Salt (chemistry) - Knowledge (XXG)

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low vapour pressures, and require substantially higher temperatures to boil. Boiling points exhibit similar trends to melting points in terms of the size of ions and strength of other interactions. When vapourized, the ions are still not freed of one another. For example, in the vapour phase sodium chloride exists as diatomic "molecules".

1915:, one or more of the ionic components has a significant mobility, allowing conductivity even while the material as a whole remains solid. This is often highly temperature dependent, and may be the result of either a phase change or a high defect concentration. These materials are used in all solid-state 1631:

show molecule-like structures in the liquid phase). Inorganic compounds with simple ions typically have small ions, and thus have high melting points, so are solids at room temperature. Some substances with larger ions, however, have a melting point below or near room temperature (often defined as up

1438:

beneficial, they occur in greater concentration at higher temperatures. Once generated, these pairs of defects can diffuse mostly independently of one another, by hopping between lattice sites. This defect mobility is the source of most transport phenomena within an ionic crystal, including diffusion

1643:

Even when the local structure and bonding of an ionic solid is disrupted sufficiently to melt it, there are still strong long-range electrostatic forces of attraction holding the liquid together and preventing ions boiling to form a gas phase. This means that even room temperature ionic liquids have

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will have a stoichiometry that depends on which oxidation states are present, to ensure overall neutrality. This can be indicated in the name by specifying either the oxidation state of the elements present, or the charge on the ions. Because of the risk of ambiguity in allocating oxidation states,

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have described and widely used metal-containing salts as sources of colour in fireworks. Under intense heat, the electrons in the metal ions or small molecules can be excited. These electrons later return to lower energy states, and release light with a colour spectrum characteristic of the species

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can be applied, whereby the compounds with the most ionic character are those consisting of hard acids and hard bases: small, highly charged ions with a high difference in electronegativities between the anion and cation. This difference in electronegativities means that the charge separation, and

859:

The lattice energy is the summation of the interaction of all sites with all other sites. For unpolarizable spherical ions, only the charges and distances are required to determine the electrostatic interaction energy. For any particular ideal crystal structure, all distances are geometrically

723: 486:. In this method, the reactants are repeatedly finely ground into a paste and then heated to a temperature where the ions in neighboring reactants can diffuse together during the time the reactant mixture remains in the oven. Other synthetic routes use a solid precursor with the correct 798:

of the two interacting bodies is affected by the presence of one another, covalent interactions (non-ionic) also contribute to the overall energy of the compound formed. Salts are rarely purely ionic, i.e. held together only by electrostatic forces. The bonds between even the most

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of the opposite charges. To ensure that these do not contaminate the precipitated salt, it is important to ensure they do not also precipitate. If the two solutions have hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions as the counterions, they will react with one another in what is called an

3526:

This structure type can accommodate any charges on A and B that add up to six. When both are three the charge structure is equivalent to that of corrundum. The structure also has a variable lattice parameter c/a ratio, and the exact Madelung constant depends on

815:. Conversely, covalent bonds between unlike atoms often exhibit some charge separation and can be considered to have a partial ionic character. The circumstances under which a compound will have ionic or covalent character can typically be understood using 860:

related to the smallest internuclear distance. So for each possible crystal structure, the total electrostatic energy can be related to the electrostatic energy of unit charges at the nearest neighboring distance by a multiplicative constant called the

1417:

consist of one vacancy of each type, and are generated at the surfaces of a crystal, occurring most commonly in compounds with a high coordination number and when the anions and cations are of similar size. If the cations have multiple possible

1443:. When vacancies collide with interstitials (Frenkel), they can recombine and annihilate one another. Similarly, vacancies are removed when they reach the surface of the crystal (Schottky). Defects in the crystal structure generally expand the 1583:, being able to react with either an acid or a base. This is also true of some compounds with ionic character, typically oxides or hydroxides of less-electropositive metals (so the compound also has significant covalent character), such as 1412:

consist of a cation vacancy paired with a cation interstitial and can be generated anywhere in the bulk of the crystal, occurring most commonly in compounds with a low coordination number and cations that are much smaller than the anions.

1696:. For example, halides with the caesium chloride structure (coordination number 8) are less compressible than those with the sodium chloride structure (coordination number 6), and less again than those with a coordination number of 4. 819:, which use only charges and the sizes of each ion. According to these rules, compounds with the most ionic character will have large positive ions with a low charge, bonded to a small negative ion with a high charge. More generally 2757:

root of the name, to give special names for the low and high oxidation states. For example, this scheme uses "ferrous" and "ferric", for iron(II) and iron(III) respectively, so the examples given above were classically named

2019:

in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum). In compounds with less ionic character, their color deepens through yellow, orange, red, and black (as the absorption band shifts to longer wavelengths into the visible spectrum).

1796:, the cohesive forces between these ions within a solid, determines the solubility. The solubility is dependent on how well each ion interacts with the solvent, so certain patterns become apparent. For example, salts of 1407:

Within any crystal, there will usually be some defects. To maintain electroneutrality of the crystals, defects that involve loss of a cation will be associated with loss of an anion, i.e. these defects come in pairs.

1430:, a free electron occupying an anion vacancy. When the compound has three or more ionic components, even more defect types are possible. All of these point defects can be generated via thermal vibrations and have an 2745:, has uranium in an oxidation state of +6, so would be called a dioxouranium(VI) ion in Stock nomenclature. An even older naming system for metal cations, also still widely used, appended the suffixes 1769:

is higher. When the oppositely charged ions in the solid ionic lattice are surrounded by the opposite pole of a polar molecule, the solid ions are pulled out of the lattice and into the liquid. If the

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Insoluble salts can be precipitated by mixing two solutions, one with the cation and one with the anion in it. Because all solutions are electrically neutral, the two solutions mixed must also contain

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Individual ions within a salt usually have multiple near neighbours, so they are not considered to be part of molecules, but instead part of a continuous three-dimensional network. Salts usually form

2404:, water conditioning, for de-icing roads, and many other uses. Many salts are so widely used in society that they go by common names unrelated to their chemical identity. Examples of this include 1900:, they can conduct electricity because the ions become completely mobile. For this reason, molten salts and solutions containing dissolved salts (e.g., sodium chloride in water) can be used as 1607:

Electrostatic forces between particles are strongest when the charges are high, and the distance between the nuclei of the ions is small. In such cases, the compounds generally have very high

5158:

Rebelo, Luis P. N.; Canongia Lopes, José N.; Esperança, José M. S. S.; Filipe, Eduardo (2005-04-01). "On the Critical Temperature, Normal Boiling Point, and Vapor Pressure of Ionic Liquids".

5472: 2554:, the common name is written using two words. The name of the cation (the unmodified element name for monatomic cations) comes first, followed by the name of the anion. For example, MgCl 6292: 1730:

and dispersed throughout the resulting solution. Salts do not exist in solution. In contrast, molecular compounds, which includes most organic compounds, remain intact in solution.

1568:. If it is the result of a reaction between a strong acid and a strong base, the result is a neutral salt. Weak acids reacted with weak bases can produce ionic compounds with both the 4278: 3317:

COO. Most group 1 and 2 metals form strong salts. Strong salts are especially useful when creating conductive compounds as their constituent ions allow for greater conductivity.

5680: 5218: 288:, because the ions become mobile. Some salts have large cations, large anions, or both. In terms of their properties, such species often are more similar to organic compounds. 2677:

integer followed by the sign (... , 2−, 1−, 1+, 2+, ...) in parentheses directly after the name of the cation (without a space separating them). For example, FeSO

5728: 2550:, salts are named according to their composition, not their structure. In the most simple case of a binary salt with no possible ambiguity about the charges and thus the 824:

resulting dipole moment, is maintained even when the ions are in contact (the excess electrons on the anions are not transferred or polarized to neutralize the cations).

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is usually positive for most solid solutes like salts, which means that their solubility increases when the temperature increases. There are some unusual salts such as

1619:. Trends in melting points can be even better explained when the structure and ionic size ratio is taken into account. Above their melting point, salts melt and become 4483: 4357: 482:

of complex salts from solid reactants, which are first melted together. In other cases, the solid reactants do not need to be melted, but instead can react through a

1447:, reducing the overall density of the crystal. Defects also result in ions in distinctly different local environments, which causes them to experience a different 2459:. Because the solutes are charged ions they also increase the electrical conductivity of the solution. The increased ionic strength reduces the thickness of the 5418: 6525: 835:, for example, has led some philosophers of science to suggest that alternative approaches to understanding bonding are required. This could be by applying 5379:

D. Chasseau; G. Comberton; J. Gaultier; C. Hauw (1978). "Réexamen de la structure du complexe hexaméthylène-tétrathiafulvalène-tétracyanoquinodiméthane".

791:. The balance between these forces leads to a potential energy well with minimum energy when the nuclei are separated by a specific equilibrium distance. 772:

attraction between the net negative charge of the anions and net positive charge of the cations. There is also a small additional attractive force from

3833: 2633:(note that in both the empirical formula and the written name, the cations appear in alphabetical order, but the order varies between them because the 2537: 5115: 1708:

The aqueous solubility of a variety of salts as a function of temperature. Some compounds exhibiting unusual solubility behavior have been included.

2729:

respectively. For simple ions the ionic charge and the oxidation number are identical, but for polyatomic ions they often differ. For example, the

2613:, ...) are often required to indicate the relative compositions, and cations then anions are listed in alphabetical order. For example, KMgCl 2023:

The absorption band of simple cations shifts toward a shorter wavelength when they are involved in more covalent interactions. This occurs during

285: 1422:, then it is possible for cation vacancies to compensate for electron deficiencies on cation sites with higher oxidation numbers, resulting in a 320:

for each atom, demonstrating that the constituents were not arranged in molecules or finite aggregates, but instead as a network with long-range

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Solid salts have long been used as paint pigments, and are resistant to organic solvents, but are sensitive to acidity or basicity. Since 1801

1789:, where this entropy change is negative, due to extra order induced in the water upon solution, and the solubility decreases with temperature. 1669: 6308: 883:

Using an even simpler approximation of the ions as impenetrable hard spheres, the arrangement of anions in these systems are often related to

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to form water. Alternately the counterions can be chosen to ensure that even when combined into a single solution they will remain soluble as

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were also found to have similar structural features. These compounds were soon described as being constituted of ions rather than neutral

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Verwey, E. J. W. (1947). "Physical Properties and Cation Arrangement of Oxides with Spinel Structures I. Cation Arrangement in Spinels".

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from these names, the stoichiometry can be deduced from the charges on the ions, and the requirement of overall charge neutrality.

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where two different salts are mixed in water, their ions recombine, and the new salt is insoluble and precipitates. For example:

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Hannay, N. Bruce; Smyth, Charles P. (February 1946). "The Dipole Moment of Hydrogen Fluoride and the Ionic Character of Bonds".

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provides a thermodynamic drive to remove ions from their positions in the crystal and dissolve in the liquid. In addition, the

6515: 4937: 1889: 1440: 884: 868:. When a reasonable form is assumed for the additional repulsive energy, the total lattice energy can be modelled using the 6373:

The nature of the chemical bond and the structure of molecules and crystals: an introduction to modern structural chemistry

2400:(sodium chloride) for over 8000 years, using it first as a food seasoning and preservative, and now also in manufacturing, 776:

which contributes only around 1–2% of the cohesive energy for small ions. When a pair of ions comes close enough for their

1355:, particularly with mixtures of anions or cations, can be cooled rapidly enough that there is not enough time for crystal 5202: 2630: 4033: 2641:

is K). When one of the ions already has a multiplicative prefix within its name, the alternate multiplicative prefixes (

1805: 1640:

like hydrocarbon chains, which also play a role in determining the strength of the interactions and propensity to melt.

3214:

Salts with varying number of hydrogen atoms replaced by cations as compared to their parent acid can be referred to as

6505: 2662: 1888:. This is achieved to some degree at high temperatures when the defect concentration increases the ionic mobility and 1778: 1766: 1423: 827:

Although chemists classify idealized bond types as being ionic or covalent, the existence of additional types such as

6291:

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Division of Chemical Nomenclature (2005). Neil G. Connelly (ed.).

367:. Born predicted crystal energies based on the assumption of ionic constituents, which showed good correspondence to 5414: 2528:

occur (often with a reducing agent such as carbon) such that the metal ions gain electrons to become neutral atoms.

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Brown, Theodore L.; LeMay, H. Eugene Jr; Bursten, Bruce E.; Lanford, Steven; Sagatys, Dalius; Duffy, Neil (2009).

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between the charge distribution of these bodies, and in particular, the ionic bond resulting from the long-ranged

754:. The oppositely charged ions – typically a great many of them – are then attracted to each other to form a solid. 2452: 2376:) of the component ions. That slow, partial decomposition is usually accelerated by the presence of water, since 1431: 900: 788: 3456:

This structure type has a variable lattice parameter c/a ratio, and the exact Madelung constant depends on this.

1660:, because the strict alignment of positive and negative ions must be maintained. Instead the material undergoes 5486:

West, Anthony R. (1991). "Solid electrolytes and mixed ionic?electronic conductors: an applications overview".

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Johnston, T. L.; Stokes, R. J.; Li, C. H. (December 1959). "The ductile–brittle transition in ionic solids".

1904:. This conductivity gain upon dissolving or melting is sometimes used as a defining characteristic of salts. 4756:

Alberti, A.; Vezzalini, G. (1978). "Madelung energies and cation distributions in olivine-type structures".

2460: 2456: 1969: 1877: 1873: 1719: 1402: 445: 428:

and the solid compound nucleates. This process occurs widely in nature and is the means of formation of the

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Pauling, Linus (1928-04-01). "The Influence of Relative Ionic Sizes on the Properties of Ionic Compounds".

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In some cases, the anions take on a simple cubic packing and the resulting common structures observed are:

513: 441: 5977:

Gibbons, Cyril S.; Reinsborough, Vincent C.; Whitla, W. Alexander (January 1975). "Crystal Structures of K

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Brackett, Thomas E.; Brackett, Elizabeth B. (1965). "The Lattice Energies of the Alkaline Earth Halides".

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to any significant extent when the substance is solid. In order to conduct, the charged particles must be

903:) of cations and anions, a variety of structures are commonly observed, and theoretically rationalized by 847: 747: 455:

If the solvent is water in either the evaporation or precipitation method of formation, in many cases the

313: 5513:

Boivin, J. C.; Mairesse, G. (October 1998). "Recent Material Developments in Fast Oxide Ion Conductors".

3466: 2502: 1920: 877: 479: 4134:

Pearson, Ralph G. (October 1968). "Hard and soft acids and bases, HSAB, part II: Underlying theories".

506: 6086: 5388: 5314: 5271: 5240: 5000: 4765: 4730: 4697: 4658: 4413: 4143: 3732: 3653: 3606: 3234: 2338: 2318: 2077: 1893: 1762: 1448: 1089: 795: 498: 421: 3692:

Sherman, Jack (August 1932). "Crystal Energies of Ionic Compounds and Thermochemical Applications".

1451:, especially in the case of different cations exchanging lattice sites. This results in a different 4725:

Thompson, P.; Grimes, N. W. (27 September 2006). "Madelung calculations for the spinel structure".

3262: 2381: 2200: 2005: 1995: 1953: 1881: 1841: 1786: 1693: 1588: 896: 765: 628: 620: 317: 309: 5305:

Stillwell, Charles W. (January 1937). "Crystal chemistry. V. The properties of binary compounds".

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The anions in compounds with bonds with the most ionic character tend to be colorless (with an

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Solid State Chemistry Synthesis, Structure, and Properties of Selected Oxides and Sulfides

3186: 2759: 2674: 2669: 2298: 2234: 2046: 2016: 1928: 1832:, where the 2+/2− pairing leads to high lattice energies. For similar reasons, most metal 1825: 1689: 1592: 1459:, so that the optical absorption (and hence colour) can change with defect concentration. 1419: 1414: 1290: 969: 804: 800: 739: 425: 387: 368: 305: 171: 100: 50: 35: 4822:

Souquet, J (October 1981). "Electrochemical properties of ionically conductive glasses".

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Kelly, A.; Tyson, W. R.; Cottrell, A. H. (1967-03-01). "Ductile and brittle crystals".

4960: 3341: 2763: 2718: 2591: 2571: 2525: 2490: 2440: 2421: 2357: 2322: 2310: 2306: 2095: 1916: 1821: 1793: 1774: 1616: 1596: 1569: 1409: 1376: 1097: 1064: 832: 828: 780: 727: 665: 646: 612: 475: 449: 356: 175: 6520: 6499: 6371: 6366: 6191: 6183: 5849: 5792: 5609: 4879: 4835: 4793: 4202: 3411: 3207: 2997: 2721:(... , −II, −I, 0, I, II, ...). So the examples given above would be named 2673:

IUPAC prefers direct indication of the ionic charge numbers. These are written as an

2551: 2478:

The chemical identity of the ions added is also important in many uses. For example,

2417: 1738: 1612: 1608: 1352: 1339: 892: 812: 777: 759: 561: 487: 456: 261: 257: 151: 108: 3626: 3577: 1876:. Although they contain charged atoms or clusters, these materials do not typically 1856: 6187: 3725:

Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences

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Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences

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Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences

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Bragg, W. H.; Bragg, W. L. (1 July 1913). "The Reflection of X-rays by Crystals".

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salts refer to those with more than one hydrogen atom replaced. Examples include:

2949:

Common salt-forming anions (parent acids in parentheses where available) include:

2277:

tend not to be salts, because insolubility is required for fastness. Some organic

501:) and highly electronegative halogen gases, or water, the atoms can be ionized by 4777: 2730: 2668:

Compounds containing one or more elements which can exist in a variety of charge/

3572: 3417: 3349: 3321: 3283: 3124: 3063: 2976: 2709:

each have a charge of 3+, to balance the 2− on each of the three sulfate ions).

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If there are multiple different cations and/or anions, multiplicative prefixes (

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salts with an anion absorbing in the infrared can become colorful in solution.

394: 5400: 5283: 5252: 4742: 4426: 4401: 3427: 3376: 3372: 3364: 2860: 2377: 1734: 1713: 1584: 1456: 1388: 1356: 887:

arrangements of spheres, with the cations occupying tetrahedral or octahedral

751: 436: 155: 5291: 5179: 5084: 4061: 3576:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) " 6133:(3rd ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Inc. p. 68. 3585: 3401: 3171: 2982: 2845: 2830: 2638: 2425: 2294: 2039: 2028: 2024: 1950: 1924: 1833: 1801: 1770: 1727: 1565: 1561: 1553: 1549: 1541: 1515: 1499: 977: 865: 557: 468: 429: 231: 211: 72: 5187: 4598: 4057: 3745: 3720: 3666: 3641: 3618: 2261:

do not absorb light in the part of the spectrum that is visible to humans.

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of an salt is strongly determined by its structure, and in particular the

379: 5499: 5026:

Weller, Mark; Overton, Tina; Rourke, Jonathan; Armstrong, Fraser (2014).

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Davidson, David (November 1955). "Amphoteric molecules, ions and salts".

4561:(3. print ed.). Washington: American Chemical Society. p. 121. 4336:(3. ed.). Boca Raton, Fla. : Taylor & Francis, CRC. p. 44. 4049: 3437: 3368: 3226:, identifying that one, two, or three hydrogen atoms have been replaced; 3089: 3003: 2773: 2517: 2479: 2468: 2393: 2266: 1813: 1758: 1661: 1636:. Ions in ionic liquids often have uneven charge distributions, or bulky 1530: 1471: 1427: 1158: 1130: 1031: 1006: 743: 735: 592: 579: 344: 265: 195: 167: 159: 119: 61: 5076: 4866:

Schmalzried, Hermann (1965). "Point defects in ternary ionic crystals".

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are significantly stronger than ion-induced dipole interactions, so the

1668:. As the temperature is elevated (usually close to the melting point) a 490:

ratio of non-volatile ions, which is heated to drive off other species.

3414:(the method used to test for salt presence during coating applications) 3384: 3380: 3324:. These salts do not dissociate well in water. They are generally more 3192: 3130: 3109: 3069: 3023: 2953: 2789: 2587: 2464: 2409: 2373: 2361: 2352:

and often odorless, whereas salts of either weak acids or weak bases ("

2274: 2270: 2254: 2009: 1817: 1653: 1435: 1230: 588: 528: 464: 414: 332:, but proof of this hypothesis was not found until the mid-1920s, when 277: 179: 127: 46: 41: 6098: 5526: 5171: 5012: 4710: 4685: 4670: 4181:

Hendry, Robin Findlay (2008). "Two Conceptions of the Chemical Bond".

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and ammonium are usually soluble in water. Notable exceptions include

5326: 5030:(Sixth ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 129–130. 3537: 3432: 3422: 2933: 2918: 2369: 2258: 1897: 1797: 1754: 731: 383: 336:

experiments (which detect the density of electrons), were performed.

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Pearson, Ralph G. (November 1963). "Hard and Soft Acids and Bases".

1467: 6077:

Fernelius, W. Conard (November 1982). "Numbers in chemical names".

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Whitten, Kenneth W.; Galley, Kenneth D.; Davis, Raymond E. (1992).

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Salts have long had a wide variety of uses and applications. Many

2334: 2330: 2302: 2035: 1855: 1742: 1703: 1656:. Once they reach the limit of their strength, they cannot deform 1537: 1522: 1503: 1466: 846: 721: 672: 632: 549: 467:, and can have very different chemical properties compared to the 393: 378: 295: 235: 103:(electrically neutral). The constituent ions are held together by 96: 64: 40: 5920:(Sixth ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole. p. 111. 2439:

solutions. This is a simple way to control the concentration and

1247:

Common ionic compound structures with simple cubic packed anions

4300: 4298: 3333: 3329: 2912: 2804: 1865: 1533: 1518: 1510:. Other ionic compounds are known as salts and can be formed by 1491: 1426:. Another non-stoichiometric possibility is the formation of an 787:) to overlap, a short-ranged repulsive force occurs, due to the 642: 553: 524: 329: 88: 31: 6294:

Nomenclature of inorganic chemistry: IUPAC recommendations 2005

2482:

containing compounds are dissolved to supply fluoride ions for

2038:, which arise either from their constituent anions, cations or 493:

In some reactions between highly reactive metals (usually from

2509: 2278: 722: 6196:(27th repr. ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 5916:

Kotz, John C.; Treichel, Paul M; Weaver, Gabriela C. (2006).

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Edge-on view of portion of crystal structure of hexamethylene

5681:"Water fluoridation: a manual for engineers and technicians" 5207:(2nd ed.). New York: Elsevier Science. pp. 63–67. 3721:"A Quantitative Study of the Reflexion of X-Rays by Sylvine" 3371:, but are not considered salts. Examples of zwitterions are 3290:. These salts dissociate completely or almost completely in 2689:

ions balancing the 2− charge on the sulfate ion), whereas Fe

1836:

are not soluble in water. Some soluble carbonate salts are:

390:, forms when salty water evaporates leaving the ions behind. 6255:(2nd ed.). Frenchs Forest, N.S.W.: Pearson Australia. 2508:

Many metals are geologically most abundant as salts within

3799: 3797: 3784: 3782: 3780: 3320:

Weak salts or weak electrolyte salts are composed of weak

911:

Common ionic compound structures with close-packed anions

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Verwey, E. J. W.; de Boer, F.; van Santen, J. H. (1948).

4559:

Teaching general chemistry: a materials science companion

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concentration. Because they are energetically costly but

30:"Ionic compound" redirects here. Not to be confused with 6377:(3rd ed.). Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. 4758:

Zeitschrift für Kristallographie – Crystalline Materials

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the larger cation occupies the smaller tetrahedral site.

1714:

Solubility § Solubility of ionic compounds in water

1544:. If the compound is the result of a reaction between a 67:, Cl. The yellow stipples show the electrostatic forces. 6110: 6108: 6048: 6046: 6044: 6042: 6040: 5362: 5360: 4402:"Berechnung von Madelung'schen Zahlen für den NiAs-Typ" 4383: 4381: 4379: 3872: 3870: 6417:(1st ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. 4900:. New Delhi: S. Chand & Company Ltd. p. 554. 2281:

are salts, but they are virtually insoluble in water.

1761:). This contrast is principally because the resulting 3465:

This structure has been referred to in references as

3367:

contain an anionic and a cationic centre in the same

474:

Molten salts will solidify on cooling to below their

53:, NaCl, a typical salt. The purple spheres represent 6332:(8th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. 2372:)) or the conjugate base (e.g., ammonium salts like 6253:

Chemistry: the central science: a broad perspective

4218:"Do bond classifications help or hinder chemistry?" 876:, or in the absence of structural information, the 505:, a process thermodynamically understood using the 6454: 6370: 5098:Tosi, M. P. (2002). Gaune-Escard, Marcelle (ed.). 4959: 4587:Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English 2215:is made green by the hydrated nickel(II) chloride 6215:(8th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 5458:An Introduction to Electronic and Ionic Materials 3719:James, R. W.; Brindley, G. W. (1 November 1928). 2435:Soluble salts can easily be dissolved to provide 1050:half octahedral (alternate layers fully occupied) 764:Ions in salts are primarily held together by the 371:measurements, further supporting the assumption. 256:Salts composed of small ions typically have high 5270:. Vol. 15, no. 135. pp. 567–586. 5239:. Vol. 4, no. 48. pp. 1316–1324. 4616:. Meerut: Krishna Prakashan Media. p. 171. 4585:Hoppe, R. (January 1966). "Madelung Constants". 316:. This revealed that there were six equidistant 87:consisting of an assembly of positively charged 6351:(3rd ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Co. 5101:Molten Salts: From Fundamentals to Applications 2253:are colorless or white because the constituent 2169:is made blue by the hydrated copper(II) cation. 339:Principal contributors to the development of a 6461:(2nd ed.). Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath. 5834: 5822: 5790:Xu, Ruren; Pang, Wenqin; Huo, Qisheng (2011). 5666: 5654: 5642: 5104:. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. p. 1. 4806: 4729:. Vol. 36, no. 3. pp. 501–505. 4440: 4370: 4304: 3977: 1556:. If it is the result of a reaction between a 1182:one-eighth tetrahedral and one-half octahedral 6347:McQuarrie, Donald A.; Rock, Peter A. (1991). 5686:. Centers for Disease Control. Archived from 5050: 3642:"The Reflection of X-rays by Crystals. (II.)" 750:, and this electron enters the fluorine atom 8: 4580: 4578: 4482:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4356:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4082:Lalena, John. N.; Cleary, David. A. (2010). 2505:for high-temperature solid-state synthesis. 2443:. The concentration of solutes affects many 6411:Wenk, Hans-Rudolph; Bulakh, Andrei (2004). 5851:Chemical metallurgy principles and practice 5717:. Discovery Publishing House. p. 230. 5415:"Electrical Conductivity of Ionic Compound" 343:treatment of ionic crystal structures were 300:X-ray spectrometer developed by W. H. Bragg 114:The component ions in a salt can be either 99:), which results in a compound with no net 5570: 5140: 5128: 4891: 4889: 4636: 4332:Moore, Lesley E. Smart; Elaine A. (2005). 4086:(2nd ed.). Hoboken, N.J: John Wiley. 3900: 3888: 3816:Wenk, Hans-Rudolf; Bulakh, Andrei (2003). 3803: 3788: 3328:than strong salts. They may be similar in 2467:particles, and therefore the stability of 1245: 909: 864:that can be efficiently computed using an 738:atoms undergoing a redox reaction to form 6276:. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. 4709: 4453: 4451: 4449: 4425: 4038:Journal of the Chemical Society (Resumed) 3744: 3687: 3685: 3683: 3681: 3679: 3677: 3665: 2653:, ...) are used. For example, Ba(BrF 2538:IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry 2344:Salts of strong acids and strong bases (" 27:Chemical compound involving ionic bonding 6476:Zumdahl, Steven; Zumdahl, Susan (2015). 6396:(2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: RSC Pub. 5065:Journal of the American Chemical Society 4552: 4550: 4327: 4325: 4109:Journal of the American Chemical Society 4084:Principles of inorganic materials design 4007:Journal of the American Chemical Society 2244: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2206: 2177: 2160: 2146: 2142: 2126: 2122: 2100: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2055: 2051: 2008:containing the constituent ions, or the 6414:Minerals: Their Constitution and Origin 6236:(5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. 6211:Atkins, Peter; de Paula, Julio (2006). 5777: 5765: 5753: 5741: 5558: 5539: 5439: 4557:Ellis, Arthur B. ; et al. (1995). 4462:. Boston: Academic Press. p. 123. 4316: 4253: 3992: 3965: 3936: 3912: 3861: 3849: 3819:Minerals: their constitution and origin 3771: 3759: 3560: 3449: 2516:materials, these ores are processed by 5204:Inorganic Chemistry a Unified Approach 4920: 4475: 4458:Dienes, Richard J. Borg, G.J. (1992). 4387: 4349: 4334:Solid state chemistry: an introduction 4241: 4168: 3948: 3924: 3506:The reference lists this structure as 3486:The reference lists this structure as 1820:are water-soluble. Exceptions include 1363:is formed (with no long-range order). 60:, Na, and the green spheres represent 6297:(New ed.). Cambridge: RSC Publ. 6114: 6064: 6052: 6031: 6019: 5964: 5952: 5940: 5903: 5891: 5879: 5450: 5448: 5366: 5351: 5339: 5230: 5228: 5153: 5151: 5149: 4861: 4859: 4857: 4855: 4853: 4851: 4849: 4847: 4845: 4817: 4815: 4216:Seifert, Vanessa (27 November 2023). 3876: 3301:Strong salts start with Na__, K__, NH 3286:salts are chemical salts composed of 2769:Common salt-forming cations include: 2384:equation of formation of weak salts. 420:Salts form upon evaporation of their 7: 5794:Modern inorganic synthetic chemistry 5624:from the original on 16 January 2016 4535:from the original on 27 January 2016 3473:, but both are now known as the RhBr 3340:they are derived from. For example, 1572:ion and conjugate acid ion, such as 6526:Chemical compounds by chemical bond 6438:. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. 6432:Wold, Aaron; Dwight, Kirby (1993). 6329:Introduction to Solid State Physics 6127:Voet, D. & Voet, J. G. (2005). 5160:The Journal of Physical Chemistry B 2705:(because the two iron ions in each 2631:magnesium dipotassium tetrachloride 272:. As solids they are almost always 6478:Chemistry: An Atoms First Approach 5618:General Chemistry Virtual Textbook 5455:Gao, Wei; Sammes, Nigel M (1999). 4966:(4th ed.). Saunders. p. 4612:Bhagi, Ajay; Raj, Gurdeep (2010). 3640:Bragg, W. H. (22 September 1913). 3573:Compendium of Chemical Terminology 3294:. They are generally odorless and 2713:, still in common use, writes the 2360:(e.g., acetates like acetic acid ( 2135:is made red by the chromophore of 1676:becomes possible by the motion of 930:Hexagonal close packing of anions 25: 5918:Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity 5587:(1st ed.). London: Vintage. 5461:. World Scientific. p. 261. 4868:Progress in Solid State Chemistry 4531:. University of Liverpool. 2008. 2396:are ionic. Humans have processed 478:. This is sometimes used for the 6273:An introduction to ionic liquids 5855:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. pp. 5731:from the original on 2017-12-03. 5475:from the original on 2017-12-03. 5421:from the original on 21 May 2014 5381:Acta Crystallographica Section B 5221:from the original on 2017-12-03. 5201:Porterfield, William W. (2013). 5118:from the original on 2017-12-03. 4460:The physical chemistry of solids 3836:from the original on 2017-12-03. 3493:, which is now known as the RhBr 2663:barium bis(tetrafluoridobromate) 2345: 1975:Cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate, 1968: 1943: 1892:is observed. When the salts are 1726:into individual ions, which are 1632:to 100 °C), and are termed 1387: 1375: 5847:Gupta, Chiranjib Kumar (2003). 5798:. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 4940:from the original on 2015-12-29 4690:The Journal of Chemical Physics 4686:"Cation Arrangement in Spinels" 4284:from the original on 2015-05-13 3536:However, in some cases such as 3513:, which is now known as the BiI 2619:magnesium potassium trichloride 2273:in water. Similarly, inorganic 899:(principally determined by the 839:to calculate binding energies. 587:A metal and a non-metal, e.g., 463:, so the product is known as a 95:) and negatively charged ions ( 5488:Journal of Materials Chemistry 4034:"The modern theory of valency" 2353: 2034:Salts exist in many different 1890:solid state ionic conductivity 1498:cations and basic anions ions 1441:solid state ionic conductivity 927:Cubic close packing of anions 1: 6163:. Walker Publishing Company. 6079:Journal of Chemical Education 5995:Canadian Journal of Chemistry 5307:Journal of Chemical Education 4993:Journal of Chemical Education 4499:Journal of Physical Chemistry 4400:Zemann, J. (1 January 1958). 4136:Journal of Chemical Education 2269:are salts, some of which are 2006:colour of an aqueous solution 1872:Salts are characteristically 1623:(although some salts such as 230:. Salt containing basic ions 6392:Russell, Michael S. (2009). 6270:Freemantle, Michael (2009). 5610:"Naming Chemical Substances" 4934:"Periodic Trends and Oxides" 4898:Advanced inorganic chemistry 4880:10.1016/0079-6786(65)90009-9 4836:10.1016/0167-2738(81)90198-3 4778:10.1524/zkri.1978.147.14.167 4525:"YCl3 – Yttrium trichloride" 2027:of metal ions, so colorless 2004:is often different from the 1884:rather than stationary in a 1806:ammonium hexachloroplatinate 1260:Interstitial sites occupied 398:Solid lead(II) sulfate (PbSO 6453:Zumdahl, Steven S. (1989). 5711:Satake, M; Mido, Y (1995). 4651:Journal of Chemical Physics 2685:(with the 2+ charge on the 2447:, including increasing the 2012:form of the same compound. 1779:enthalpy change of solution 1486:Ionic compounds containing 1424:non-stoichiometric compound 6542: 6394:The chemistry of fireworks 6230:Barrow, Gordon M. (1988). 6213:Atkins' physical chemistry 5835:Zumdahl & Zumdahl 2015 5823:Zumdahl & Zumdahl 2015 5667:Atkins & de Paula 2006 5655:Atkins & de Paula 2006 5643:Atkins & de Paula 2006 4807:Ashcroft & Mermin 1977 4441:Ashcroft & Mermin 1977 4371:Ashcroft & Mermin 1977 4305:Ashcroft & Mermin 1977 3978:Ashcroft & Mermin 1977 3235:Sodium phosphate monobasic 2535: 2501:, salts are often used as 2289:Salts can elicit all five 2094:is made red-orange by the 1993: 1927:, and in various kinds of 1783:entropy change of solution 1711: 1670:ductile–brittle transition 1603:Melting and boiling points 1400: 811:exhibit a small degree of 774:van der Waals interactions 757: 484:solid-state reaction route 150:). Each ion can be either 29: 5401:10.1107/S0567740878003830 5284:10.1080/14786436708220903 5253:10.1080/14786435908233367 5051:McQuarrie & Rock 1991 4743:10.1080/14786437708239734 4427:10.1107/S0365110X5800013X 3348:COONa, smells similar to 3305:__, or they end with __NO 3263:Sodium phosphate tribasic 2453:freezing-point depression 2380:is the other half of the 1828:(sparingly soluble), and 1749:, but tends to be low in 1579:Some ions are classed as 1529:, and salts that produce 1262: 1259: 1254: 1251: 929: 926: 923: 918: 915: 789:Pauli exclusion principle 742:. Sodium loses its outer 304:In 1913 the structure of 5583:Kurlansky, Mark (2003). 3407:Salt metathesis reaction 3249:Sodium phosphate dibasic 2621:to distinguish it from K 1810:potassium cobaltinitrite 683:salt metathesis reaction 461:water of crystallization 410:react directly with the 406:Many metals such as the 4896:Prakash, Satya (1945). 4614:Krishna's IAS Chemistry 4266:Carter, Robert (2016). 4032:Pauling, Linus (1948). 3586:10.1351/goldbook.S05447 3282:Strong salts or strong 2461:electrical double layer 2457:boiling-point elevation 1907:In some unusual salts: 1852:Electrical conductivity 1763:ion–dipole interactions 1737:of salts is highest in 1494:, and those containing 1403:crystallographic defect 807:pairs such as those in 783:(most simple ions have 446:neutralization reaction 424:. Once the solution is 274:electrically insulating 5571:Wenk & Bulakh 2004 5515:Chemistry of Materials 5268:Philosophical Magazine 5237:Philosophical Magazine 4727:Philosophical Magazine 4637:Wenk & Bulakh 2004 4599:10.1002/anie.196600951 4406:Acta Crystallographica 4275:CH370 Lecture Material 3901:Wold & Dwight 1993 3889:Wold & Dwight 1993 3804:Wold & Dwight 1993 3789:Wold & Dwight 1993 3746:10.1098/rspa.1928.0188 3667:10.1098/rspa.1913.0082 3619:10.1098/rspa.1913.0040 3471:chromium(III) chloride 2445:colligative properties 2356:") may smell like the 2181:is made violet by the 2173:potassium permanganate 2059:is made yellow by the 1869: 1709: 1506:(O) are classified as 1490:(H) are classified as 1478: 1449:crystal-field symmetry 856: 755: 748:electron configuration 514:salt-forming reactions 403: 391: 386:, the mineral form of 314:William Lawrence Bragg 301: 251:crystalline structures 238:(O) are classified as 68: 6516:Alchemical substances 6161:Salt: A World History 5608:Lower, Simon (2014). 5585:Salt: a world history 4183:Philosophy of Science 3467:yttrium(III) chloride 2590:, is an example of a 1896:or are melted into a 1894:dissolved in a liquid 1868:charge transfer salt. 1859: 1707: 1514:. Salts that produce 1470: 1148:two-thirds octahedral 1120:two-thirds octahedral 992:alternate tetrahedral 895:of the salt, and the 878:Kapustinskii equation 851:The unit cell of the 850: 725: 480:solid-state synthesis 459:formed also includes 397: 382: 299: 44: 6480:. Cengage Learning. 5500:10.1039/JM9910100157 4050:10.1039/JR9480001461 2364:) and cyanides like 2339:monosodium glutamate 2319:potassium bitartrate 2078:potassium dichromate 1652:Most salts are very 1198: = 0.2247, 1090:rhodium(III) bromide 1083:one-third octahedral 796:electronic structure 766:electrostatic forces 746:to give it a stable 512:Salts are formed by 292:History of discovery 105:electrostatic forces 6193:Solid state physics 6091:1982JChEd..59..964F 5780:, pp. 129–133. 5768:, pp. 108–117. 5714:Chemistry of Colour 5669:, pp. 163–169. 5657:, pp. 761–770. 5645:, pp. 150–157. 5393:1978AcCrB..34..689C 5354:, pp. 413–415. 5319:1937JChEd..14...34S 5276:1967PMag...15..567K 5245:1959PMag....4.1316J 5077:10.1021/ja01391a014 5028:Inorganic chemistry 5005:1955JChEd..32..550D 4770:1978ZK....147..167A 4735:1977PMag...36..501T 4702:1948JChPh..16.1091V 4663:1947JChPh..15..174V 4511:10.1021/j100894a062 4418:1958AcCry..11...55Z 4373:, pp. 382–387. 4148:1968JChEd..45..643P 4121:10.1021/ja00905a001 4019:10.1021/ja01206a003 3737:1928RSPSA.121..155J 3706:10.1021/cr60038a002 3658:1913RSPSA..89..246B 3611:1913RSPSA..88..428B 3288:strong electrolytes 2894:Quaternary ammonium 2382:reversible reaction 2309:, which will cause 2201:nickel(II) chloride 1996:Colour of chemicals 1954:cobalt(II) chloride 1909:fast-ion conductors 1878:conduct electricity 1842:potassium carbonate 1787:cerium(III) sulfate 1777:, the negative net 1773:energy exceeds the 1694:coordination number 1589:aluminium hydroxide 1552:, the result is an 1512:acid–base reactions 1457:d-electron orbitals 1248: 1237:site distributions 1213: = 0.4142 924:Interstitial sites 912: 891:. Depending on the 874:Born–Mayer equation 870:Born–Landé equation 326:inorganic compounds 310:William Henry Bragg 284:they become highly 6506:Chemical compounds 6233:Physical chemistry 5679:Reeves TG (1986). 4824:Solid State Ionics 4319:, p. 444–445. 4222:chemistryworld.com 3927:, p. 161–162. 3915:, p. 312–313. 3864:, p. 144–145. 3852:, p. 133–140. 2711:Stock nomenclature 2560:magnesium chloride 2499:chemical synthesis 2484:water fluoridation 2155:copper(II) sulfate 2117:cobalt(II) nitrate 1870: 1846:ammonium carbonate 1718:When simple salts 1710: 1629:iron(III) chloride 1625:aluminium chloride 1564:, the result is a 1536:when dissolved in 1521:when dissolved in 1479: 1445:lattice parameters 1276:Madelung constant 1263:Example structure 1246: 1227:site distributions 1163:Depends on charges 952:Madelung constant 946:Madelung constant 910: 857: 756: 442:acid–base reaction 404: 392: 324:order. Many other 318:nearest-neighbours 308:was determined by 302: 228:ammonium carbonate 69: 6487:978-1-305-68804-9 6468:978-0-669-16708-5 6445:978-94-011-1476-9 6424:978-1-107-39390-5 6403:978-0-85404-127-5 6384:978-0-8014-0333-0 6358:978-0-7167-2169-7 6349:General chemistry 6339:978-0-471-41526-8 6304:978-0-85404-438-2 6283:978-1-84755-161-0 6262:978-1-4425-1147-7 6243:978-0-07-003905-6 6222:978-0-19-870072-2 6203:978-0-03-083993-1 6184:Ashcroft, Neil W. 6099:10.1021/ed059p964 6067:, pp. 77–78. 6034:, pp. 76–77. 5955:, pp. 75–76. 5943:, pp. 36–37. 5927:978-0-534-99766-3 5866:978-3-527-60525-5 5809:978-0-444-53599-3 5724:978-81-7141-276-1 5594:978-0-09-928199-3 5527:10.1021/cm980236q 5521:(10): 2870–2888. 5468:978-981-02-3473-7 5342:, pp. 89–91. 5214:978-0-323-13894-9 5172:10.1021/jp050430h 5166:(13): 6040–6043. 5111:978-94-010-0458-9 5037:978-0-19-964182-6 5013:10.1021/ed032p550 4977:978-0-03-072373-5 4962:General Chemistry 4907:978-81-219-0263-2 4711:10.1063/1.1746736 4671:10.1063/1.1746464 4623:978-81-87224-70-9 4568:978-0-8412-2725-5 4505:(10): 3611–3614. 4469:978-0-12-118420-9 4343:978-0-7487-7516-3 4156:10.1021/ed045p643 4115:(22): 3533–3539. 4093:978-0-470-56753-1 3903:, pp. 79–81. 3829:978-0-521-52958-7 3397:Bonding in solids 3104:hydrofluoric acid 3018:hydrochloric acid 2727:iron(III) sulfate 2596:empirical formula 2594:). To obtain the 2542:According to the 2327:magnesium sulfate 2239:magnesium sulfate 1751:nonpolar solvents 1349: 1348: 1241: 1240: 1235:Depends on cation 1225:Depends on cation 862:Madelung constant 837:quantum mechanics 503:electron transfer 85:chemical compound 16:(Redirected from 6533: 6491: 6472: 6460: 6449: 6428: 6407: 6388: 6376: 6362: 6343: 6319: 6317: 6316: 6307:. Archived from 6287: 6266: 6247: 6226: 6207: 6188:Mermin, N. David 6149: 6148: 6143:. Archived from 6124: 6118: 6112: 6103: 6102: 6074: 6068: 6062: 6056: 6050: 6035: 6029: 6023: 6017: 6011: 6010: 5974: 5968: 5962: 5956: 5950: 5944: 5938: 5932: 5931: 5913: 5907: 5901: 5895: 5889: 5883: 5877: 5871: 5870: 5854: 5844: 5838: 5832: 5826: 5820: 5814: 5813: 5797: 5787: 5781: 5775: 5769: 5763: 5757: 5751: 5745: 5739: 5733: 5732: 5708: 5702: 5701: 5699: 5698: 5692: 5685: 5676: 5670: 5664: 5658: 5652: 5646: 5640: 5634: 5633: 5631: 5629: 5605: 5599: 5598: 5580: 5574: 5568: 5562: 5556: 5543: 5537: 5531: 5530: 5510: 5504: 5503: 5483: 5477: 5476: 5452: 5443: 5437: 5431: 5430: 5428: 5426: 5411: 5405: 5404: 5376: 5370: 5364: 5355: 5349: 5343: 5337: 5331: 5330: 5327:10.1021/ed014p34 5302: 5296: 5295: 5263: 5257: 5256: 5232: 5223: 5222: 5198: 5192: 5191: 5155: 5144: 5138: 5132: 5126: 5120: 5119: 5095: 5089: 5088: 5071:(4): 1036–1045. 5060: 5054: 5048: 5042: 5041: 5023: 5017: 5016: 4988: 4982: 4981: 4965: 4955: 4949: 4948: 4946: 4945: 4930: 4924: 4918: 4912: 4911: 4893: 4884: 4883: 4863: 4840: 4839: 4819: 4810: 4804: 4798: 4797: 4764:(1–4): 167–176. 4753: 4747: 4746: 4722: 4716: 4715: 4713: 4681: 4675: 4674: 4646: 4640: 4634: 4628: 4627: 4609: 4603: 4602: 4582: 4573: 4572: 4554: 4545: 4544: 4542: 4540: 4521: 4515: 4514: 4494: 4488: 4487: 4481: 4473: 4455: 4444: 4438: 4432: 4431: 4429: 4397: 4391: 4385: 4374: 4368: 4362: 4361: 4355: 4347: 4329: 4320: 4314: 4308: 4302: 4293: 4292: 4290: 4289: 4283: 4272: 4268:"Lattice Energy" 4263: 4257: 4251: 4245: 4239: 4233: 4232: 4230: 4228: 4213: 4207: 4206: 4178: 4172: 4166: 4160: 4159: 4131: 4125: 4124: 4104: 4098: 4097: 4079: 4073: 4072: 4070: 4069: 4060:. Archived from 4029: 4023: 4022: 4002: 3996: 3990: 3981: 3975: 3969: 3963: 3952: 3946: 3940: 3934: 3928: 3922: 3916: 3910: 3904: 3898: 3892: 3886: 3880: 3874: 3865: 3859: 3853: 3847: 3838: 3837: 3813: 3807: 3801: 3792: 3786: 3775: 3769: 3763: 3757: 3751: 3750: 3748: 3731:(787): 155–171. 3716: 3710: 3709: 3694:Chemical Reviews 3689: 3672: 3671: 3669: 3652:(610): 246–248. 3637: 3631: 3630: 3605:(605): 428–438. 3594: 3588: 3565: 3548: 3534: 3528: 3524: 3518: 3504: 3498: 3484: 3478: 3463: 3457: 3454: 3205: 3204: 3203: 3184: 3183: 3182: 3163: 3162: 3161: 3143: 3142: 3141: 3122: 3121: 3120: 3101: 3100: 3099: 3084:hydrocyanic acid 3081: 3080: 3079: 3061: 3060: 3059: 3051: 3050: 3043: 3042: 3034: 3033: 3015: 3014: 3013: 2995: 2994: 2993: 2974: 2973: 2972: 2965: 2964: 2945: 2944: 2943: 2930: 2929: 2928: 2906: 2905: 2904: 2890: 2889: 2888: 2881: 2880: 2872: 2871: 2857: 2856: 2855: 2842: 2841: 2840: 2827: 2826: 2825: 2816: 2815: 2814: 2801: 2800: 2799: 2786: 2785: 2784: 2744: 2743: 2742: 2723:iron(II) sulfate 2715:oxidation number 2703:iron(3+) sulfate 2683:iron(2+) sulfate 2670:oxidation states 2585: 2584: 2583: 2512:. To obtain the 2449:osmotic pressure 2414:milk of magnesia 2366:hydrogen cyanide 2252: 2230: 2214: 2196: 2195: 2194: 2191: 2180: 2168: 2150: 2134: 2112: 2111: 2110: 2107: 2093: 2073: 2072: 2071: 2068: 2058: 2002:colour of a salt 1972: 1947: 1929:chemical sensors 1838:sodium carbonate 1830:lead(II) sulfate 1767:heat of solution 1574:ammonium acetate 1482:Acidity/basicity 1420:oxidation states 1415:Schottky defects 1391: 1379: 1359:to occur, so an 1316:calcium fluoride 1249: 1057:cadmium chloride 913: 809:caesium fluoride 507:Born–Haber cycle 417:gases to salts. 365:Kazimierz Fajans 361:Paul Peter Ewald 334:X-ray reflection 244:sodium hydroxide 225: 224: 223: 209: 208: 207: 193: 192: 191: 149: 148: 147: 140: 139: 21: 6541: 6540: 6536: 6535: 6534: 6532: 6531: 6530: 6496: 6495: 6494: 6488: 6475: 6469: 6452: 6446: 6431: 6425: 6410: 6404: 6391: 6385: 6365: 6359: 6346: 6340: 6324:Kittel, Charles 6322: 6314: 6312: 6305: 6290: 6284: 6269: 6263: 6250: 6244: 6229: 6223: 6210: 6204: 6182: 6178: 6153: 6152: 6141: 6126: 6125: 6121: 6113: 6106: 6076: 6075: 6071: 6063: 6059: 6051: 6038: 6030: 6026: 6018: 6014: 6007:10.1139/v75-015 5992: 5988: 5984: 5980: 5976: 5975: 5971: 5963: 5959: 5951: 5947: 5939: 5935: 5928: 5915: 5914: 5910: 5902: 5898: 5890: 5886: 5878: 5874: 5867: 5846: 5845: 5841: 5837:, pp. 823. 5833: 5829: 5825:, pp. 822. 5821: 5817: 5810: 5789: 5788: 5784: 5776: 5772: 5764: 5760: 5752: 5748: 5740: 5736: 5725: 5710: 5709: 5705: 5696: 5694: 5690: 5683: 5678: 5677: 5673: 5665: 5661: 5653: 5649: 5641: 5637: 5627: 5625: 5617: 5607: 5606: 5602: 5595: 5582: 5581: 5577: 5569: 5565: 5557: 5546: 5538: 5534: 5512: 5511: 5507: 5485: 5484: 5480: 5469: 5454: 5453: 5446: 5438: 5434: 5424: 5422: 5413: 5412: 5408: 5378: 5377: 5373: 5365: 5358: 5350: 5346: 5338: 5334: 5304: 5303: 5299: 5265: 5264: 5260: 5234: 5233: 5226: 5215: 5200: 5199: 5195: 5157: 5156: 5147: 5143:, pp. 3–4. 5141:Freemantle 2009 5139: 5135: 5129:Freemantle 2009 5127: 5123: 5112: 5097: 5096: 5092: 5062: 5061: 5057: 5049: 5045: 5038: 5025: 5024: 5020: 4990: 4989: 4985: 4978: 4957: 4956: 4952: 4943: 4941: 4932: 4931: 4927: 4919: 4915: 4908: 4895: 4894: 4887: 4865: 4864: 4843: 4821: 4820: 4813: 4805: 4801: 4755: 4754: 4750: 4724: 4723: 4719: 4683: 4682: 4678: 4648: 4647: 4643: 4635: 4631: 4624: 4611: 4610: 4606: 4584: 4583: 4576: 4569: 4556: 4555: 4548: 4538: 4536: 4523: 4522: 4518: 4496: 4495: 4491: 4474: 4470: 4457: 4456: 4447: 4439: 4435: 4399: 4398: 4394: 4386: 4377: 4369: 4365: 4348: 4344: 4331: 4330: 4323: 4315: 4311: 4303: 4296: 4287: 4285: 4281: 4270: 4265: 4264: 4260: 4252: 4248: 4240: 4236: 4226: 4224: 4215: 4214: 4210: 4180: 4179: 4175: 4167: 4163: 4133: 4132: 4128: 4106: 4105: 4101: 4094: 4081: 4080: 4076: 4067: 4065: 4031: 4030: 4026: 4004: 4003: 3999: 3991: 3984: 3976: 3972: 3964: 3955: 3947: 3943: 3935: 3931: 3923: 3919: 3911: 3907: 3899: 3895: 3887: 3883: 3875: 3868: 3860: 3856: 3848: 3841: 3830: 3815: 3814: 3810: 3802: 3795: 3787: 3778: 3770: 3766: 3758: 3754: 3718: 3717: 3713: 3691: 3690: 3675: 3639: 3638: 3634: 3596: 3595: 3591: 3566: 3562: 3557: 3552: 3551: 3545: 3541: 3535: 3531: 3525: 3521: 3517:structure type. 3516: 3511: 3505: 3501: 3496: 3491: 3485: 3481: 3477:structure type. 3476: 3464: 3460: 3455: 3451: 3446: 3393: 3362: 3355: 3347: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3280: 3272: 3268: 3258: 3254: 3244: 3240: 3202: 3199: 3198: 3197: 3195: 3187:phosphoric acid 3181: 3178: 3177: 3176: 3174: 3160: 3158: 3157: 3156: 3154: 3140: 3137: 3136: 3135: 3133: 3119: 3116: 3115: 3114: 3112: 3098: 3096: 3095: 3094: 3092: 3078: 3076: 3075: 3074: 3072: 3058: 3055: 3054: 3053: 3049: 3047: 3046: 3045: 3041: 3038: 3037: 3036: 3032: 3030: 3029: 3028: 3026: 3012: 3010: 3009: 3008: 3006: 2992: 2989: 2988: 2987: 2985: 2971: 2969: 2968: 2967: 2963: 2960: 2959: 2958: 2956: 2942: 2940: 2939: 2938: 2936: 2927: 2925: 2924: 2923: 2921: 2903: 2900: 2899: 2898: 2896: 2887: 2885: 2884: 2883: 2879: 2876: 2875: 2874: 2870: 2867: 2866: 2865: 2863: 2854: 2852: 2851: 2850: 2848: 2839: 2837: 2836: 2835: 2833: 2824: 2822: 2821: 2820: 2818: 2813: 2811: 2810: 2809: 2807: 2798: 2796: 2795: 2794: 2792: 2783: 2780: 2779: 2778: 2776: 2760:ferrous sulfate 2741: 2738: 2737: 2736: 2734: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2680: 2660: 2656: 2628: 2624: 2616: 2582: 2579: 2578: 2577: 2575: 2569: 2565: 2557: 2546:recommended by 2540: 2534: 2526:redox reactions 2491:pyrotechnicians 2390: 2299:sodium chloride 2287: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2235:sodium chloride 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2192: 2189: 2188: 2186: 2179: 2175: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2108: 2105: 2104: 2102: 2098: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2069: 2066: 2065: 2063: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2047:sodium chromate 2042:. For example: 2017:absorption band 1998: 1992: 1991: 1990: 1989: 1988: 1985: 1981: 1976: 1973: 1965: 1964: 1962: 1957: 1948: 1937: 1917:supercapacitors 1886:crystal lattice 1854: 1826:calcium sulfate 1716: 1702: 1690:compressibility 1686: 1684:Compressibility 1650: 1617:vapour pressure 1605: 1593:aluminium oxide 1496:electropositive 1484: 1465: 1410:Frenkel defects 1405: 1399: 1398: 1397: 1396: 1395: 1394:Schottky defect 1392: 1384: 1383: 1380: 1369: 1329: 1306: 1291:cesium chloride 1287:entirely filled 1272: 1271:Critical radius 1256: 1236: 1226: 1212: 1205: 1199: 1197: 1190: 1177: 1173: 1165:and structure 1164: 1143: 1114: 1110: 1077: 1025:all tetrahedral 1019: 970:sodium chloride 939: 938:Critical radius 920: 905:Pauling's rules 845: 805:electropositive 801:electronegative 781:electron shells 762: 740:sodium fluoride 720: 711: 708:↓ + 2 NaNO 707: 703: 699: 695: 691: 676: 669: 661: 654: 649:, e.g., 2 636: 624: 615:, e.g., 2 603: 596: 583: 576: 569: 565: 543: 532: 412:electronegative 401: 388:sodium chloride 377: 306:sodium chloride 294: 222: 219: 218: 217: 215: 206: 203: 202: 201: 199: 190: 187: 186: 185: 183: 172:sodium chloride 146: 144: 143: 142: 138: 135: 134: 133: 131: 101:electric charge 51:sodium chloride 39: 36:Sodium chloride 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6539: 6537: 6529: 6528: 6523: 6518: 6513: 6508: 6498: 6497: 6493: 6492: 6486: 6473: 6467: 6450: 6444: 6429: 6423: 6408: 6402: 6389: 6383: 6367:Pauling, Linus 6363: 6357: 6344: 6338: 6320: 6303: 6288: 6282: 6267: 6261: 6248: 6242: 6227: 6221: 6208: 6202: 6179: 6177: 6174: 6173: 6172: 6157:Mark Kurlansky 6151: 6150: 6147:on 2007-09-11. 6139: 6119: 6104: 6069: 6057: 6036: 6024: 6012: 6001:(1): 114–118. 5990: 5986: 5982: 5978: 5969: 5957: 5945: 5933: 5926: 5908: 5896: 5884: 5872: 5865: 5839: 5827: 5815: 5808: 5782: 5770: 5758: 5746: 5734: 5723: 5703: 5671: 5659: 5647: 5635: 5615: 5600: 5593: 5575: 5573:, p. 774. 5563: 5561:, p. 107. 5544: 5542:, p. 105. 5532: 5505: 5478: 5467: 5444: 5442:, p. 341. 5432: 5417:. 2011-05-22. 5406: 5371: 5369:, p. 422. 5356: 5344: 5332: 5297: 5258: 5224: 5213: 5193: 5145: 5133: 5121: 5110: 5090: 5055: 5053:, p. 503. 5043: 5036: 5018: 4983: 4976: 4950: 4925: 4923:, p. 376. 4913: 4906: 4885: 4841: 4811: 4809:, p. 384. 4799: 4748: 4717: 4676: 4657:(4): 174–180. 4641: 4639:, p. 778. 4629: 4622: 4604: 4574: 4567: 4546: 4516: 4489: 4468: 4445: 4443:, p. 386. 4433: 4392: 4375: 4363: 4342: 4321: 4309: 4307:, p. 383. 4294: 4258: 4256:, p. 509. 4246: 4234: 4208: 4195:10.1086/594534 4189:(5): 909–920. 4173: 4171:, p. 676. 4161: 4126: 4099: 4092: 4074: 4024: 4013:(2): 171–173. 3997: 3982: 3980:, p. 379. 3970: 3968:, p. 507. 3953: 3941: 3929: 3917: 3905: 3893: 3881: 3879:, p. 417. 3866: 3854: 3839: 3828: 3808: 3793: 3776: 3774:, p. 312. 3764: 3762:, p. 505. 3752: 3711: 3673: 3632: 3589: 3559: 3558: 3556: 3553: 3550: 3549: 3543: 3539: 3529: 3519: 3514: 3509: 3499: 3494: 3489: 3479: 3474: 3458: 3448: 3447: 3445: 3442: 3441: 3440: 3435: 3430: 3425: 3420: 3415: 3409: 3404: 3399: 3392: 3389: 3361: 3358: 3353: 3345: 3342:sodium acetate 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3279: 3276: 3275: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3212: 3211: 3200: 3190: 3179: 3169: 3159: 3149: 3138: 3128: 3117: 3107: 3097: 3087: 3077: 3067: 3056: 3048: 3039: 3031: 3021: 3011: 3001: 2990: 2980: 2970: 2961: 2947: 2946: 2941: 2931: 2926: 2916: 2901: 2891: 2886: 2877: 2868: 2858: 2853: 2843: 2838: 2828: 2823: 2812: 2802: 2797: 2787: 2781: 2764:ferric sulfate 2739: 2719:Roman numerals 2698: 2694: 2690: 2678: 2658: 2654: 2626: 2622: 2614: 2592:polyatomic ion 2580: 2572:sodium sulfate 2567: 2563: 2555: 2533: 2530: 2451:, and causing 2441:ionic strength 2422:oil of vitriol 2389: 2386: 2358:conjugate acid 2313:if ingested), 2311:lead poisoning 2307:lead diacetate 2286: 2285:Taste and odor 2283: 2263: 2262: 2248: 2232: 2210: 2198: 2170: 2164: 2152: 2130: 2114: 2096:dichromate ion 2075: 1983: 1979: 1974: 1967: 1966: 1960: 1949: 1942: 1941: 1940: 1939: 1938: 1936: 1933: 1853: 1850: 1822:barium sulfate 1794:lattice energy 1775:lattice energy 1739:polar solvents 1701: 1698: 1685: 1682: 1649: 1646: 1613:boiling points 1604: 1601: 1597:lead(II) oxide 1570:conjugate base 1483: 1480: 1464: 1461: 1393: 1386: 1385: 1382:Frenkel defect 1381: 1374: 1373: 1372: 1371: 1370: 1368: 1365: 1347: 1346: 1344: 1342: 1337: 1334: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1322: 1320: 1318: 1313: 1310: 1307: 1304: 1300: 1299: 1296: 1293: 1288: 1285: 1282: 1278: 1277: 1274: 1269: 1265: 1264: 1261: 1258: 1253: 1252:Stoichiometry 1239: 1238: 1233: 1228: 1223: 1221:inverse spinel 1214: 1210: 1203: 1195: 1188: 1183: 1180: 1178: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1166: 1161: 1156: 1154: 1152: 1149: 1146: 1144: 1141: 1137: 1136: 1133: 1128: 1126: 1124: 1121: 1118: 1115: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1103: 1100: 1098:bismuth iodide 1095: 1092: 1087: 1084: 1081: 1078: 1075: 1071: 1070: 1067: 1065:cadmium iodide 1062: 1059: 1054: 1051: 1048: 1045: 1042: 1041: 1039: 1037: 1034: 1029: 1026: 1023: 1020: 1017: 1013: 1012: 1009: 1004: 1001: 996: 993: 990: 987: 984: 983: 980: 975: 972: 967: 964: 963:all octahedral 961: 958: 954: 953: 950: 947: 944: 941: 936: 932: 931: 928: 925: 922: 917: 916:Stoichiometry 844: 841: 833:metallic bonds 829:hydrogen bonds 758:Main article: 752:exothermically 728:electron shell 719: 716: 715: 714: 713: 712: 709: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 679: 674: 667: 659: 652: 647:base anhydride 639: 634: 622: 613:acid anhydride 605: 601: 594: 585: 581: 574: 567: 563: 546: 541: 530: 488:stoichiometric 476:freezing point 450:spectator ions 426:supersaturated 399: 376: 373: 369:thermochemical 357:Erwin Madelung 293: 290: 262:boiling points 242:, for example 220: 204: 188: 145: 136: 81:ionic compound 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6538: 6527: 6524: 6522: 6519: 6517: 6514: 6512: 6509: 6507: 6504: 6503: 6501: 6489: 6483: 6479: 6474: 6470: 6464: 6459: 6458: 6451: 6447: 6441: 6437: 6436: 6430: 6426: 6420: 6416: 6415: 6409: 6405: 6399: 6395: 6390: 6386: 6380: 6375: 6374: 6368: 6364: 6360: 6354: 6350: 6345: 6341: 6335: 6331: 6330: 6325: 6321: 6311:on 2016-02-03 6310: 6306: 6300: 6296: 6295: 6289: 6285: 6279: 6275: 6274: 6268: 6264: 6258: 6254: 6249: 6245: 6239: 6235: 6234: 6228: 6224: 6218: 6214: 6209: 6205: 6199: 6195: 6194: 6189: 6185: 6181: 6180: 6175: 6170: 6169:0-14-200161-9 6166: 6162: 6158: 6155: 6154: 6146: 6142: 6140:9780471193500 6136: 6132: 6131: 6123: 6120: 6117:, p. 38. 6116: 6111: 6109: 6105: 6100: 6096: 6092: 6088: 6084: 6080: 6073: 6070: 6066: 6061: 6058: 6055:, p. 77. 6054: 6049: 6047: 6045: 6043: 6041: 6037: 6033: 6028: 6025: 6022:, p. 76. 6021: 6016: 6013: 6008: 6004: 6000: 5996: 5973: 5970: 5967:, p. 75. 5966: 5961: 5958: 5954: 5949: 5946: 5942: 5937: 5934: 5929: 5923: 5919: 5912: 5909: 5906:, p. 69. 5905: 5900: 5897: 5894:, p. 70. 5893: 5888: 5885: 5882:, p. 68. 5881: 5876: 5873: 5868: 5862: 5858: 5853: 5852: 5843: 5840: 5836: 5831: 5828: 5824: 5819: 5816: 5811: 5805: 5801: 5796: 5795: 5786: 5783: 5779: 5774: 5771: 5767: 5762: 5759: 5756:, p. 82. 5755: 5750: 5747: 5744:, p. 14. 5743: 5738: 5735: 5730: 5726: 5720: 5716: 5715: 5707: 5704: 5693:on 2017-02-08 5689: 5682: 5675: 5672: 5668: 5663: 5660: 5656: 5651: 5648: 5644: 5639: 5636: 5623: 5619: 5611: 5604: 5601: 5596: 5590: 5586: 5579: 5576: 5572: 5567: 5564: 5560: 5555: 5553: 5551: 5549: 5545: 5541: 5536: 5533: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5516: 5509: 5506: 5501: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5482: 5479: 5474: 5470: 5464: 5460: 5459: 5451: 5449: 5445: 5441: 5436: 5433: 5420: 5416: 5410: 5407: 5402: 5398: 5394: 5390: 5386: 5382: 5375: 5372: 5368: 5363: 5361: 5357: 5353: 5348: 5345: 5341: 5336: 5333: 5328: 5324: 5320: 5316: 5312: 5308: 5301: 5298: 5293: 5289: 5285: 5281: 5277: 5273: 5269: 5262: 5259: 5254: 5250: 5246: 5242: 5238: 5231: 5229: 5225: 5220: 5216: 5210: 5206: 5205: 5197: 5194: 5189: 5185: 5181: 5177: 5173: 5169: 5165: 5161: 5154: 5152: 5150: 5146: 5142: 5137: 5134: 5130: 5125: 5122: 5117: 5113: 5107: 5103: 5102: 5094: 5091: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5059: 5056: 5052: 5047: 5044: 5039: 5033: 5029: 5022: 5019: 5014: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4987: 4984: 4979: 4973: 4969: 4964: 4963: 4954: 4951: 4939: 4935: 4929: 4926: 4922: 4917: 4914: 4909: 4903: 4899: 4892: 4890: 4886: 4881: 4877: 4873: 4869: 4862: 4860: 4858: 4856: 4854: 4852: 4850: 4848: 4846: 4842: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4818: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4803: 4800: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4759: 4752: 4749: 4744: 4740: 4736: 4732: 4728: 4721: 4718: 4712: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4680: 4677: 4672: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4645: 4642: 4638: 4633: 4630: 4625: 4619: 4615: 4608: 4605: 4600: 4596: 4593:(1): 95–106. 4592: 4588: 4581: 4579: 4575: 4570: 4564: 4560: 4553: 4551: 4547: 4534: 4530: 4526: 4520: 4517: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4493: 4490: 4485: 4479: 4471: 4465: 4461: 4454: 4452: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4437: 4434: 4428: 4423: 4419: 4415: 4411: 4407: 4403: 4396: 4393: 4390:, p. 65. 4389: 4384: 4382: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4367: 4364: 4359: 4353: 4345: 4339: 4335: 4328: 4326: 4322: 4318: 4313: 4310: 4306: 4301: 4299: 4295: 4280: 4276: 4269: 4262: 4259: 4255: 4250: 4247: 4244:, p. 64. 4243: 4238: 4235: 4223: 4219: 4212: 4209: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4177: 4174: 4170: 4165: 4162: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4130: 4127: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4103: 4100: 4095: 4089: 4085: 4078: 4075: 4064:on 2021-12-07 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4044:: 1461–1467. 4043: 4039: 4035: 4028: 4025: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4001: 3998: 3995:, p. 65. 3994: 3989: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3974: 3971: 3967: 3962: 3960: 3958: 3954: 3951:, p. 61. 3950: 3945: 3942: 3938: 3933: 3930: 3926: 3921: 3918: 3914: 3909: 3906: 3902: 3897: 3894: 3891:, p. 79. 3890: 3885: 3882: 3878: 3873: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3858: 3855: 3851: 3846: 3844: 3840: 3835: 3831: 3825: 3821: 3820: 3812: 3809: 3806:, p. 82. 3805: 3800: 3798: 3794: 3791:, p. 71. 3790: 3785: 3783: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3768: 3765: 3761: 3756: 3753: 3747: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3715: 3712: 3707: 3703: 3700:(1): 93–170. 3699: 3695: 3688: 3686: 3684: 3682: 3680: 3678: 3674: 3668: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3636: 3633: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3593: 3590: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3574: 3569: 3564: 3561: 3554: 3546: 3533: 3530: 3523: 3520: 3512: 3503: 3500: 3492: 3483: 3480: 3472: 3468: 3462: 3459: 3453: 3450: 3443: 3439: 3436: 3434: 3431: 3429: 3426: 3424: 3421: 3419: 3416: 3413: 3412:Bresle method 3410: 3408: 3405: 3403: 3400: 3398: 3395: 3394: 3390: 3388: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3359: 3357: 3351: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3318: 3299: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3277: 3264: 3261: 3250: 3247: 3236: 3233: 3232: 3231: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3209: 3208:sulfuric acid 3194: 3191: 3188: 3173: 3170: 3167: 3153: 3150: 3147: 3132: 3129: 3126: 3111: 3108: 3105: 3091: 3088: 3085: 3071: 3068: 3065: 3025: 3022: 3019: 3005: 3002: 2999: 2998:carbonic acid 2984: 2981: 2978: 2955: 2952: 2951: 2950: 2935: 2932: 2920: 2917: 2914: 2910: 2907:, R being an 2895: 2892: 2862: 2859: 2847: 2844: 2832: 2829: 2806: 2803: 2791: 2788: 2775: 2772: 2771: 2770: 2767: 2765: 2761: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2688: 2684: 2676: 2671: 2666: 2664: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2620: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2599: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2573: 2561: 2553: 2552:stoichiometry 2549: 2545: 2539: 2531: 2529: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2506: 2504: 2500: 2495: 2492: 2487: 2485: 2481: 2476: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2433: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2418:muriatic acid 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2387: 2385: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2342: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2284: 2282: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2260: 2256: 2241:heptahydrate 2240: 2236: 2233: 2202: 2199: 2184: 2174: 2171: 2157:pentahydrate 2156: 2153: 2138: 2118: 2115: 2097: 2079: 2076: 2062: 2048: 2045: 2044: 2043: 2041: 2037: 2032: 2030: 2026: 2021: 2018: 2013: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1997: 1987: 1971: 1963: 1955: 1952: 1946: 1934: 1932: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1913:ionic glasses 1910: 1905: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1867: 1863: 1858: 1851: 1849: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1790: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1747:ionic liquids 1744: 1740: 1736: 1731: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1715: 1706: 1699: 1697: 1695: 1691: 1683: 1681: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1647: 1645: 1641: 1639: 1635: 1634:ionic liquids 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1602: 1600: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1577: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1488:hydrogen ions 1481: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1462: 1460: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1416: 1411: 1404: 1390: 1378: 1366: 1364: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1353:ionic liquids 1345: 1343: 1341: 1340:lithium oxide 1338: 1335: 1332: 1325: 1324: 1321: 1319: 1317: 1314: 1311: 1308: 1302: 1301: 1297: 1294: 1292: 1289: 1286: 1283: 1280: 1279: 1275: 1270: 1267: 1266: 1257:coordination 1250: 1244: 1234: 1232: 1229: 1224: 1222: 1218: 1215: 1209: 1202: 1194: 1187: 1184: 1181: 1179: 1169: 1168: 1162: 1160: 1157: 1155: 1153: 1150: 1147: 1145: 1139: 1138: 1134: 1132: 1129: 1127: 1125: 1122: 1119: 1116: 1106: 1105: 1101: 1099: 1096: 1093: 1091: 1088: 1085: 1082: 1079: 1073: 1072: 1068: 1066: 1063: 1060: 1058: 1055: 1052: 1049: 1046: 1044: 1043: 1040: 1038: 1035: 1033: 1030: 1027: 1024: 1021: 1015: 1014: 1010: 1008: 1005: 1002: 1000: 997: 994: 991: 988: 986: 985: 981: 979: 976: 973: 971: 968: 965: 962: 959: 956: 955: 951: 948: 945: 942: 937: 934: 933: 921:coordination 914: 908: 906: 902: 898: 894: 893:stoichiometry 890: 886: 881: 879: 875: 871: 867: 863: 854: 849: 842: 840: 838: 834: 830: 825: 822: 818: 817:Fajans' rules 814: 810: 806: 802: 797: 792: 790: 786: 785:closed shells 782: 779: 775: 771: 767: 761: 760:Ionic bonding 753: 749: 745: 741: 737: 733: 729: 724: 717: 687: 686: 684: 680: 678: 670: 663: 655: 648: 644: 640: 638: 630: 626: 618: 614: 610: 606: 604: 597: 590: 586: 584: 577: 570: 559: 555: 551: 547: 545: 537: 533: 526: 522: 518: 517: 516: 515: 510: 508: 504: 500: 496: 491: 489: 485: 481: 477: 472: 470: 466: 462: 458: 457:ionic crystal 453: 451: 447: 443: 438: 433: 431: 427: 423: 418: 416: 413: 409: 408:alkali metals 396: 389: 385: 381: 374: 372: 370: 366: 362: 358: 354: 350: 346: 342: 337: 335: 331: 327: 323: 319: 315: 311: 307: 298: 291: 289: 287: 283: 279: 275: 271: 267: 263: 259: 254: 252: 247: 245: 241: 237: 233: 229: 213: 197: 181: 177: 173: 169: 165: 161: 157: 153: 129: 125: 121: 117: 112: 110: 106: 102: 98: 94: 90: 86: 82: 78: 74: 66: 63: 59: 56: 52: 49:structure of 48: 43: 37: 33: 19: 6477: 6456: 6434: 6413: 6393: 6372: 6348: 6327: 6313:. Retrieved 6309:the original 6293: 6272: 6252: 6232: 6212: 6192: 6176:Bibliography 6160: 6145:the original 6130:Biochemistry 6129: 6122: 6082: 6078: 6072: 6060: 6027: 6015: 5998: 5994: 5972: 5960: 5948: 5936: 5917: 5911: 5899: 5887: 5875: 5850: 5842: 5830: 5818: 5793: 5785: 5778:Russell 2009 5773: 5766:Russell 2009 5761: 5754:Russell 2009 5749: 5742:Russell 2009 5737: 5713: 5706: 5695:. Retrieved 5688:the original 5674: 5662: 5650: 5638: 5626:. Retrieved 5613: 5603: 5584: 5578: 5566: 5559:Pauling 1960 5540:Pauling 1960 5535: 5518: 5514: 5508: 5491: 5487: 5481: 5457: 5440:Zumdahl 1989 5435: 5423:. Retrieved 5409: 5384: 5380: 5374: 5347: 5335: 5310: 5306: 5300: 5267: 5261: 5236: 5203: 5196: 5163: 5159: 5136: 5131:, p. 1. 5124: 5100: 5093: 5068: 5064: 5058: 5046: 5027: 5021: 4996: 4992: 4986: 4961: 4953: 4942:. Retrieved 4928: 4916: 4897: 4871: 4867: 4827: 4823: 4802: 4786:11380/738457 4761: 4757: 4751: 4726: 4720: 4696:(12): 1091. 4693: 4689: 4679: 4654: 4650: 4644: 4632: 4613: 4607: 4590: 4586: 4558: 4537:. Retrieved 4528: 4519: 4502: 4498: 4492: 4459: 4436: 4412:(1): 55–56. 4409: 4405: 4395: 4366: 4333: 4317:Zumdahl 1989 4312: 4286:. Retrieved 4274: 4261: 4254:Pauling 1960 4249: 4237: 4225:. Retrieved 4221: 4211: 4186: 4182: 4176: 4164: 4139: 4135: 4129: 4112: 4108: 4102: 4083: 4077: 4066:. Retrieved 4062:the original 4041: 4037: 4027: 4010: 4006: 4000: 3993:Pauling 1960 3973: 3966:Pauling 1960 3944: 3939:, p. 6. 3937:Pauling 1960 3932: 3920: 3913:Zumdahl 1989 3908: 3896: 3884: 3862:Zumdahl 1989 3857: 3850:Zumdahl 1989 3818: 3811: 3772:Zumdahl 1989 3767: 3760:Pauling 1960 3755: 3728: 3724: 3714: 3697: 3693: 3649: 3645: 3635: 3602: 3598: 3592: 3571: 3563: 3532: 3522: 3502: 3482: 3461: 3452: 3363: 3322:electrolytes 3319: 3300: 3281: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3213: 3146:nitrous acid 2948: 2911:group or an 2768: 2750: 2746: 2707:formula unit 2667: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2600: 2544:nomenclature 2541: 2532:Nomenclature 2522:electrolysis 2507: 2496: 2488: 2477: 2434: 2391: 2346:strong salts 2343: 2291:basic tastes 2288: 2264: 2203:hexahydrate 2183:permanganate 2119:hexahydrate 2061:chromate ion 2033: 2022: 2014: 1999: 1977: 1958: 1906: 1902:electrolytes 1871: 1791: 1732: 1717: 1687: 1678:dislocations 1674:plastic flow 1672:occurs, and 1651: 1642: 1638:substituents 1621:molten salts 1606: 1578: 1527:alkali salts 1485: 1476:ionic liquid 1436:entropically 1406: 1350: 1255:Cation:anion 1242: 1207: 1200: 1192: 1185: 919:Cation:anion 901:radius ratio 897:coordination 885:close-packed 882: 858: 826: 793: 763: 726:A schematic 511: 492: 473: 454: 434: 419: 405: 353:Alfred Landé 338: 303: 255: 253:when solid. 248: 113: 80: 76: 70: 6085:(11): 964. 4999:(11): 550. 4921:Kittel 2005 4874:: 265–303. 4388:Kittel 2005 4242:Kittel 2005 4169:Barrow 1988 4142:(10): 643. 3949:Kittel 2005 3925:Barrow 1988 3428:Ionic bonds 3418:Carboxylate 3377:metabolites 3373:amino acids 3365:Zwitterions 3350:acetic acid 3296:nonvolatile 3284:electrolyte 3125:nitric acid 3064:citric acid 2977:acetic acid 2524:, in which 2473:suspensions 2437:electrolyte 2430:slaked lime 2402:agriculture 2398:common salt 2348:") are non- 2139:cobalt(II) 1648:Brittleness 1558:strong base 1546:strong acid 1540:are called 1525:are called 1432:equilibrium 1361:ionic glass 1336:half filled 1312:half filled 999:zinc blende 889:interstices 853:zinc blende 821:HSAB theory 730:diagram of 437:counterions 432:minerals. 349:Fritz Haber 341:theoretical 322:crystalline 276:, but when 158:), such as 109:ionic bonds 6500:Categories 6315:2023-02-05 6115:Brown 2009 6065:IUPAC 2005 6053:IUPAC 2005 6032:IUPAC 2005 6020:IUPAC 2005 5965:IUPAC 2005 5953:IUPAC 2005 5941:Brown 2009 5904:IUPAC 2005 5892:IUPAC 2005 5880:IUPAC 2005 5697:2016-01-18 5628:14 January 5494:(2): 157. 5425:2 December 5387:(2): 689. 5367:Brown 2009 5352:Brown 2009 5340:Brown 2009 4944:2015-11-10 4539:19 January 4529:ChemTube3D 4288:2016-01-19 4227:22 January 4068:2021-12-01 3877:Brown 2009 3555:References 3497:structure. 3360:Zwitterion 2861:Pyridinium 2731:uranyl(2+) 2536:See also: 2503:precursors 2378:hydrolysis 2354:weak salts 1994:See also: 1925:fuel cells 1874:insulators 1834:carbonates 1735:solubility 1724:dissociate 1712:See also: 1700:Solubility 1615:and a low 1585:zinc oxide 1581:amphoteric 1542:acid salts 1463:Properties 1401:See also: 1357:nucleation 935:Occupancy 471:material. 286:conductive 264:, and are 226:) ions in 178:, such as 176:polyatomic 156:simple ion 126:, such as 118:, such as 6457:Chemistry 5313:(1): 34. 5292:0031-8086 5180:1520-6106 5085:0002-7863 4830:: 77–82. 4794:101158673 4478:cite book 4352:cite book 4203:120135228 3402:Ioliomics 3313:, or __CH 3228:polybasic 3216:monobasic 3172:Phosphate 2983:Carbonate 2846:Potassium 2831:Magnesium 2701:is named 2681:is named 2661:is named 2651:tetrakis- 2639:potassium 2617:is named 2570:is named 2558:is named 2514:elemental 2494:present. 2469:emulsions 2465:colloidal 2426:saltpeter 2237:NaCl and 2217:[NiCl 2141:[Co(H 2029:anhydrous 2025:hydration 1951:Anhydrous 1921:batteries 1816:and many 1802:potassium 1771:solvation 1753:(such as 1741:(such as 1658:malleably 1566:base salt 1562:weak acid 1554:acid salt 1550:weak base 1516:hydroxide 1500:hydroxide 1453:splitting 1298:1.762675 982:<1.73 978:nickeline 866:Ewald sum 855:structure 843:Structure 813:covalency 664:→ 2 627:→ 2 469:anhydrous 430:evaporite 422:solutions 375:Formation 282:dissolved 232:hydroxide 212:carbonate 166:(Na) and 162:(F), and 152:monatomic 122:(Cl), or 116:inorganic 73:chemistry 6369:(1960). 6326:(2005). 6190:(1977). 6159:(2002). 5729:Archived 5622:Archived 5473:Archived 5419:Archived 5219:Archived 5188:16851662 5116:Archived 4938:Archived 4533:Archived 4279:Archived 4058:18893624 3834:Archived 3627:13112732 3438:Salinity 3391:See also 3385:proteins 3381:peptides 3369:molecule 3326:volatile 3278:Strength 3224:tribasic 3090:Fluoride 3004:Chloride 2774:Ammonium 2562:, and Na 2518:smelting 2480:fluoride 2394:minerals 2350:volatile 2293:, e.g., 2275:pigments 2267:minerals 2247:·7H 2209:·6H 2163:·5H 2137:hydrated 2129:·6H 2040:solvates 2010:hydrated 1818:sulfates 1814:nitrates 1759:gasoline 1728:solvated 1720:dissolve 1666:cleavage 1662:fracture 1531:hydrogen 1502:(OH) or 1428:F-center 1159:ilmenite 1135:25.0312 1131:corundum 1032:fluorite 1007:wurtzite 974:1.747565 744:electron 736:fluorine 556:, e.g., 527:, e.g., 415:halogens 345:Max Born 234:(OH) or 196:ammonium 170:(Cl) in 168:chloride 160:fluoride 154:(termed 120:chloride 62:chloride 6087:Bibcode 5389:Bibcode 5315:Bibcode 5272:Bibcode 5241:Bibcode 5001:Bibcode 4766:Bibcode 4731:Bibcode 4698:Bibcode 4659:Bibcode 4414:Bibcode 4144:Bibcode 3733:Bibcode 3654:Bibcode 3607:Bibcode 3375:, many 3332:to the 3309:, __ClO 3220:dibasic 3193:Sulfate 3131:Nitrite 3110:Nitrate 3070:Cyanide 3027:HOC(COO 3024:Citrate 2954:Acetate 2790:Calcium 2753:to the 2588:sulfate 2463:around 2410:calomel 2374:ammonia 2370:almonds 2362:vinegar 2329:), and 2271:soluble 2255:cations 1812:. 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