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conditions. Some hatcheries collect wild adults and then bring them in for conditioning whilst others maintain a permanent breeding stock. Conditioning is achieved by holding broodstock in flow-through tanks at optimal conditions for light, temperature, salinity, flow rate and food availability (optimal levels are species specific). Another important aspect of broodstock conditioning is ensuring the production of high quality eggs to improve growth and survival of larvae by optimising the health and welfare of broodstock individuals. Egg quality is often determined by the nutritional condition of the mother. High levels of lipid reserves in particular are required to improve larval survival rates.
261:
facilities can be performed in a variety of different systems which may be entirely land-based, or larvae may be later transferred to sea-based rearing systems which reduce the need to supply feed. Juvenile survival is dependent on very high quality water conditions. Feeding is an important component of the rearing process. Although many species are able to grow on maternal reserves alone (lecithotrophy), most commercially produced species require feeding to optimise survival, growth, yield and juvenile quality. Nutritional requirements are species specific and also vary with larval stage. Carnivorous fish are commonly fed with live prey;
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small-scale hatcheries are often utilized in subsistence farming to supply families or communities particularly in south-east Asia. A small-scale hatchery unit consists of larval rearing tanks, filters, live food production tanks and a flow through water supply. A generalized commercial scale hatchery would contain a broodstock holding and spawning area, feed culture facility, larval culture area, juvenile culture area, pump facilities, laboratory, quarantine area, and offices and bathrooms.
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230:: Thermal shock, where cool water is alternated with warmer water in flow-through tanks can induce spawning. Alternatively, if environmental cues that stimulate natural spawning are known, these can be mimicked in the tank e.g. changing salinity to simulate migratory behaviour. Many individuals can be induced to spawn this way, however this increases the likelihood of uncontrolled fertilisation occurring.
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275:. The production of live feed on-site or buying-in is one of the biggest costs for hatchery facilities as it is a labour-intensive process. The development of artificial feeds is targeted to reduce the costs involved in live feed production and increase the consistency of nutrition, however decreased growth and survival has been found with these alternatives.
348:). Such fish that escape from farms or are released for restocking purposes may adversely affect wild population genetics and viability. This is of particular concern where escaped fish have been actively bred or are otherwise genetically modified. The third key issue is that genetic modification of food items is highly undesirable for many people. See
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There is much interest in supplementing exploited stocks of fish by releasing juveniles that may be wild caught and reared in nurseries before transplanting, or produced solely within a hatchery. Culture of finfish larvae has been utilised extensively in the United States in stock enhancement efforts
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if suitable conditions are found. Once metamorphosis has taken place the juveniles are generally known as spat, it is this phase which is then transported to on-growing facilities. Settlement behaviour is governed by a range of cues including substrate type, water flow, temperature, and the presence
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Rearing larvae through the early life stages is conducted in nurseries which are generally closely associated with hatcheries for fish culture whilst it is common for shellfish nurseries to exist separately. Nursery culture of larvae to rear juveniles of a size suitable for transferral to on-growing
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between a large number of individuals is necessary to retain genetic diversity in hatchery produced stock. Batches of eggs are kept separate, fertilised with sperm obtained from several males and allowed to stand for an hour or two before samples are analyzed under a microscope to ensure high rates
206:
conditioning is the process of bringing adults into spawning condition by promoting the development of gonads. Broodstock conditioning can also extend spawning beyond natural spawning periods, or for production of species reared outside their natural geographic range with different environmental
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Hatchery designs are highly flexible and are tailored to the requirements of site, species produced, geographic location, funding and personal preferences. Many hatchery facilities are small and coupled to larger on-growing operations, whilst others may produce juveniles solely for sale. Very
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Consistent supply of fish from aquaculture facilities is an important market requirement. Broodstock conditioning can extend the natural spawning season and thus the supply of juveniles to farms. Supply can be further guaranteed by sourcing from hatcheries in the opposite hemisphere i.e. with
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The value of global aquaculture farming is estimated to be US$ 98.4 billion in 2008 with China significantly dominating the market; however, the value of aquaculture hatchery and nursery production has yet to be estimated. Additional hatchery production for small-scale domestic uses, which is
173:
In 2008 aquaculture accounted for 46% of total food fish supply, around 115 million tonnes. Although wild caught juveniles are still utilised in the industry, concerns over sustainability of extracting juveniles, and the variable timing and magnitude of natural spawning events, make hatchery
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of chemical cues indicating the presence of adults, or a food source etc. Hatchery facilities therefore need to understand these cues to induce settlement and also be able to substitute artificial substrates to allow for easy handling and transportation with minimal mortality.
225:: For shellfish, gonads are generally removed and gametes are extracted or washed free. Fish can be manually stripped of eggs and sperm by stroking the anaesthetised fish under the pectoral fins towards the anus causing gametes to freely flow out.
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thus affecting the success of the facility. Secondly, hatchery reared juveniles, even from a fairly large broodstock, can have greatly reduced genetic diversity compared to wild populations (the situation is comparable to the
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and scale of production are vital considerations. The cost of production for stock-enhancement programmes is further complicated by the difficulty of assessing the benefits to wild populations from restocking activities.
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can occur in hatcheries during the regular spawning season however where more control over spawning time is required spawning of mature animals can be induced by a variety of methods. Some of the more common methods
154:
programs which aim to improve production characteristics such as growth rate, disease resistance, survival, colour, increased fecundity and/or lower age of maturation. Genetic improvement can be mediated by
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Hatcheries produce larval and juvenile fish and shellfish for transferral to aquaculture facilities where they are ‘on-grown’ to reach harvest size. Hatchery production confers three main benefits to the
698:
Taylor, J.J., Southgate, P.C., Rose, R.A. (1998). Assessment of artificial substrates for collection of hatchery-reared silver-lip pearl oyster (Pinctada maxima, Jameson) spat. Aquaculture 162, 219–230
689:
Zhao, B., Zhang, S., Qian, P.-Y. (2003). Larval settlement of the silver- or goldlip pearl oyster
Pinctada maxima (Jameson) in response to natural biofilms and chemical cues. Aquaculture 220, 883–901
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Kam, L. E., P. Leung, A. C. Ostrowski and A. Molnar (2002). Size
Economies of a Pacific Threadfin Polydactylus sexfilis Hatchery in Hawaii. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 33(4): 410–424
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Wilson, J.A., Chaparro, O.R., Thompson, R.J. (1996). The importance of broodstock nutrition on the viability of larvae and spat in the
Chilean oyster Ostrea chilensis. Aquaculture 139, 63–75
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Powell, E.N., Bochenek, E.A., Klinck, J.M., Hofmann, E.E. (2002). Influence of food quality and quantity on the growth and development of
Crassostrea gigas larvae: a modeling approach.
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Hatchery facilities present three main problems in the field of genetics. The first is that maintenance of a small number of broodstock can cause inbreeding and potentially lead to
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Utting, S.D., Millican, P.F. (1997). Techniques for the hatchery conditioning of bivalve broodstocks and the subsequent effect of egg quality and larval viability.
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Other arguments that surround fish farms such as the supplementation of feed from wild caught species, the prevalence of disease, fish welfare issues and potential
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Lee, C. S., P. S. Leung and M. S. Su (1997) Bioeconomic evaluation of different fry production systems for milkfish (Chanoschanos). Aquaculture 155(1-4): 367-376.
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The hatchery production of shellfish also involves a crucial settling phase where free-swimming larvae settle out of the water onto a substrate and undergo
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Huntingford F.A. (2004) Implications of domestic and rearing conditions for the behaviour of cultivated fishes
Journal of Fish Biology 65(SUPPL A): 122-142
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Kungvankij P., Tiro L.B. Jr, Pudadera B.J. Jr., Potesta I.O. (1985) Training Manual: Biology and
Culture of Sea Bass (Lates calcarifer) FAO, Rome, 75pp.
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Moretti A., Fernandex-Criado M.P., Vetillart R. (2005) Manual on
Hatchery Production of Seabass and Gilthead Seabream Volume 2 FAO, Rome, 163pp.
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Genetic modification is conducted in some hatcheries to improve the quality and yield of farmed species. Artificial fertilisation facilitates
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Labour is generally the largest cost in hatchery production making up more than 50% of total costs. Hatcheries are a business and thus
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Cahu C., ´ZamboninoInfante J. (2001) Substitution of live food by formulated diets in marine fish larvae
Aquaculture 200(1–2): 161–180
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Demoulin F. (1999) Guidelines for broodstock and hatchery management; Support for technical services FAO, Rome, 59pp.
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United States Fish and
Wildlife Service: Fisheries and Habitat Conservation (2009) National Fish Hatchery System
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Crespi V., Coche A. (2008) Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Glossary of Aquaculture
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50:, and rearing through the early life stages of animals—finfish and shellfish in particular. Hatcheries produce
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235:: A number of chemicals can be used to induce spawning with various hormones being the most commonly used.
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particularly prevalent in South-East Asia or for conservation programmes, has also yet to be quantified.
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Lee C.S., Ostrowski A.C. (2001) "Current status of marine finfish larviculture in the United States".
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Sim, S. Y., M. A. Rimmer, J. D. Toledo, K. Sugama, I. Rumengan, K. Williams and M. J. Phillips (2005).
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Multi-Species Fish and Invertebrate Breeding and Hatchery, (Oceanographic Marine Laboratory in Lucap,
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Helm, M.M., Bourne, N. (2004) Hatchery culture of bivalves: a practical manual. FAO, Rome,201pp.
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to replenish natural populations. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service have established a
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of fertilisation and to estimate numbers to be transferred to larval rearing tanks.
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production an attractive alternative to support the growing demands of aquaculture.
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Juvenile salmon towards the end of their stay in a hatchery
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A guide to small-scale marine finfish hatchery technology
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to support the conservation of native fish species.
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170:3. Reduce dependence on wild-caught juveniles
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576:NZ Aquaculture
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550:
510:
497:
477:
459:
439:
421:
406:
404:
401:
400:
399:
391:
386:
381:
376:
369:
366:
357:
354:
346:founder effect
336:
333:
331:
328:
318:
315:
293:
290:
280:
277:
257:
254:
240:
237:
212:
209:
200:
197:
179:
176:
115:
112:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2104:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2079:
2077:
2062:
2061:
2052:
2050:
2049:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2029:
2026:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2009:Fishing banks
2007:
2005:
2002:
2001:
1999:
1995:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1942:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1897:
1895:
1893:
1889:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1868:
1865:
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1837:
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1832:
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1822:
1820:
1817:
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1812:
1810:
1807:
1806:
1804:
1802:
1798:
1792:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1773:
1771:
1769:
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1760:
1750:
1747:
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1742:
1740:
1737:
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1732:
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1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
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1712:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1696:
1694:
1692:
1688:
1683:
1679:
1672:
1667:
1665:
1660:
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1653:
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1649:
1629:
1626:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1609:
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1606:
1604:
1601:
1599:
1596:
1594:
1591:
1589:
1586:
1584:
1581:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1490:
1488:
1484:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1447:Marine shrimp
1445:
1443:
1442:Hirudiculture
1440:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1419:
1417:
1415:Other species
1413:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1392:
1389:
1387:
1384:
1382:
1379:
1378:
1376:
1374:
1370:
1364:
1363:US hatcheries
1361:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1344:
1341:
1339:
1338:Fish stocking
1336:
1334:
1333:Fish hatchery
1331:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1304:
1301:
1300:
1298:
1296:
1292:
1286:
1285:Recirculating
1283:
1281:
1278:
1276:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1266:
1263:
1261:
1258:
1256:
1253:
1251:
1250:Inland saline
1248:
1246:
1243:
1241:
1240:Copper alloys
1238:
1236:
1233:
1231:
1228:
1226:
1223:
1222:
1220:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1197:
1193:
1179:
1176:
1174:
1173:Fishing banks
1171:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1160:
1158:
1154:
1148:
1145:
1143:
1140:
1138:
1135:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1123:
1120:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1111:
1105:
1102:
1100:
1097:
1095:
1092:
1090:
1087:
1085:
1082:
1080:
1077:
1076:
1074:
1072:
1068:
1062:
1059:
1057:
1054:
1052:
1049:
1047:
1044:
1042:
1039:
1037:
1034:
1032:
1029:
1027:
1024:
1022:
1019:
1017:
1014:
1012:
1009:
1007:
1004:
1002:
999:
997:
996:Fish emulsion
994:
992:
989:
987:
986:Cod liver oil
984:
982:
979:
977:
974:
972:
969:
968:
966:
964:
963:Fish products
960:
954:
951:
949:
946:
944:
941:
939:
936:
934:
931:
929:
928:Filleted fish
926:
924:
921:
919:
916:
914:
911:
909:
906:
904:
901:
900:
898:
896:
892:
887:
877:
874:
872:
869:
867:
864:
862:
859:
857:
854:
852:
849:
847:
844:
842:
839:
837:
834:
832:
831:Pair trawling
829:
827:
824:
822:
819:
817:
814:
812:
809:
808:
806:
804:
800:
796:
792:
787:
783:
774:
769:
767:
762:
760:
755:
754:
751:
743:
742:
736:
731:
727:
726:
722:
713:
710:
704:
701:
695:
692:
686:
683:
677:
674:
668:
666:
662:
658:
652:
649:
645:
639:
637:
633:
627:
624:
621:
616:
613:
610:
605:
603:
601:
599:
597:
595:
593:
589:
586:
582:
579:
577:
570:
567:
564:
559:
557:
555:
551:
548:
543:
541:
539:
537:
535:
533:
531:
529:
527:
525:
523:
521:
519:
517:
515:
511:
507:
501:
498:
494:
488:
486:
484:
482:
478:
475:5(2): 185–222
474:
468:
466:
464:
460:
457:
454:
448:
446:
444:
440:
437:
432:
430:
428:
426:
422:
419:
414:
412:
408:
402:
398:
397:
392:
390:
387:
385:
382:
380:
377:
375:
372:
371:
367:
365:
363:
355:
353:
351:
347:
342:
334:
329:
327:
324:
316:
314:
307:
303:
298:
291:
289:
286:
285:metamorphosis
278:
276:
274:
270:
269:
264:
255:
253:
250:
246:
245:fertilisation
239:Fertilisation
238:
236:
234:
229:
224:
218:
210:
208:
205:
198:
192:
184:
177:
175:
171:
166:
162:
161:hybridization
158:
153:
148:
141:
132:
128:
124:
120:
113:
111:
109:
103:
99:
97:
93:
89:
85:
84:Indian prawns
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
56:juvenile fish
53:
49:
45:
44:fish hatchery
37:
32:
19:
2087:Fish farming
2058:
2046:
1925:Spearfishing
1714:Fish farming
1583:South Africa
1467:Sea cucumber
1422:Brine shrimp
1401:Raceway pond
1343:Spawning bed
1332:
1323:Fish farming
1295:Fish farming
1132:Maine Avenue
1122:Billingsgate
1114:Fish markets
1089:Chasse-marée
1061:Surströmming
1051:Shrimp paste
976:Fish as food
908:Factory ship
903:Fish factory
739:
712:
703:
694:
685:
676:
656:
651:
643:
626:
615:
575:
569:
500:
492:
472:
452:
395:
359:
338:
320:
311:
282:
266:
259:
242:
232:
227:
222:
214:
202:
169:
146:
139:
135:
104:
100:
43:
41:
1910:Fishing net
1882:Fly fishing
1744:Overfishing
1699:Aquaculture
1684:topic areas
1588:South Korea
1568:Philippines
1553:New Zealand
1472:Sea sponges
1373:Algaculture
1260:Mariculture
1217:Aquaculture
1201:Aquaculture
1178:Other areas
948:Smoked fish
943:Salted fish
876:Power block
851:Gillnetting
659:210, 89–117
657:Aquaculture
644:Aquaculture
493:Aquaculture
306:Philippines
273:zooplankton
271:nauplii or
167:techniques.
163:, or other
127:Inchnadamph
68:aquaculture
64:crustaceans
34:Tanks in a
2076:Categories
2004:Fish ponds
1905:Fishfinder
1892:Techniques
1854:Recreation
1834:Processing
1814:By country
1538:Madagascar
1513:East Timor
1486:By country
1386:Microalgae
1381:Giant kelp
1303:Broodstock
1230:Aquaponics
1094:Fishmonger
1021:Fish sauce
923:Dried fish
918:Slurry ice
856:Longlining
646:155, 45–54
495:200:89–109
403:References
356:Fish farms
204:Broodstock
199:Broodstock
72:fish farms
1997:Locations
1900:Fish trap
1824:Marketing
1781:Fisherman
1691:Fisheries
1678:Fisheries
1528:Indonesia
1493:Australia
1358:Tailwater
1328:Fish feed
1001:Fish meal
396:Fish Hawk
243:Prior to
137:industry:
60:shellfish
38:hatchery.
2060:Category
2032:Glossary
1935:Trolling
1930:Trawling
1839:Products
1801:Industry
1533:Kiribati
1462:Scallops
1270:Offshore
1099:Fishwife
1041:Lutefisk
1011:Fish oil
991:Fish roe
866:Dredging
861:Trolling
826:Trawling
732:(1920).
581:Archived
368:See also
263:rotifers
217:spawning
215:Natural
211:Spawning
96:scallops
48:hatching
2048:Outline
1862:Angling
1844:Seafood
1829:Markets
1768:Fishing
1682:fishing
1628:Vanuatu
1477:Turtles
1457:Oysters
1452:Octopus
1437:Geoduck
1406:Seaweed
1353:Tilapia
1308:Catfish
1280:Raceway
1275:Organic
1147:Tsukiji
1046:Rakfisk
1026:Gravlax
971:Seafood
953:Kippers
933:Gibbing
846:Seining
335:Genetic
317:Expense
268:Artemia
129:in the
114:Purpose
92:tilapia
1988:Sinker
1945:Tackle
1616:Hawaii
1611:Alaska
1598:Tuvalu
1498:Canada
1348:Salmon
1142:Scania
1127:Fulton
1056:Surimi
1031:Hákarl
981:Caviar
578:20: 11
330:Issues
256:Larvae
159:, via
123:Assynt
88:salmon
80:shrimp
62:, and
52:larval
36:shrimp
2037:Index
1978:Lures
1621:Maine
1593:Tonga
1573:Samoa
1558:Palau
1548:Nauru
1508:China
1503:Chile
1427:Coral
1313:Cobia
394:USFC
1973:Line
1968:Hook
1958:Bait
1680:and
1523:Fiji
1203:and
220:are:
94:and
54:and
1983:Rod
1036:Lox
2078::
738:.
664:^
635:^
591:^
553:^
513:^
480:^
462:^
442:^
424:^
410:^
352:.
304:,
98:.
90:,
86:,
82:,
78:,
58:,
42:A
1670:e
1663:t
1656:v
772:e
765:t
758:v
744:.
20:)
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