324:
material, although it usually involves using a standard mould shape and measuring the distance the material flows. Fluidity is affected by the composition of the material, freezing temperature or range, surface tension of oxide films, and, most importantly, the pouring temperature. The higher the pouring temperature, the greater the fluidity; however, excessive temperatures can be detrimental, leading to a reaction between the material and the mould; in casting processes that use a porous mould material the material may even penetrate the mould material.
300:. A misrun occurs when the liquid metal does not completely fill the mould cavity, leaving an unfilled portion. Cold shuts occur when two fronts of liquid metal do not fuse properly in the mould cavity, leaving a weak spot. Both are caused by either a lack of fluidity in the molten metal or cross-sections that are too narrow. The fluidity can be increased by changing the chemical composition of the metal or by increasing the pouring temperature. Another possible cause is
79:" refer to two specific and separate things in castings. Defects are defined as conditions in a casting that must be corrected or removed, or the casting must be rejected. Discontinuities, also known as "imperfections", are defined as "interruptions in the physical continuity of the casting". Therefore, if the casting is less than perfect, but still useful and in tolerance, the imperfections should be deemed "discontinuities".
235:
258:, or other gasses from the melt or mould. (Vacuum holes caused by metal shrinkage (see above) may also be loosely referred to as 'blowholes'). Proper foundry practices, including melt preparation and mould design, can reduce the occurrence of these defects. Because they are often surrounded by a skin of sound metal, blowholes may be difficult to detect, requiring harmonic,
436:. These defects can be caused by cold dies, low metal temperature, dirty metal, lack of venting, or excessive lubricant. Other possible defects are gas porosity, shrinkage porosity, hot tears, and flow marks. Flow marks are marks left on the surface of the casting due to poor gating, sharp corners or excessive lubricant.
323:
of the material can be important factors with these problems. Fluidity affects the minimum section thickness that can be cast, the maximum length of thin sections, fineness of feasibly cast details, and the accuracy of filling mould extremities. There are various ways of measuring the fluidity of a
230:
Gas porosity can sometimes be difficult to distinguish from micro shrinkage because microshrinkage cavities can contain gases as well. In general, microporosities will form if the casting is not properly risered or if a material with a wide solidification range is cast. If neither of these are the
415:
Hot spots are sections of casting which have cooled down more slowly than the surrounding material due to higher volume than its surrounding. This causes abnormal shrinkage in this region, which can lead to porosity and cracks. This type of defect can be avoided by proper cooling practices or by
168:
is the formation of bubbles within the casting after it has cooled. This occurs because most liquid materials can hold a large amount of dissolved gas, but the solid form of the same material cannot, so the gas forms bubbles within the material as it cools. Gas porosity may present itself on the
381:. Other ingredients can be added to the mixture to cause the dross to float to the top where it can be skimmed off before the metal is poured into the mould. If this is not practical, then a special ladle that pours the metal from the bottom can be used. Another option is to install
385:
filters into the gating system. Otherwise swirl gates can be formed which swirl the liquid metal as it is poured in, forcing the lighter inclusions to the center and keeping them out of the casting. If some of the dross or slag is folded into the molten metal then it becomes an
610:
occurs when metallic oxides interact with impurities in silica sands. The result is sand particles embedded in the surface of the finished casting. This defect can be avoided by reducing the temperature of the liquid metal, by using a mould wash, and by using various
510:
of the casting. This can be caused by a sand with too little strength or a pouring velocity that is too fast. The pouring velocity can be reduced by redesigning the gating system to use larger runners or multiple gates. A related source of defects are
412:, are failures in the casting that occur as the casting cools. This happens because the metal is weak when it is hot and the residual stresses in the material can cause the casting to fail as it cools. Proper mould design prevents this type of defect.
589:, which are buckles that occur in the cope of sand castings. All of these defects are visual in nature and are no reason to scrap the workpiece. These defects are caused by overly high pouring temperatures or deficiencies of
314:
are closely related and both involve the material freezing before it completely fills the mould cavity. These types of defects are serious because the area surrounding the defect is significantly weaker than intended. The
185:. For casting that are a few kilograms in weight the pores are usually 0.01 to 0.5 mm (0.00039 to 0.01969 in) in size. In larger casting, they can be up to a millimetre (0.040 in) in diameter.
110:. Shrinkage defects will have jagged or linear appearance. Shrinkage defects usually occur in either the cope or drag portion of the casting. Shrinkage defects can be split into two different types:
200:
temperatures can be kept low. Turbulence from pouring the liquid metal into the mould can introduce gases, so the moulds are often streamlined to minimize such turbulence. Other methods include
530:. This is caused by sand particles which are too coarse, lack of mould wash, or pouring temperatures that are too high. An alternative form of metal penetration into the mould known as
362:), material that is eroded from furnace or ladle linings, or contaminates from the mould. In the specific case of aluminium alloys, it is important to control the concentration of
416:
changing the chemical composition of the metal. Additional methods of minimising hot tears are not overheating the casting material and increasing the temperature of the mould.
475:
Sand casting has many defects that can occur due to the mould failing. The mould usually fails because of one of two reasons: the wrong material is used or it is improperly
1353:
227:
Hydrogen is produced by the reaction of the metal with humidity or residual moisture in the mould. Drying the mould can eliminate this source of hydrogen formation.
181:
are the most encountered gases in cases of gas porosity. In aluminium castings, hydrogen is the only gas that dissolves in significant quantity, which can result in
208:, or precipitation. Precipitation involves reacting the gas with another element to form a compound that will form a dross that floats to the top. For instance,
1315:
130:. Pipes form at the surface of the casting and burrow into the casting, while caved surfaces are shallow cavities that form across the surface of the casting.
87:
There are many types of defects which result from many different causes. Some of the solutions to certain defects can be the cause for another type of defect.
331:. The point is difficult to predict in mould design because it is dependent on the solid fraction, the structure of the solidified particles, and the local
45:
process. Some defects can be tolerated while others can be repaired, otherwise they must be eliminated. They are broken down into five main categories:
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can be added to steel to remove oxygen. A third source consists of reactions of the molten metal with grease or other residues in the mould.
369:
There are a number of ways to reduce the concentration of inclusions. In order to reduce oxide formation the metal can be melted with a
541:
is used then the sand can fuse to the casting. When this happens the surface of the casting produced has a brittle, glassy appearance.
456:, and includes molten steel qualities, such as the chemical composition being out of specification, cleanliness of the material, and
1339:
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1217:
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because most other casting processes have more robust moulds. The castings produced have rough spots and excess material. The
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629:
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457:
169:
surface of the casting as porosity or the pore may be trapped inside the metal, which reduces strength in that vicinity.
1301:
580:
are similar to buckles, except they are thin line indentations and not associated with scabs. Another similar defect is
263:
1391:
1161:
718:
671:
1007:
137:, are defects that form within the casting. Isolated pools of liquid form inside solidified metal, which are called
188:
To prevent gas porosity the material may be melted in a vacuum, in an environment of low-solubility gases, such as
1428:
993:
1592:
634:
519:
drops into the casting while it is still a liquid. This also occurs when the mould is not properly rammed.
487:
145:
point, so impurities and dissolved gas can induce closed shrinkage defects. The defects are broken up into
1413:
271:
267:
42:
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1474:
624:
182:
600:
occurs when the mould wall gives way across a whole face, and is caused by an improperly rammed mould.
563:
are a thin layer of metal that sits proud of the casting. They are easy to remove and always reveal a
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1418:
531:
122:, therefore as the shrinkage cavity forms, air compensates. There are two types of open air defects:
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by measuring them in the liquid aluminium and taking actions to keep them to the required level.
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Shrinkage defects can occur when standard feed metal is not available to compensate for
468:"Scabbing" redirects here. For the act of working despite an ongoing strike action, see
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30:"Scabbing" redirects here. For the practice of working during an ongoing strike, see
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254:. Such defects can be caused by air entrained in the melt, steam or smoke from the
205:
197:
91:
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548:
occurs when the liquid metal leaks out of the mould because of a faulty mould or
141:. The shrinkage defect usually forms at the top of the hot spots. They require a
1386:
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as the liquid metal fills the mould. This type of defect usually only occurs in
476:
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157:), where macroporosity can be seen by the naked eye and microporosity cannot.
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Tiny gas bubbles are called porosities, but larger gas bubbles are called
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346:, if liquid. These usually are impurities in the pour metal (generally
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791:
Gas
Porosity in Aluminum Casting, Compiled AFS Literature, March 2002
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becomes incorporated into the casting metal and decreases the
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rate of the fluid. Usually this value ranges from 0.4 to 0.8.
994:"Casting Defects: Hot Tearing :: Total Materia Article"
571:
underneath, which is an indentation in the casting surface.
231:
case then most likely the porosity is due to gas formation.
327:
The point at which the material cannot flow is called the
1208:
Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003).
452:
processes. This defect is caused by uneven cooling, both
537:
If the pouring temperature is too high or a sand of low
94:. Most of these also occur in other casting processes.
1231:
Manufacturing technology: foundry, forming and welding
719:"What's the Difference in Gas and Shrinkage Porosity?"
448:
is a specialized type of defect that only occurs in
1503:
1452:
1369:
816:
Lost-wax
Casting: Old, New, and Inexpensive Methods
1275:Modeling for casting and solidification processing
1008:"5 Common Casting Defects and How to Prevent Them"
968:
944:
764:
1253:Science and Engineering of Casting Solidification
1089:(2nd ed.). ASM International. p. 331.
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728:
515:, in which part of the moulding sand from the
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1021:Avedesian, Baker & ASM International 1999
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885:. Constable & Company. pp. 30–32.
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338:An inclusion is a metal contamination of
118:. Open shrinkage defects are open to the
1210:Materials and Processes in Manufacturing
800:
779:
701:
699:
697:
398:There are two defects in this category:
133:Closed shrinkage defects, also known as
745:
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651:
304:from improperly vented mould cavities.
27:Irregularity in a metal casting process
1139:
1129:
454:primary cooling and secondary cooling
284:Inclusion (mineral) § Metallurgy
7:
921:High Integrity Die Casting Processes
1228:Rao, Posinasetti Nageswara (1999).
1170:(2nd ed.). ASM International.
1070:
1035:
905:
705:
658:
534:is caused by cracking of the sand.
486:, which is the wearing away of the
90:The following defects can occur in
1234:(2nd ed.). Tata McGraw-Hill.
1113:Casting Technology and Cast Alloys
1047:
980:
956:
866:
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41:is an undesired irregularity in a
25:
1250:Stefanescu, Doru Michael (2008).
918:Vinarcik, Edward J (2002-10-16).
680:. ASM International. p. 34.
969:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
945:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
765:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
1160:Avedesian, M. M.; Baker, Hugh;
1536:Semi-finished casting products
1167:Magnesium and magnesium alloys
1116:. Prentice-Hall. p. 242.
677:Casting Design and Performance
630:Inclusions in aluminium alloys
288:Pouring metal defects include
1:
522:The second type of defect is
843:Foseco Foundryman's Handbook
428:the most common defects are
406:. Hot tears, also known as
1640:
1256:(2nd ed.). Springer.
879:Roxburgh, William (1919).
467:
281:
29:
1553:
1331:
1192:. Butterworth-Heinemann.
1083:Davis, Joseph R. (1996).
446:longitudinal facial crack
1272:Yu, Kuang-Oscar (2002).
882:General Foundry Practice
116:closed shrinkage defects
73:The terms "defect" and "
1619:Casting (manufacturing)
1212:(9th ed.). Wiley.
1186:Campbell, John (2003).
1110:Author, Author (2005).
637:for inclusions in steel
635:Non-metallic inclusions
840:Brown, John R (1994).
272:industrial CT scanning
243:
112:open shrinkage defects
55:mould material defects
1593:Tools and terminology
1409:Investment (Lost wax)
813:Sias, Fred R (2005).
625:Hydrogen gas porosity
615:in the sand mixture.
394:Metallurgical defects
278:Pouring metal defects
238:Blowhole defect in a
237:
183:hydrogen gas porosity
63:metallurgical defects
59:pouring metal defects
212:can be removed from
1392:Evaporative-pattern
106:as the thick metal
1142:has generic name (
983:, pp. 310–311
959:, pp. 306–307
908:, pp. 197–198
767:, pp. 283–284
508:fracture toughness
482:The first type is
450:continuous casting
440:Continuous casting
388:entrainment defect
350:, less frequently
244:
135:shrinkage porosity
1606:
1605:
1549:
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1285:978-0-8247-8881-0
1263:978-0-387-74609-8
1241:978-0-07-463180-5
1199:978-0-7506-4790-8
1177:978-0-87170-657-7
1162:ASM International
1123:978-81-203-2779-5
1096:978-0-87170-564-8
687:978-0-87170-724-6
672:ASM International
524:metal penetration
98:Shrinkage defects
51:shrinkage defects
16:(Redirected from
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751:
746:
744:
740:
736:
731:
729:
725:
720:
714:
711:
708:, p. 198
707:
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689:
683:
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678:
673:
667:
664:
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660:
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623:
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588:
579:
570:
562:
553:
551:
547:
542:
540:
539:melting point
535:
533:
529:
525:
520:
518:
514:
509:
505:
501:
497:
496:moulding sand
493:
492:sand castings
489:
485:
484:mould erosion
480:
478:
471:
470:Strikebreaker
463:
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431:
427:
419:
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299:
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151:microporosity
148:
147:macroporosity
144:
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125:
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117:
113:
109:
105:
97:
95:
93:
92:sand castings
88:
82:
80:
76:discontinuity
68:
66:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
43:metal casting
40:
33:
32:Strikebreaker
19:
1510:
1480:Molding sand
1434:Shaw process
1419:Plaster mold
1325:Metalworking
1274:
1252:
1230:
1209:
1188:
1166:
1154:Bibliography
1112:
1105:
1085:
1078:
1043:
1023:, p. 76
1016:
1002:
988:
976:
964:
952:
940:
920:
913:
901:
881:
874:
862:
842:
835:
815:
808:
796:
787:
737:, p. 69
713:
676:
666:
654:
603:
602:
597:
595:
591:carbonaceous
581:
572:
564:
555:
554:
545:
543:
536:
523:
521:
512:
483:
481:
474:
464:Sand casting
445:
443:
423:
414:
409:hot cracking
403:
399:
397:
368:
337:
333:shear strain
328:
326:
311:
307:
306:
297:
293:
289:
287:
274:) analysis.
256:casting sand
251:
247:
245:
229:
226:
206:gas flushing
187:
166:Gas porosity
165:
164:
161:Gas porosity
154:
150:
146:
138:
134:
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111:
101:
89:
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72:
62:
58:
54:
50:
47:gas porosity
46:
38:
36:
1563:Fabrication
1504:Terminology
1377:Centrifugal
1140:|last=
458:homogeneity
426:die casting
420:Die casting
377:, or in an
317:castability
69:Terminology
1624:Metallurgy
1613:Categories
1583:Metallurgy
1453:Components
1382:Continuous
1086:Cast irons
647:References
593:material.
434:cold shuts
364:inclusions
312:cold shuts
298:inclusions
294:cold shuts
282:See also:
260:ultrasonic
218:phosphorus
216:by adding
143:nucleation
120:atmosphere
108:solidifies
1578:Machining
1573:Jewellery
1402:Lost foam
1397:Full mold
1370:Processes
1132:cite book
613:additives
500:ductility
404:hot spots
400:hot tears
321:viscosity
248:blowholes
240:cast iron
198:superheat
139:hot spots
104:shrinkage
1588:Smithing
1189:Castings
1164:(1999).
1071:Rao 1999
1036:Rao 1999
906:Rao 1999
706:Rao 1999
674:(2008).
659:Rao 1999
619:See also
584:pulldown
360:sulfides
356:carbides
352:nitrides
264:magnetic
252:blisters
179:hydrogen
171:Nitrogen
18:Scabbing
1598:Welding
1568:Forming
1558:Casting
1526:Foundry
1485:Pattern
1363:Casting
1048:Yu 2002
981:Yu 2002
957:Yu 2002
867:Yu 2002
750:Yu 2002
606:Burn-on
575:Rattail
546:run out
532:veining
430:misruns
383:ceramic
373:, in a
308:Misruns
290:misruns
270:(e.g.,
222:silicon
1282:
1260:
1238:
1216:
1196:
1174:
1120:
1093:
928:
889:
850:
823:
684:
567:buckle
506:, and
477:rammed
375:vacuum
348:oxides
296:, and
214:copper
210:oxygen
175:oxygen
61:, and
1531:Ingot
1521:Dross
1516:Draft
1495:Sprue
1490:Riser
1475:Flask
1460:Chill
598:swell
550:flask
513:drops
488:mould
358:, or
340:dross
268:X-ray
266:, or
242:part.
190:argon
124:pipes
83:Types
1541:Slag
1470:Core
1444:Spin
1424:Sand
1280:ISBN
1258:ISBN
1236:ISBN
1214:ISBN
1194:ISBN
1172:ISBN
1144:help
1118:ISBN
1091:ISBN
926:ISBN
887:ISBN
848:ISBN
821:ISBN
682:ISBN
558:Scab
517:cope
432:and
402:and
371:flux
344:slag
319:and
310:and
177:and
153:(or
149:and
126:and
114:and
1387:Die
424:In
250:or
192:or
1615::
1136::
1134:}}
1130:{{
1055:^
1028:^
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846:.
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460:.
444:A
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354:,
292:,
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690:.
587:s
578:s
561:s
472:.
34:.
20:)
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