinese society because they are only responsible for the birth process and hand over the children to others and
658:
While many people believe that surrogacy exploits women, uses their organs as a tool for making money and objectifies their reproductive rights, the biggest ethical consideration faced by surrogacy in most societies, especially in China, is contradicting traditional
Chinese values. This is one of the
589:
Those who view surrogacy as a social justice issue argue that it leads to the exploitation of women in developing countries whose wombs are commodified to meet the reproductive needs of the more affluent. While opponents of this stance argue that surrogacy provides a much-needed source of revenue for
567:
Any medical organization involved in surrogacy will be considered as law violation, including any institution that organizes, implements, or facilitates egg retrieval and sale of women. Statistics found more than 400 surrogacy agencies facilitate the birth of more than 10,000 surrogate children every
493:
The US, Ukraine, Russia and
Georgia have the most liberal laws in the world, allowing commercial surrogacy, including for foreigners. Several Asian countries used to have liberal laws, but the practice has since been restricted. In 2013, Thailand banned commercial surrogacy, and restricted altruistic
180:
would. Preimplantation risks of the embryo include unintentional epigenetic effects, influence of media which the embryo is cultured on, and undesirable consequences of invasive manipulation of the embryo. Often, multiple embryos are transferred to increase the chance of implantation, and if multiple
65:
While a surrogacy relationship or legal agreement contains the gestational carrier and the child's parent(s) after birth, the gestational carriers are usually being referred as surrogate mothers. Surrogate mothers are the woman who carries and gives birth to a baby for another person, in such process
896:
Other sources state that surrogacy is not objectionable in the Jain view as it is seen as a physical operation akin to any other medical treatment used to treat a bodily deficiency. However, some religious concerns related to surrogacy have been raised within the Jain community including the loss of
457:
A systematic review of 55 studies examining the outcomes for surrogacy for gestational carriers and resulting families showed that there were no major psychological differences in children up to the age of 10 years old that were born from surrogacy compared to those children born from other assisted
537:
A few jurisdictions do provide for pre-birth orders, generally only in cases when the gestational carrier is not genetically related to the expected child. Some jurisdictions impose other requirements in order to issue birth orders: for example, that the intended parents be heterosexual and married
529:
Some jurisdictions specifically prohibit only commercial and not altruistic surrogacy. Even jurisdictions that do not prohibit surrogacy may rule that surrogacy contracts (commercial, altruistic, or both) are void. If the contract is either prohibited or void, then there is no recourse if one party
440:
Although gestational surrogates generally report being satisfied with their experience as surrogates, there are cases in which they are not. Unmet expectations are associated with dissatisfaction. Some women did not feel a certain level of closeness with the couple and others did not feel respected
267:
In gestational surrogacy, the child is not biologically related to the surrogate, who is often referred to as a gestational carrier. Instead, the embryo is created via in vitro fertilization (IVF), using the eggs and sperm of the intended parents or donors, and is then transferred to the surrogate.
258:
or endometrial cancer can also lead to surgical removal of the uterus. Past implantation failures, history of multiple miscarriages, or concurrent severe heart or renal conditions that can make pregnancy harmful may also prompt women to consider surrogacy. The biological impossibility of single men
81:
Where commercial surrogacy is legal, third-party agencies may assist by finding a surrogate and arranging a surrogacy contract with her. These agencies often obtain medical tests to ensure healthy gestation and delivery. They also usually facilitate legal matters concerning the intended parents and
645:
It is argued that in commercial surrogacy, the rights of the child are often neglected as the baby becomes a mere commodity within an economic transaction of a good and a service. Such opponents of surrogacy argue that transferring the duties of parenthood from the birthing mother to a contracting
394:
found that
Whitehead was the child's legal mother and declared contracts for gestational carrierhood illegal and invalid. However, the court found it in the best interest of the infant to award custody of Melissa to the child's biological father, William Stern, and his wife Elizabeth Stern, rather
212:
In most countries, such as China, there exists a huge gap in the legal framework between the legislation and regulation for surrogacy. Due to insufficient authority supervision, surrogacy and the safety of surrogate mothers lack of professional support or reliable operation, the medical conditions
113:
Some choose to inseminate privately without the intervention of a doctor or physician. In some jurisdictions, the intended parents using donor sperm need to go through an adoption process to have legal parental rights of the resulting child. Many fertility centres that provide for surrogacy assist
593:
Other human rights activists express concern over the conditions under which gestational carriers are kept by surrogacy clinics which exercise much power and control over the process of surrogate pregnancy. Isolated from friends and family and required to live in separate surrogacy hostels on the
436:
Anthropological studies of surrogates have shown that surrogates engage in various distancing techniques throughout the surrogate pregnancy so as to ensure that they do not become emotionally attached to the baby. Many surrogates intentionally try to foster the development of emotional attachment
245:
Opting for surrogacy is a choice for single men desiring to raise a child from infancy, same sex couples unable or unwilling for pregnancy, or women unable or unwilling to carry children on their own. Surrogacy is chosen by women for a number of medical reasons, such as abnormal or absent uterus,
546:
The citizenship and legal status of the children resulting from surrogacy arrangements can be problematic. The Hague
Conference Permanent Bureau identified the question of citizenship of these children as a "pressing problem" in the Permanent Bureau 2014 Study (Hague Conference Permanent Bureau,
533:
Jurisdictions that permit surrogacy sometimes offer a way for the intended mother, especially if she is also the genetic mother, to be recognized as the legal mother without going through the process of abandonment and adoption. Often this is via a birth order in which a court rules on the legal
470:
on the part of fathers than their natural conception counterparts; there were no differences in child development between these two groups. At age seven, the surrogacy and egg donation families showed less positive motherâchild interaction than the natural conception families, but there were no
184:
Children born through singleton IVF surrogacy have been shown to have no physical or mental abnormalities compared to those children born through natural conception. However, children born through multiple gestation in gestational carriers often result in preterm labor and delivery, resulting in
571:
Due to such blurry legal issues, surrogate mothers have become an underprivileged group facing the oppression of women's reproductive rights and the lack of formal legal restrictions. Many of the conditions they should have, such as emotional caring and social resources, are absent, as research
682:
According to the
Assisted Human Reproduction Act adopted in 2004, it is prohibited in Canada to compensate a female for acting as a surrogate mother or to advertise the payment of such compensation. However, on October 1, 2016, Health Canada announced its intention to update and strengthen the
601:
The relevance of a woman's consent in judging the ethical acceptability of surrogacy is another point of controversy within human rights circles. While some hold that any consensual process is not a human rights violation, other human rights activists argue that human rights are not just about
518:
Even in jurisdictions that do not recognize surrogacy arrangements, if the potential adoptive parents and the birth mother proceed without any intervention from the government and do not change their mind along the way, they will likely be able to achieve the effects of surrogacy by having the
465:
A study has followed a cohort of 32 surrogacy, 32 egg donation, and 54 natural conception families through to age seven, reporting the impact of surrogacy on the families and children at ages one, two, and seven. At age one, parents through surrogacy showed greater psychological well-being and
448:
and issues with relinquishing the child to their intended parents. Immediate postpartum depression has been observed in gestational surrogates at a rate of 0-20%. Some surrogates report negative feelings with relinquishing rights to the child immediately after birth, but most negative feelings
572:
claiming that surrogacy contracts usually blindly meet client needs while ignoring the health and well-being of the surrogate mothers. They are marginalized by society and lack the companionship of their partners and legitimate medical health checkups during the nearly one year of pregnancy.
563:
Particularly in China, surrogacy operates within a legally gray area. Scholars mostly claim that surrogacy incites social instability both for the
Chinese Government and the public, such as civil disputes, gender disproportion, crime, and the spread of disease. However, no law legislation or
485:
The legality of surrogacy varies around the world. Many countries do not have laws which specifically deal with surrogacy. Some countries ban surrogacy outright, while others ban commercial surrogacy but allow altruistic surrogacy (in which the surrogate is not financially compensated). Some
237:; approximately weeks. Preterm birth rate was higher for surrogate twin pregnancies compared to single births. There are fewer babies with low birth weight when born through surrogacy compared to those born through in vitro fertilization but both methods have similar rates of birth defects.
747:
that surrogacy places the childbearing surrogate in a position of subservience, in which her body becomes a "tool" for another. Simultaneously, other Buddhist thinkers argue that as long as the primary purpose of being a gestational carrier is out of compassion instead of profit, it is not
613:
have also argued that surrogacy is an assault to a woman's dignity and right to autonomy over her body. By degrading impoverished women to the mere status of "baby producers", commercial surrogacy has been accused by feminists of commodifying women's bodies in a manner akin to
494:
surrogacy to Thai couples. In 2016, Cambodia also banned commercial surrogacy. Nepal, Mexico, and India have also recently banned foreign commercial surrogacy. Surrogacy is legal and common in Iran, and monetary remuneration is practiced and allowed by religious authorities.
514:
The historical legal assumption has been that the woman giving birth to a child is that child's legal mother, and the only way for another woman to be recognized as the mother is through adoption (usually requiring the birth mother's formal abandonment of parental rights).
924:
generally view it as a morally permissible way for Jewish women who cannot conceive to fulfill their religious obligations of procreation. Rabbis who favour this stance often cite Genesis 9:1 which commands all Jews to "be fruitful and multiply". In 1988, the
945:
in certain countries with large fertility tourism industries. Several Jewish scholars and rabbis also cite ethical concerns surrounding the "broken relationship" between the child and its surrogate birth mother. Rabbi Immanuel Jacovits, chief rabbi of the
970:
states that if a Jewish woman is the surrogate, then the child is Jewish. However, this often raises issues when the child is raised by a non-Jewish family and approaches for addressing this issue are also widely debated within the Jewish community.
110:. Using the sperm of a donor results in a child who is not genetically related to the intended parent(s). If the intended father's sperm is used in the insemination, the resulting child is genetically related to both him and the surrogate.
825:
in the Hindu tradition and consequently treated as a pathology to be treated. This has led to general acceptance of medical intervention for addressing infertility amongst Hindus. As such, surrogacy and other scientific methods of
69:
In surrogacy arrangements, monetary compensation may or may not be involved. Receiving money for the arrangement is known as commercial surrogacy. The legality and cost of surrogacy varies widely between jurisdictions, contributing to
90:
Surrogacy may be either traditional or gestational, which are differentiated by the genetic origin of the egg. Gestational surrogacy tends to be more common than traditional surrogacy and is considered less legally complex.
625:
Supporters of surrogacy have argued to mandate education of gestational carriers regarding their rights and risks through the process in order to both rectify the ethical issues that arise and to enhance their autonomy.
2463:
Golombok, Susan; MacCallum, Fiona; Murray, Clare; Lycett, Emma; Jadva, Vasanti (February 2006). "Surrogacy families: parental functioning, parent-child relationships and children's psychological development at age 2".
666:). There is also an ancient Chinese saying that believes that "the body, hair, and skin come from the parents who gave birth to one", and blood relatives should be respected, and one should not harm oneself at will (
2777:
232:
rate in surrogacy is marginally lower than babies born from standard IVF (11.5% vs 14%). Babies born from surrogacy also have similar average gestational age as infants born through in vitro fertilization and
834:, despite often serving as surrogates for Western commissioning couples. When surrogacy is practiced by Hindus, it is more likely to be used within the family circle as opposed to involving anonymous donors.
580:
Numerous ethical questions have been raised with regards to surrogacy. They generally stem from concerns relating to social justice, women's rights, child welfare, bioethics, and societal traditional values.
74:, and sometimes resulting in problematic international or interstate surrogacy arrangements. For example, those living in a country where surrogacy is banned travel to a jurisdiction that permits it. In some
3253:
Ramskold, Louise Anna Helena; Posner, Marcus Paul (2013). "Commercial surrogacy: how provisions of monetary remuneration and powers of international law can prevent exploitation of gestational surrogates".
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Some countries, such as the United States, Canada, Greece, Georgia and Mexico are popular surrogacy destinations for foreign intended parents. Ukraine, Belarus and Russia were also destinations before the
466:
adaptation to parenthood than those who conceived naturally; there were no differences in infant temperament. At age two, parents through surrogacy showed more positive motherâchild relationships and less
461:
Gay men who have become fathers using surrogacy have reported similar experiences to those of other couples who have used surrogacy, including their relationship with both their child and their surrogate.
958:
and the gestational carrier. While most contend that parenthood is determined by the woman giving birth, a minority opt to consider the genetic parents the legal parents, citing the well-known passage in
712:
treatments or surrogacy are immoral. This stance is further supported by the common conception that serving as a gestational carrier is an expression of compassion and therefore automatically aligns with
422:
that restricts surrogacy to Mexican married couples is unconstitutional. It also ruled that legal parentage should be based on the presence of procreational will, not genetic or gestational relationship.
2052:"Surrogate Confesses Her Secret: Trial: Anna L. Johnson admits cashing check from unborn child's parents after she'd decided to seek custody. She denies telling The Times she didn't feel bonded to baby"
622:
expressions of domination as numerous reports have been cited of women in developing countries coerced into commercial surrogacy by their husbands wanting to "earn money off of their wives' bodies".
662:
Traditional Chinese values focus on blood ties and family ties. The physical connection between parents and children and the process by which parents give birth to children are considered virtuous (
418:
ruled that every individual, regardless of sexual orientation, marital status, or nationality, has the right to access assisted reproductive technology to form a family, and that the Civil Code of
522:
If the jurisdiction specifically bans surrogacy, however, and authorities find out about the arrangement, there may be financial and legal consequences for the parties involved. One jurisdiction (
441:
by the couple. Some gestational surrogates report emotional distress during the process of surrogacy. There may be a lack of access to therapy and emotional support through the surrogate process.
954:
that "to use another person as an incubator and then take from her the child that she carried and delivered for a fee is a revolting degradation of maternity and an affront to human dignity."
390:," was born in the U.S. The surrogate and biological mother, Mary Beth Whitehead, refused to give up custody of Melissa to the couple with whom she made the surrogacy agreement. The courts of
4082:
408:), and the court upheld their parental rights. In doing so, it legally defined the true mother as the woman who, according to the surrogacy agreement, intends to create and raise a child.
555:
In South Korea, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Thailand, and India, surrogacies are all regulated âthrough national laws that expressly ban it or explicitly set the parameters for its legalityâ.
317:
Having another woman bear a child for a couple to raise, usually with the male half of the couple as the genetic father, has been referenced since the ancient times. Babylonian law and
947:
4437:
798:. Surrogacy and other scientific methods of assisted reproduction are generally supported within the Hindu community. While Hindu scholars have not debated the issue extensively,
739:
beings, including human beings, is not a righteous practice as it almost always involves exploitation that causes suffering. Susumu Shimazono, professor of Religious Studies at the
692:
295:
3683:
2426:
Golombok, S.; Murray, C.; Jadva, V.; MacCallum, F.; Lycett, E. (May 2004). "Families created through surrogacy arrangements: parent-child relationships in the 1st year of life".
272:
846:)" denies the distinction between genetic and gestational mothers, hence complicating notions of lineage within the context of surrogacy, which are central to the Muslim faith.
782:. Catholics also condemn in vitro fertilisation due to the killing of embryos that accompanies the frequent practice of discarding, freezing, or donating non-implanted eggs to
486:
countries allow commercial surrogacy, with few restrictions. Some jurisdictions extend a ban on surrogacy to international surrogacy. In some jurisdictions rules applicable to
564:
enforcement has been published against surrogacy, whether it is a surrogate mother or a connecting third agency, despite the state government's attitude to ban such practice.
4054:
99:
A traditional surrogacy (also known as partial, natural, or straight surrogacy) is one where the surrogate's egg is fertilised by the intended father's or a donor's sperm.
501:
Enforceability of surrogacy agreements. In some jurisdictions, they are void or prohibited, and some jurisdictions distinguish between commercial and altruistic surrogacy.
2781:
708:
thought is inconclusive on the matter of surrogacy. The prominent belief is that Buddhism totally accepts surrogacy since there are no Buddhist teachings suggesting that
4463:
720:
However, numerous Buddhist thinkers have expressed concerns with certain aspects of surrogacy. One Buddhist perspective on surrogacy arises from the Buddhist belief in
2040:
Levine, Judith, "Whose Baby is It? Surrogate Motherhood on Trial, Village Voice, Nov. 25, 1986; Levine, Judith, "Motherhood is Powerless," Village Voice, Apr. 14 1987.
201:. This is possibly because gestational carriers tend to be healthier and more fertile than women who use oocyte donation. Gestational carriers also have low rates of
802:, an Indian reproductive biologist, argues that there is no conflict between Hinduism and assisted reproduction. Others have supported this stance with reference to
2016:
1367:
4075:
3739:
1765:
Söderström-Anttila, Viveca; Wennerholm, Ulla-Britt; Loft, Anne; Pinborg, Anja; AittomÀki, Kristiina; Romundstad, Liv Bente; Bergh, Christina (October 9, 2015).
2271:
Bergh, Christina; Romundstad, Liv Bente; AittomÀki, Kristiina; Pinborg, Anja; Loft, Anne; Wennerholm, Ulla-Britt; Söderström-Anttila, Viveca (March 1, 2016).
1951:
1608:
Bergh, Christina; Romundstad, Liv Bente; AittomÀki, Kristiina; Pinborg, Anja; Loft, Anne; Wennerholm, Ulla-Britt; Söderström-Anttila, Viveca (March 1, 2016).
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differences in maternal positive or negative attitudes or child adjustment. The researchers concluded that the surrogacy families continued to function well.
5139:
1715:"Assisted reproduction involving gestational surrogacy: an analysis of the medical, psychosocial and legal issues: experience from a large surrogacy program"
1657:
Patel, Nayana Hitesh; Jadeja, Yuvraj Digvijaysingh; Bhadarka, Harsha Karsan; Patel, Molina Niket; Patel, Niket Hitesh; Sodagar, Nilofar Rahematkhan (2018).
1506:
Söderström-Anttila, Viveca; Wennerholm, Ulla-Britt; Loft, Anne; Pinborg, Anja; AittomÀki, Kristiina; Romundstad, Liv Bente; Bergh, Christina (March 2016).
2737:"The private international law issues surrounding the status of children, including issues arising from international surrogacy arrangements â 2011â2013"
276:
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to one another. Jurisdictions that provide for pre-birth orders are also more likely to provide for some kind of enforcement of surrogacy contracts.
3574:
1444:
Simopoulou, M.; Sfakianoudis, K.; Tsioulou, P.; Rapani, A.; Anifandis, G.; Pantou, A.; Bolaris, S.; Bakas, P.; Deligeoroglou, E. (July 17, 2018).
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5230:
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415:
402:, gestational carrier Anna Johnson refused to give up the baby to intended parents Mark and Crispina Calvert. The couple sued her for custody (
309:
desire to help a childless couple. Other less commonly given reasons include enjoying the experience of pregnancy, and financial compensation.
1328:"The long-term experiences of surrogates: relationships and contact with surrogacy families in genetic and gestational surrogacy arrangements"
786:. As such, the Catholic Church deems all practices involving in vitro fertilisation, including gestational surrogacy, as morally problematic.
2816:
1935:
926:
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exploitative and is therefore morally permissible. This further highlights the lack of consensus on surrogacy within the Buddhist community.
3984:
728:. According to this view, gestational carrierhood circumvents the workings of karma by interfering with the natural cycle of reincarnation.
2736:
697:
Different religions take different approaches to surrogacy, often related to their stances on assisted reproductive technology in general.
603:
54:
on behalf of another person(s) who will become the child's parent(s) after birth. People pursue surrogacy for a variety of reasons such as
2659:
1988:
4496:
4255:
507:
Mechanisms for the legal recognition of the intended parents as the legal parents, either by pre-birth orders or by post-birth adoption.
2882:
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2009 – Ukraine, one of the most requested countries in Europe for this treatment, has its first Surrogacy Law approved.
5296:
2428:
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involved in gestational surrogacy is generally viewed as morally impermissible due to its removal of human conception from the act of
5266:
4265:
3842:
1090:
194:
3539:
3470:"Parental disclosure of assisted reproductive technology (ART) conception to their children: a systematic and meta-analytic review"
4980:
4245:
4220:
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are generally supported within the Hindu community. Nonetheless, Hindu women do not commonly use surrogacy as an option to treat
827:
770:
647:
2719:
1713:
Dar, S.; Lazer, T.; Swanson, S.; Silverman, J.; Wasser, C.; Moskovtsev, S. I.; Sojecki, A.; Librach, C. L. (December 17, 2014).
5124:
4970:
4316:
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2231:
Ciccarelli, Janice; Beckman, Linda (March 2005). "Navigating Rough Waters: An Overview of Psychological Aspects of Surrogacy".
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3202:
van Zyl, Liezl; Walker, Ruth (September 1, 2015). "Surrogacy, Compensation, and Legal Parentage: Against the Adoption Model".
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which states that life begins at conception. Also controversial is the issue of defining Judaism in the context of surrogacy.
5281:
4328:
4275:
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2142:
2097:
352:
221:
Among gestational surrogacy arrangements, between 19â33% of gestational surrogates will successfully become pregnant from an
3176:
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have embryos left over, which they donate to others. The resulting child is genetically unrelated to the intended parent(s).
2796:
2371:"Gay father surrogacy families: relationships with surrogates and egg donors and parental disclosure of children's origins"
2369:
Golombok, Susan; Ehrhardt, Anke A.; Raffanello, Elizabeth; Slutsky, Jenna; Carone, Nicola; Blake, Lucy (November 1, 2016).
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5011:
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4432:
4270:
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scholars have not debated the issue of surrogacy extensively. Nonetheless, the practice of surrogacy is referenced in the
328:
Many developments in medicine, social customs, and legal proceedings around the world paved the way for modern surrogacy:
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5051:
4947:
4922:
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4194:
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1111:
3623:
4867:
987:
937:
122:
Gestational surrogacy (also known as host or full surrogacy) was first achieved in April 1986. It takes place when an
5144:
4035:
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is opposed to surrogacy, which it views as immoral and incompatible with Biblical texts surrounding topics of birth,
2069:
225:. Of these cases, 30â70% will successfully allow the intended parent(s) to become parent(s) of the resulting child.
5066:
4897:
4892:
2095:
Teman, E. (March 2003). "The medicalization of "nature" in the "artificial body": surrogate motherhood in Israel".
858:
Harinegameshin Transfers Mahavira's Embryo, from a Kalpasutra manuscript, c. 1300â1350, Philadelphia Museum of Art
854:
842:
For Muslims, the Qur'anic injunction that "their mothers are only those who conceived them and gave birth to them (
437:
between the intended mother and the surrogate child. Some surrogates describe feeling empowered by the experience.
284:
31:
5276:
5235:
5071:
4791:
4623:
2509:"Families created through surrogacy: Motherâchild relationships and children's psychological adjustment at age 7"
2158:"Psychological trait and state characteristics, social support and attitudes to the surrogate pregnancy and baby"
1244:
1080:
1045:
480:
75:
5342:
5322:
4643:
2233:
1140:
Piersanti, Valeria; Consalvo, Francesca; Signore, Fabrizio; Del Rio, Alessandro; Zaami, Simona (January 2021).
1085:
2778:"Important Information for U.S. Citizens Considering the Use of Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) Abroad"
2320:
Ahmari Tehran, Hoda; Tashi, Shohreh; Mehran, Nahid; Eskandari, Narges; Dadkhah Tehrani, Tahmineh (July 2014).
302:
should be respected throughout the pregnancy even if her wishes conflict with what the intended parents want.
137:
surrogacy has several forms, and in each form, the resulting child is genetically unrelated to the surrogate:
3945:
526:) prevented the genetic mother's adoption of the child even though that left the child with no legal mother.
5099:
4489:
4311:
4306:
4291:
4137:
3700:
2616:
Aramesh, K (May 2009). "Iran's experience with surrogate motherhood: an Islamic view and ethical concerns".
1446:"Risks in Surrogacy Considering the Embryo: From the Preimplantation to the Gestational and Neonatal Period"
1035:
929:
associated with the Conservative Jewish movement issued formal approval for surrogacy, concluding that "the
639:
638:
in the context of surrogacy reference issues related to identity and parenthood, abandonment and abuse, and
107:
4932:
4771:
4442:
4376:
4321:
4215:
4204:
2673:
1021:
775:
373:
1976 – Michigan lawyer Noel Keane wrote the first surrogacy contract in the United States.
367:
348:
159:
127:
3857:
1142:"Surrogacy and "Procreative Tourism". What Does the Future Hold from the Ethical and Legal Perspectives?"
254:
due to complications in childbirth such as heavy bleeding or a ruptured uterus. Medical diseases such as
5261:
4822:
4746:
4673:
4638:
3677:
2051:
783:
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compromised by the insertion of a third party into the marriage contract. Additionally, the practice of
519:
gestational carrier give birth and then give the child up for private adoption to the intended parents.
445:
404:
4015:"Birthing a Mother: The Surrogate Body and the Pregnant Self". Berkeley: University of California Press
2842:
247:
2273:"Surrogacy: outcomes for surrogate mothers, children and the resulting families â a systematic review"
1767:"Surrogacy: outcomes for surrogate mothers, children and the resulting families â a systematic review"
39:
5119:
5046:
4995:
4756:
4731:
4721:
4333:
4225:
4147:
3740:"Why the Church Opposes Surrogate Motherhood and attempts to legalize it in The District of Columbia"
3432:
959:
650:
to the child has also been argued to be important for both health risks and the rights of the child.
635:
380:, the first "test-tube baby", was born in England, the product of the first successful IVF procedure.
158:
A donor embryo is transferred to a surrogate. Such an embryo may be available when others undergoing
103:
2218:
1610:"Surrogacy: outcomes for surrogate mothers, children and the resulting familiesâa systematic review"
1508:"Surrogacy: outcomes for surrogate mothers, children and the resulting families-a systematic review"
1015:
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4513:
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4296:
4240:
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4155:
2370:
1984:
740:
206:
1869:
Golombok, Susan; MacCallum, Fiona; Lycett, Emma; Murray, Clare; Jadva, Vasanti (October 1, 2003).
866:
5337:
5317:
5180:
4917:
4653:
4482:
4371:
4338:
4107:
4027:
3468:
Morsan, Valentina; Gronchi, Giorgio; Zanchettin, Liviana; Tallandini, Maria Anna (June 1, 2016).
3401:
3295:
3279:
3235:
2641:
2197:
1993:
803:
779:
511:
Although laws differ widely from one jurisdiction to another, some generalizations are possible:
383:
1985â1986 – A woman carried the first successful gestational surrogate pregnancy.
287:
where she successfully had at least one child, and has had no more than five deliveries or three
2740:
4022:
3914:
2841:
Qi, Qing; Gu, Xiaolei; Zhao, Yangyang; Chen, Ziqin; Zhou, Jing; Chen, Song; Wang, Ling (2023).
5271:
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3119:
3111:
3059:
3041:
2956:
2938:
2890:
2864:
2812:
2633:
2538:
2507:
Golombok Susan; Readings Jennifer; Blake Lucy; Casey Polly; Marks Alex; Jadva Vasanti (2011).
2489:
2481:
2445:
2408:
2390:
2351:
2333:
2302:
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1931:
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333:
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71:
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1216:
1208:
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1153:
1070:
807:
467:
202:
3649:
3144:
2017:"And Baby Makes Four: for the First Time a Surrogate Bears a Child Genetically Not Her Own"
1368:"And Baby Makes Four: for the First Time a Surrogate Bears a Child Genetically Not Her Own"
5185:
5104:
4941:
4902:
4801:
4551:
4427:
4386:
4230:
3764:
Kumar, TC Anand (2007). "Ethical aspects of assisted reproduction â an Indian viewpoint".
2723:
1271:
Bhatia, Kalsang; Martindale, Elizabeth A.; Rustamov, Oybek; Nysenbaum, Anthony M. (2009).
1055:
1007:
762:
714:
321:
allowed this practice, and a woman unable to give birth could use the practice to avoid a
255:
222:
59:
3879:
936:
Jewish scholars and rabbis which hold an anti-surrogacy stance often see it as a form of
181:
gestations occur, both the surrogate and the embryos face higher risks of complications.
3436:
917:
have long debated this topic, expressing conflicting views on both sides of the debate.
5245:
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5220:
5210:
5170:
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1687:
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1445:
1221:
1200:
1176:
1141:
1075:
732:
141:
The embryo is created using the intended father's sperm and the intended mother's eggs;
30:
This article is about a type of pregnancy. For other uses of the word "surrogacy", see
3777:
133:(IVF) technology is implanted in a surrogate, sometimes called a gestational carrier.
5311:
5240:
5149:
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5031:
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721:
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229:
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1050:
615:
377:
318:
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198:
176:
The embryo implanted in gestational surrogacy faces the same risks as anyone using
50:
is an arrangement, often supported by a legal agreement, whereby a woman agrees to
17:
3267:
1831:
27:
Arrangement in which a woman carries and delivers a child for designated parent(s)
2557:
279:, a gestational carrier is preferably between the ages of 21 and 45, has had one
5200:
5175:
5021:
4857:
4842:
4628:
4556:
4546:
4099:
2808:
1065:
831:
709:
337:
55:
2985:"Surrogacy laws: why a global approach is needed to stop exploitation of women"
2579:
2441:
1580:
1563:
1344:
1327:
1289:
1272:
659:
most fundamental reasons for peopleâs resistance to surrogacy in social norms.
5215:
5109:
4912:
4837:
4781:
4751:
4688:
4586:
4401:
4187:
3834:
3720:
3661:
3215:
1312:
997:
897:
non-implanted embryos, destruction of traditional marriage relationships, and
886:
619:
399:
391:
306:
51:
3505:
3454:
3445:
3420:
3389:
3275:
3223:
3115:
3106:
3089:
3045:
3036:
2942:
2933:
2894:
2485:
2394:
2337:
2298:
2110:
1896:
1855:
1740:
1677:
1635:
1589:
1533:
1471:
1419:
1298:
1167:
1158:
259:
and same-sex couples having a baby also may indicate surrogacy as an option.
4906:
4877:
4852:
4736:
4505:
4165:
3486:
3469:
2629:
2289:
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2174:
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1887:
1870:
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1714:
1626:
1609:
1524:
1507:
1410:
1393:
1060:
1040:
890:
882:
736:
305:
The most commonly reported motivation given by gestational surrogates is an
280:
134:
43:
Intended parents attend the birth of their child by a gestational surrogate.
3513:
3397:
3348:
3291:
3231:
3123:
3063:
2960:
2868:
2859:
2637:
2542:
2493:
2449:
2412:
2355:
2306:
2254:
2183:
2118:
1904:
1792:
1748:
1696:
1643:
1541:
1489:
1462:
1427:
1353:
1230:
1212:
1185:
2598:
5195:
5129:
4536:
4406:
3330:
1030:
898:
878:
870:
795:
766:
705:
610:
487:
341:
299:
3496:
3283:
3090:"Surrogacy and women's right to health in India: issues and perspective"
1564:"Protection of rights and legal remedies for surrogate mothers in China"
618:. Some feminists also express concerns over links between surrogacy and
4832:
4796:
3887:
National Seminar on Engaging Jainism on Modern Issues, Ladnun, Feb 2017
967:
941:
groups regarding the relation between surrogacy practices and forms of
930:
921:
874:
862:
419:
322:
155:
The embryo is created using the intended mother's egg and donor sperm;
5056:
4975:
4571:
4531:
4526:
4521:
2524:
963:
523:
504:
The different issues raised by traditional and gestational surrogacy.
387:
360:
123:
366:
1953 – Researchers successfully performed the first
1952:"Carrying a child for someone else should be celebrated â and paid"
2756:"RePub, Erasmus University Repository: Global surrogacy practices"
2466:
Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines
1249:
914:
853:
822:
814:
725:
145:
38:
4036:"Chinese Couples Come to U.S. to Have Children Through Surrogacy"
3315:"Surrogacy, privacy, and the American Convention on Human Rights"
2322:"Emotional experiences in surrogate mothers: A qualitative study"
568:
year on average â operating underground with legal prohibitions.
4663:
4057:, Better Health Channel, State Government of Victoria, Australia
3701:"The Daily Enlightenment » Is Surrogacy Right In Buddhism?"
2755:
910:
356:
4478:
4064:
933:
of parenthood is so great that ovum surrogacy is permissible".
458:
reproductive technology or those children conceived naturally.
4937:
3088:
Anu; Kumar, Pawan; Inder, Deep; Sharma, Nandini (April 2013).
177:
149:
4474:
3695:
3693:
1922:
Early Mesopotamia Society and Economy at the Dawn of History
228:
For surrogate pregnancies where only one child is born, the
2883:"The dangers of carrying a child for someone else in China"
2138:
Birthing a Mother: The Surrogate Body and the Pregnant Self
1989:"Noel Keane, 58, Lawyer in Surrogate Mother Cases, Is Dead"
869:
tradition of Jainism according to which the embryo of Lord
3985:"How Canada became an international surrogacy destination"
386:
1986 – Melissa Stern, otherwise known as "
810:
which suggests the practice of gestational carrier-hood:
102:
Insemination of the surrogate can be either through sex (
1273:"Surrogate pregnancy: an essential guide for clinicians"
3650:"Buddhist Ethics and Surrogacy Problem of Thai Society"
2558:"The corner of Europe where women rent out their wombs"
1659:"Insight into different aspects of surrogacy practices"
193:
Gestational surrogates have a smaller chance of having
2660:"Infertile Couples in Iran Find New Hope in Surrogacy"
2070:"Is Surrogacy in Mexico Legal? A Detailed Explanation"
1199:
BrandĂŁo, Pedro; Garrido, NicolĂĄs (December 29, 2022).
693:
Religious response to assisted reproductive technology
296:
International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics
3419:
Schurr, Carolin; Militz, Elisabeth (April 16, 2018).
3018:
Saxena, Pikee; Mishra, Archana; Malik, Sonia (2012).
2915:
Saxena, Pikee; Mishra, Archana; Malik, Sonia (2012).
2795:
Aguiling-Pangalangan, Elizabeth H. (March 12, 2024),
2754:
Beeson, Diane; Darnovsky, Marcy (December 31, 2014).
2130:
2128:
1313:"Surrogacy: what is it? Different types of surrogacy"
273:
European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology
3829:, Cambridge University Press, 2017, pp. 46â78,
3795:
3793:
3791:
3789:
3787:
3624:"Buddhist Beliefs About Surrogate Mothers | Synonym"
3540:"Vers une Loi sur la procréation assistée renforcée"
1836:
International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics
950:
from 1976 to 1991, reported in his 1975 publication
909:
In general, there is a lack of consensus within the
78:, surrogacy is legal if there is no financial gain.
5254:
5163:
5080:
5004:
4956:
4815:
4712:
4607:
4512:
4456:
4415:
4364:
4284:
4203:
4146:
4098:
3946:"What does Jewish Law Have to Say about Surrogacy?"
821:Additionally, infertility is often associated with
332:1936 – In the U.S., drug companies
3915:"Jewish ethics and surrogacy â Jewish Independent"
3825:"Religion, Culture and Religious Discrimination",
3568:
3566:
3564:
3562:
3560:
3421:"The affective economy of transnational surrogacy"
1919:
185:prematurity and physical and/or mental anomalies.
144:The embryo is created using the intended father's
4464:Reproduction and pregnancy in speculative fiction
3682:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
2200:in: Rachel Cook and Shelley Day Schlater (eds.),
2198:scribd.com "Knowing the Surrogate Body in Israel"
1871:"Surrogacy: the experiences of surrogate mothers"
1245:"Using a Surrogate Mother: What You Need to Know"
490:apply while others do not regulate the practice.
3939:
3937:
3935:
3933:
3931:
2983:Barn, Gulzaar; Marway, Herjeet (July 30, 2018).
2202:Surrogate Motherhood: International Perspectives
913:on the matter of surrogacy. Jewish scholars and
62:, or when pregnancy is a medical impossibility.
3908:
3906:
3904:
3902:
3900:
3898:
3896:
3618:
3616:
3614:
3612:
3610:
735:directly who purportedly taught that trade in
4490:
4076:
3827:Religious Discrimination and Cultural Context
3425:Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space
2803:, Edward Elgar Publishing, pp. 395â435,
2580:"Thai 'baby factory' saga reaches uneasy end"
2215:Surrogate Motherhood: Conception in the Heart
1568:Humanities and Social Sciences Communications
1326:Imrie, Susan; Jadva, Vasanti (July 4, 2014).
8:
3971:"Surrogacy: Parenthood as a global industry"
3880:"Some Bioethical Issues in Jain Perspective"
3858:"Harinegameshin Transfers Mahavira's Embryo"
3581:. Archived from the original on June 7, 2016
497:Laws dealing with surrogacy must deal with:
3362:Damelio, Jennifer; Sorensen, Kelly (2008).
395:than to Whitehead, the gestational carrier.
355:became the first person to fertilize human
4497:
4483:
4475:
4083:
4069:
4061:
2801:Research Handbook on Surrogacy and the Law
2573:
2571:
277:American Society for Reproductive Medicine
250:) or post-hysterectomy. Women may have a
3495:
3485:
3444:
3379:
3338:
3105:
3053:
3035:
2950:
2932:
2858:
2760:ISS Working Paper Series / General Series
2532:
2402:
2345:
2288:
2173:
1886:
1782:
1730:
1686:
1676:
1625:
1579:
1523:
1479:
1461:
1409:
1343:
1288:
1220:
1175:
1157:
920:Those supportive of surrogacy within the
444:Gestational surrogates may struggle with
340:started the pharmaceutical production of
271:According to recommendations made by the
4021:Siegel-Itzkovich, Judy (April 3, 2010).
2704:Canadian Fertility and Andrology Society
2326:Iranian Journal of Reproductive Medicine
1392:Brinsden, Peter R. (September 1, 2003).
3733:
3731:
3729:
3171:
3169:
3167:
3165:
3139:
3137:
3135:
3133:
3083:
3081:
3079:
3077:
3075:
3073:
3013:
3011:
3009:
3007:
3005:
2978:
2976:
2974:
2972:
2970:
2700:"Surrogacy in Quebec: First Legal Test"
2266:
2264:
2050:Gewertz, Catherine (October 11, 1990).
1760:
1758:
1103:
901:implications of gestational surrogacy.
325:, which would otherwise be inevitable.
248:MayerâRokitanskyâKusterâHauser syndrome
114:the parties through the legal process.
3675:
3592:
3364:"Enhancing Autonomy in Paid Surrogacy"
2836:
2834:
1708:
1706:
1664:Journal of Human Reproductive Sciences
1557:
1555:
1553:
1551:
1501:
1499:
1439:
1437:
195:hypertensive disorder during pregnancy
3944:Golinkin, David (December 18, 2012).
3873:
3871:
3533:
3531:
3529:
3527:
3525:
3523:
3020:"Surrogacy: Ethical and Legal Issues"
2917:"Surrogacy: Ethical and Legal Issues"
2599:"'I gave birth but it's not my baby'"
2597:Perasso, Valeria (December 4, 2018).
1603:
1601:
1599:
927:Committee on Jewish Law and Standards
885:ruler Siddharth, by a divinity named
794:Surrogacy does not conflict with the
668:"èș«äœćè€ćäčç¶æŻ shÄntÇ fĂ fĆ« shĂČu zhÄ« fĂčmÇ"
654:Traditional Values in Chinese Society
7:
3738:Pope, Msgr Charles (June 19, 2013).
3149:The Center for Bioethics and Culture
3024:Indian Journal of Community Medicine
2921:Indian Journal of Community Medicine
2578:Head, Jonathan (February 26, 2018).
2556:Ponniah, Kevin (February 13, 2018).
1277:The Obstetrician & Gynaecologist
1135:
1133:
604:Inter-American Court of Human Rights
3723:. Catechism of the Catholic Church.
3654:Soshum: Jurnal Sosial dan Humaniora
3648:Damnoen, Somchai (August 4, 2017).
1201:"Commercial Surrogacy: An Overview"
246:either congenitally (also known as
5297:Parents Against Child Exploitation
3319:Journal of Law and the Biosciences
2843:"The status of surrogacy in China"
2780:. travel.state.gov. Archived from
2715:Bognar, Tara (November 28, 2011).
2204:. London: Hart Press. pp. 261â280.
769:, and life. Paragraph 2376 of the
25:
5267:Mothers Apart from Their Children
4266:Preimplantation genetic diagnosis
3913:Spikebrennan (January 20, 2017).
2156:Van den Akker; Olga B.A. (2007).
1207:. 44(12) (1141â1158): 1141â1158.
1091:Mitochondrial replacement therapy
889:. This account is not present in
4246:Intracytoplasmic sperm injection
4221:Autologous endometrial coculture
4092:Assisted reproductive technology
3878:Kachhara, N.L. (February 2017).
3801:"Hinduism's View on Infertility"
3381:10.1111/j.1467-8519.2008.00629.x
3313:Hevia, MartĂn (August 1, 2018).
2478:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01453.x
2387:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2016.08.013
2247:10.1111/j.0022-4537.2005.00392.x
1973:. New York: Infobase Publishing.
1971:Adoption and Surrogate Pregnancy
1014:
1000:
877:woman Devananada to the womb of
298:recommends that the surrogate's
197:compared to mothers pregnant by
5125:Management of domestic violence
4971:Corporal punishment in the home
3766:Reproductive BioMedicine Online
3664:(inactive September 12, 2024).
3575:"Surrogacy and Hindu mythology"
3538:Canada, Santé (July 12, 2017).
3177:"Surrogacy: Erasing the Mother"
3094:Indian Journal of Public Health
2674:"Guide to State Surrogacy Laws"
2015:Johnson, Bonnie (May 4, 1987).
1562:Zhao, Yue (November 15, 2023).
1332:Reproductive BioMedicine Online
648:assisted reproductive technique
594:pretext of ensuring consistent
5282:National Fatherhood Initiative
4329:Gamete intrafallopian transfer
4276:Zygote intrafallopian transfer
4034:Li, Shan (February 18, 2012).
2726:. Retrieved December 13, 2011.
2143:University of California Press
2098:Medical Anthropology Quarterly
606:reproductive rights landmark.
1:
5287:National Parents Organization
5012:Adverse childhood experiences
4433:Genetic diagnosis of intersex
4261:Partner-assisted reproduction
3778:10.1016/S1472-6483(10)60748-1
3268:10.1136/medethics-2012-100527
3204:Journal of Bioethical Inquiry
1450:BioMed Research International
5052:Effects of domestic violence
4694:Social emotional development
2678:Center for American Progress
1848:10.1016/0020-7292(96)02660-4
790:Hinduism, The Santana Dharma
4868:Identification (psychology)
4271:Transvaginal ovum retrieval
4012:Teman, Elly (March, 2010).
2809:10.4337/9781802207651.00029
2717:"Birth Orders: An Overview"
1832:"FIGO Committee guidelines"
988:Russian invasion of Ukraine
806:, including a story in the
743:, contends in the magazine
414:2021 – The
5359:
5292:Parentâteacher association
5067:Parental abuse by children
4948:Positive Parenting Program
4898:Parent management training
4893:Normative social influence
3862:Philadelphia Museum of Art
3573:keyadutta (June 6, 2016).
2739:. hcch.net. Archived from
2442:10.1037/0012-1649.40.3.400
1581:10.1057/s41599-023-02370-x
1345:10.1016/j.rbmo.2014.06.004
1290:10.1576/toag.11.1.49.27468
978:
948:United Hebrew Congregation
690:
478:
398:1990 – In
29:
5277:National Childbirth Trust
5072:Stress in early childhood
4792:Taking children seriously
4624:Applied behavior analysis
4438:Religious response to ART
3835:10.1017/9781108394871.003
3662:10.31940/soshum.v9i1.1267
3599:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
3256:Journal of Medical Ethics
3216:10.1007/s11673-015-9646-4
2618:Journal of Medical Ethics
2277:Human Reproduction Update
1771:Human Reproduction Update
1614:Human Reproduction Update
1512:Human Reproduction Update
1398:Human Reproduction Update
1081:Surrogacy laws by country
1046:Commercial animal cloning
634:Those concerned with the
481:Surrogacy laws by country
449:resolve after some time.
368:cryopreservation of sperm
241:Indications for surrogacy
58:, dangers or undesirable
4933:The talk (sex education)
4644:Developmental psychology
4256:Ovarian hyperstimulation
3950:The Schechter Institutes
3446:10.1177/0308518x18769652
3107:10.4103/0019-557X.114984
3037:10.4103/0970-0218.103466
2934:10.4103/0970-0218.103466
2513:Developmental Psychology
2429:Developmental Psychology
2234:Journal of Social Issues
2111:10.1525/maq.2003.17.1.78
1678:10.4103/jhrs.JHRS_138_17
1159:10.3390/medicina57010047
1086:Third-party reproduction
5140:Parental responsibility
5100:Cost of raising a child
4292:Artificial insemination
4138:Male infertility crisis
2722:April 23, 2012, at the
2630:10.1136/jme.2008.027763
2375:Fertility and Sterility
2213:Ragone, Helena (1994).
1918:Postgate, J.N. (1992).
1394:"Gestational surrogacy"
1205:Rev Bras Ginecol Obstet
1036:Artificial insemination
873:was transferred from a
416:Supreme Court of Mexico
376:1978 –
347:1944 –
285:uncomplicated pregnancy
108:artificial insemination
4443:Mitochondrial donation
4377:Donor Sibling Registry
4216:Assisted zona hatching
4205:In vitro fertilisation
2860:10.5582/bst.2022.01263
1969:Merino, Faith (2010).
1213:10.1055/s-0042-1759774
1022:Human sexuality portal
859:
819:
776:in vitro fertilisation
724:as a manifestation of
427:Psychological concerns
349:Harvard Medical School
44:
5262:Families Need Fathers
4823:After-school activity
4747:Concerted cultivation
4742:Buddha-like parenting
4674:Nature versus nurture
4639:Cognitive development
3628:classroom.synonym.com
3487:10.1093/humrep/dew068
2784:on September 7, 2015.
2766:. repub.eur.nl: 1â54.
2698:Baudouin, Christine.
2290:10.1093/humupd/dmv046
2175:10.1093/humrep/dem155
1926:. Routledge. p.
1888:10.1093/humrep/deg397
1811:Global Star Surrogacy
1784:10.1093/humupd/dmv046
1732:10.1093/humrep/deu333
1627:10.1093/humupd/dmv046
1525:10.1093/humupd/dmv046
1411:10.1093/humupd/dmg033
1112:"surrogate pregnancy"
952:Jewish Medical Ethics
893:Jain texts, however.
857:
828:assisted reproduction
812:
731:Others reference the
446:postpartum depression
263:Gestational surrogacy
118:Gestational surrogacy
95:Traditional surrogacy
42:
5333:Gendered occupations
5120:Right to family life
5047:Dysfunctional family
4757:Free-range parenting
4732:Attachment parenting
4722:Achievement ideology
4334:Reproductive surgery
4226:Cytoplasmic transfer
4156:Estrogen antagonists
4148:Fertility medication
3772:(Suppl 1): 140â142.
3744:Community in Mission
2743:on November 4, 2013.
2135:Teman, Elly (2010).
1987:(January 28, 1997).
1985:Van Gelder, Lawrence
1842:(3): 297â302. 1996.
1463:10.1155/2018/6287507
420:the state of Tabasco
207:placental abruptions
104:natural insemination
60:factors of pregnancy
5135:Parental alienation
5062:Narcissistic parent
4986:Positive discipline
4807:Work at home parent
4787:Strict father model
4772:Nurturant parenting
4679:Parental investment
4514:Kinship terminology
4346:Selective reduction
4297:Ovulation induction
4241:In vitro maturation
4236:Gestational carrier
4161:aromatase inhibitor
3437:2018EnPlA..50.1626S
2797:"Surrogacy in Asia"
2680:. December 17, 2007
2196:Teman, Elly. 2003.
1807:"What is Surrogacy"
741:University of Tokyo
636:rights of the child
585:Gestational carrier
18:Surrogate pregnancy
5181:T. Berry Brazelton
4918:Social integration
4654:Identity formation
4372:Donor registration
4339:Vasectomy reversal
4028:The Jerusalem Post
3989:The Globe and Mail
3474:Human Reproduction
3331:10.1093/jlb/lsy013
2162:Human Reproduction
2074:Surrogacy Miracles
1994:The New York Times
1875:Human Reproduction
1719:Human Reproduction
1118:. February 2, 2011
860:
784:stem cell research
780:sexual intercourse
405:Calvert v. Johnson
289:Caesarean sections
45:
5305:
5304:
5115:Family disruption
5037:Cinderella effect
5017:Child abandonment
4991:Tactical ignoring
4888:Moral development
4767:Helicopter parent
4762:Gatekeeper parent
4727:Atlas personality
4704:Social psychology
4649:Human development
4634:Child development
4619:Attachment theory
4472:
4471:
4423:Accidental incest
4133:Fertility tourism
4128:Fertility testing
4041:Los Angeles Times
3805:www.beliefnet.com
3183:. January 9, 2019
2847:BioScience Trends
2818:978-1-80220-765-1
2662:. April 25, 2017.
2056:Los Angeles Times
1937:978-0-415-11032-7
1881:(10): 2196â2204.
981:Fertility tourism
975:Fertility tourism
943:human trafficking
800:T. C. Anand Kumar
678:Financial aspects
640:child trafficking
453:Child and parents
334:Schering-Kahlbaum
189:Surrogate mothers
72:fertility tourism
16:(Redirected from
5350:
5155:Shared parenting
4966:Blanket training
4958:Child discipline
4598:In loco parentis
4577:Shared parenting
4499:
4492:
4485:
4476:
4397:Semen collection
4302:Cryopreservation
4251:Oocyte selection
4123:Fertility clinic
4085:
4078:
4071:
4062:
4000:
3999:
3997:
3995:
3981:
3975:
3974:
3973:. April 3, 2023.
3967:
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3721:"Paragraph 2376"
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3480:(6): 1275â1287.
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3431:(8): 1626â1645.
3416:
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2999:
2997:
2995:
2989:The Conversation
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2525:10.1037/a0025292
2519:(6): 1579â1588.
2504:
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1108:
1071:Sexual surrogate
1024:
1019:
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1005:
1004:
1003:
911:Jewish community
808:Bhagavata Purana
687:Religious issues
468:parenting stress
21:
5358:
5357:
5353:
5352:
5351:
5349:
5348:
5347:
5343:Human commodity
5323:Human pregnancy
5308:
5307:
5306:
5301:
5250:
5231:Matthew Sanders
5186:Rudolf Dreikurs
5159:
5145:Parents' rights
5105:Deadbeat parent
5082:
5076:
5000:
4952:
4928:The talk (race)
4811:
4802:Tiger parenting
4708:
4603:
4552:Extended family
4508:
4503:
4473:
4468:
4452:
4428:Fertility fraud
4411:
4360:
4280:
4231:Embryo transfer
4208:
4199:
4142:
4094:
4089:
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4009:
4007:Further reading
4004:
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3579:herencyclopedia
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2724:Wayback Machine
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2014:
2013:
2009:
1999:
1997:
1983:
1982:
1978:
1968:
1967:
1963:
1958:. May 13, 2017.
1950:
1949:
1945:
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1917:
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1315:. VittoriaVita.
1311:
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1119:
1110:
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1100:
1095:
1056:Embryo transfer
1020:
1013:
1008:Medicine portal
1006:
1001:
999:
996:
983:
977:
922:Jewish religion
907:
881:, the queen of
852:
840:
792:
763:Catholic Church
759:
754:
715:Buddhist values
703:
695:
689:
680:
656:
632:
587:
578:
561:
553:
544:
483:
477:
455:
434:
429:
315:
265:
256:cervical cancer
243:
235:oocyte donation
223:embryo transfer
219:
203:placenta previa
199:oocyte donation
191:
174:
169:
120:
97:
88:
82:the surrogate.
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5356:
5354:
5346:
5345:
5340:
5335:
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5310:
5309:
5303:
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5294:
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5279:
5274:
5272:Mothers' Union
5269:
5264:
5258:
5256:
5252:
5251:
5249:
5248:
5246:Benjamin Spock
5243:
5238:
5233:
5228:
5226:Penelope Leach
5223:
5221:Annette Lareau
5218:
5213:
5211:Alan E. Kazdin
5208:
5203:
5198:
5193:
5188:
5183:
5178:
5173:
5171:Mary Ainsworth
5167:
5165:
5161:
5160:
5158:
5157:
5152:
5147:
5142:
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5132:
5127:
5122:
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5112:
5107:
5102:
5097:
5092:
5086:
5084:
5083:social aspects
5078:
5077:
5075:
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5069:
5064:
5059:
5054:
5049:
5044:
5039:
5034:
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5002:
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4850:
4848:Dishabituation
4845:
4840:
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4825:
4819:
4817:
4813:
4812:
4810:
4809:
4804:
4799:
4794:
4789:
4784:
4779:
4777:Slow parenting
4774:
4769:
4764:
4759:
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4749:
4744:
4739:
4734:
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4626:
4621:
4615:
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4608:Theories
4605:
4604:
4602:
4601:
4594:
4589:
4587:Blended family
4584:
4579:
4574:
4569:
4567:Nuclear family
4564:
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4539:
4534:
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4358:
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4348:
4343:
4342:
4341:
4331:
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4325:
4324:
4319:
4317:ovarian tissue
4314:
4309:
4299:
4294:
4288:
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4282:
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4258:
4253:
4248:
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4218:
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4209:and expansions
4201:
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4050:
4049:External links
4047:
4046:
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4032:
4019:
4008:
4005:
4002:
4001:
3976:
3962:
3927:
3892:
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3783:
3756:
3725:
3713:
3689:
3640:
3606:
3556:
3519:
3460:
3411:
3374:(5): 269â277.
3354:
3325:(2): 375â397.
3305:
3262:(6): 397â402.
3245:
3210:(3): 383â387.
3194:
3161:
3129:
3069:
3030:(4): 211â213.
3001:
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2927:(4): 211â213.
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2853:(4): 302â309.
2830:
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2787:
2769:
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2708:
2691:
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2624:(5): 320â322.
2608:
2589:
2567:
2548:
2499:
2472:(2): 213â222.
2455:
2436:(3): 400â411.
2418:
2361:
2332:(7): 471â480.
2312:
2283:(2): 260â276.
2260:
2223:
2219:Westview Books
2206:
2189:
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2124:
2087:
2061:
2042:
2033:
2007:
1976:
1961:
1943:
1936:
1910:
1861:
1823:
1798:
1777:(2): 260â276.
1754:
1725:(2): 345â352.
1702:
1671:(3): 212â218.
1649:
1620:(2): 260â276.
1595:
1547:
1518:(2): 260â276.
1495:
1433:
1404:(5): 483â491.
1384:
1359:
1338:(4): 424â435.
1318:
1304:
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1129:
1116:www.cancer.gov
1102:
1101:
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1094:
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1088:
1083:
1078:
1076:Sperm donation
1073:
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1043:
1038:
1033:
1027:
1026:
1025:
1011:
995:
992:
979:Main article:
976:
973:
938:modern slavery
906:
903:
887:Harinegameshin
851:
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839:
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796:Hindu religion
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576:Ethical issues
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479:Main article:
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5257:
5255:Organizations
5253:
5247:
5244:
5242:
5241:B. F. Skinner
5239:
5237:
5236:William Sears
5234:
5232:
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5206:Thomas Gordon
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5095:Child support
5093:
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5090:Child custody
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5032:Child neglect
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5018:
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4863:Homeschooling
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4684:Paternal bond
4682:
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4582:Single parent
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4553:
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4543:
4542:Alloparenting
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4459:
4455:
4449:
4448:Sex selection
4446:
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4378:
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4357:
4354:
4352:
4351:Sex selection
4349:
4347:
4344:
4340:
4337:
4336:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4323:
4320:
4318:
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4310:
4308:
4305:
4304:
4303:
4300:
4298:
4295:
4293:
4290:
4289:
4287:
4285:Other methods
4283:
4277:
4274:
4272:
4269:
4267:
4264:
4262:
4259:
4257:
4254:
4252:
4249:
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4214:
4213:
4211:
4206:
4202:
4196:
4193:
4189:
4186:
4185:
4184:
4183:Gonadotropins
4181:
4179:
4178:GnRH agonists
4176:
4174:
4171:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4158:
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4151:
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4056:
4053:
4052:
4048:
4043:
4042:
4037:
4033:
4030:
4029:
4024:
4023:"Womb to Let"
4020:
4017:
4016:
4011:
4010:
4006:
3990:
3986:
3980:
3977:
3972:
3966:
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3844:9781108394871
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3557:
3545:
3544:www.canada.ca
3541:
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3213:
3209:
3205:
3198:
3195:
3182:
3181:Fair Observer
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2896:
2892:
2888:
2887:The Economist
2884:
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2034:
2022:
2018:
2011:
2008:
1996:
1995:
1990:
1986:
1980:
1977:
1972:
1965:
1962:
1957:
1956:The Economist
1953:
1947:
1944:
1939:
1933:
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1911:
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772:
768:
764:
756:
751:
749:
746:
742:
738:
734:
729:
727:
723:
722:reincarnation
718:
716:
711:
707:
700:
698:
694:
686:
684:
677:
675:
671:
669:
665:
664:"çæ© shÄng'Än"
660:
653:
651:
649:
643:
641:
637:
629:
627:
623:
621:
617:
612:
607:
605:
599:
597:
596:prenatal care
591:
584:
582:
575:
573:
569:
565:
558:
556:
550:
548:
541:
539:
535:
531:
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286:
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278:
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260:
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253:
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238:
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231:
230:preterm birth
226:
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210:
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196:
188:
186:
182:
179:
171:
166:
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157:
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147:
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139:
138:
136:
132:
131:fertilization
130:
125:
117:
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111:
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105:
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94:
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85:
83:
79:
77:
73:
67:
63:
61:
57:
53:
49:
41:
37:
33:
19:
5191:David Elkind
5042:Codependency
5027:Child labour
4883:Latchkey kid
4873:Introjection
4659:Introjection
4609:
4596:
4591:
4562:Noncustodial
4382:Egg donation
4355:
4039:
4026:
4014:
3992:. Retrieved
3988:
3979:
3965:
3953:. Retrieved
3949:
3918:. Retrieved
3886:
3861:
3852:
3826:
3820:
3808:. Retrieved
3804:
3769:
3765:
3759:
3747:. Retrieved
3743:
3716:
3704:. Retrieved
3678:cite journal
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