Politicization of science - Knowledge (XXG)

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disagreements in order to draw doubt onto the entire theory. For example, in the United States, there is a legal precedent of those who sought to discredit the teaching of evolution in classrooms by emphasizing so-called flaws in the theory of evolution or disagreements within the scientific community. Others insist that teachers have absolute freedom within their classrooms and cannot be disciplined for teaching non-scientific "alternatives" to evolution. A number of bills require that students be taught to "critically analyze" evolution or to understand "the controversy." But there is no significant controversy within the mainstream scientific community about the validity of the main pillars of theory of evolution at this time. The current controversy surrounding the teaching of evolution is thus not primarily a scientific one. The 2005 ruling in the Dover trial,

357: 389: 338: 1492:"Some bills seek to discredit evolution by emphasizing so-called "flaws" in the theory of evolution or "disagreements" within the scientific community. Others insist that teachers have absolute freedom within their classrooms and cannot be disciplined for teaching non-scientific "alternatives" to evolution. A number of bills require that students be taught to "critically analyze" evolution or to understand "the controversy." But there is no significant controversy within the scientific community about the validity of the theory of evolution. The current controversy surrounding the teaching of evolution is not a scientific one." 848:

official posts and on scientific advisory committees; by disbanding existing advisory committees; by censoring and suppressing reports by the government's own scientists; and by simply not seeking independent scientific advice. Other administrations have, on occasion, engaged in such practices, but not so systematically nor on so wide a front. Furthermore, in advocating policies that are not scientifically sound, the administration has sometimes misrepresented scientific knowledge and misled the public about the implications of its policies.

542: 3344:"In contrast, abortion is associated with increased risk of carcinomas of the breast. The explanation for these epidemiological findings is not known, but the parallelism between the DMBA-induced rat mammary carcinoma model and the human situation is striking. Abortion would interrupt this process, leaving in the gland undifferentiated structures like those observed in the rat mammary gland, which could render the gland again susceptible to carcinogenesis." 673: 95: 4974: 4949: 908:(FDA). Of the 997 FDA scientists who responded to the survey, nearly one fifth (18 percent) said that they "have been asked, for non-scientific reasons, to inappropriately exclude or alter technical information or their conclusions in a FDA scientific document." This is the third survey Union of Concerned Scientists has conducted to examine inappropriate interference with science at federal agencies. 54: 292:," ideology-based interest groups that claim expertise on scientific issues, have run successful "disinformation campaigns" in which they highlight the inherent uncertainty of science to cast doubt on scientific issues such as human-caused climate change, even though the scientific community has reached virtual consensus that humans play a role in climate change. 811:"has installed more than 100 top officials who were once lobbyists, attorneys or spokespeople for the industries they oversee." At least 20 of these former industry advocates helped their agencies write, shape or push for policy shifts that benefit their former industries. "They knew which changes to make because they had pushed for them as industry advocates." 158: 959:§ 2635.703, Use of nonpublic information, and 5 C.F.R. § 2635.101, Basic obligation of public service. MacDonald resigned a week before a House congressional oversight committee was to hold a hearing on accusations that she had "violated the Endangered Species Act, censored science and mistreated staff of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service." 1241:, "sowing distrust of the FDA at a time when health leaders desperately need people to accept a vaccine in order to create the immunity necessary to defeat the novel coronavirus." One day after President Donald Trump noted that he might dismiss an FDA proposal to improve standards for emergency use of a coronavirus vaccine, the Presidents of the 1014:. The report accuses the administration of modifying performance measures for abstinence-based programs to make them look more effective. The report also found that the Bush administration had appointed Dr. Joseph McIlhaney, a prominent advocate of abstinence-only program, to the Advisory Committee to the director of the 436:" (ICE). ICE launched a $ 500,000 advertising campaign to, in ICE's own words, "reposition global warming as theory (not fact)." Critics of industry groups have charged that the claims about a global warming controversy are part of a deliberate effort to reduce the impact any international treaty, such as the 1084:

In an interview, subcommittee chairman Rep. Brad Miller pledged to investigate scientific integrity concerns under the Bush Administration. Miller noted that there were multiple reports in the media of the Bush Administration's manipulation of science to advance his political agenda, corrupt advisory

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and the Union of Concerned Scientists found that many scientists have been pressured to approve or reject new drugs despite their scientific findings concerns. In July 2006, the Union of Concerned Scientists released survey results that they said "demonstrate pervasive political influence of science"

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When scientific knowledge has been found to be in conflict with its political goals, the administration has often manipulated the process through which science enters into its decisions. This has been done by placing people who are professionally unqualified or who have clear conflicts of interest in

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reported a rise in calls for "citational justice" within academic communities, which the article defines as an effort by professors and graduate students "to cite more Black, Latino, Asian and Native American scholars and in some cases refuse to acknowledge in footnotes the research of those who hold

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A political tactic, sometimes used to delay the implementation of legislation to control potentially harmful activities, is the "Scientific Certainty Argumentation Method" (SCAM). In many cases, there is a degree of uncertainty in scientific findings and this can be exploited to delay action, perhaps

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describes how this point is sometimes intentionally ignored as a part an "Orwellian tactic." Organizations and politicians seek to disclaim all discussion on some issues as 'the more probable conclusion is still uncertain' as opposed to 'conclusions are most scientifically likely' in order to further

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advocates continue to argue that a link between abortions and breast cancer exists, in an effort to influence public policy and opinion to further restrict abortions and discourage women from having abortions. While historically a controversial hypothesis, the debate now is almost entirely political

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The abortion-breast cancer hypothesis is the belief that induced abortions increase the risk of developing breast cancer. This belief is in contrast to the scientific consensus that there is no evidence suggesting that abortions can cause breast cancer. Despite the scientific community rejecting the

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In a study, "The legitimacy of environmental scientists in the public sphere" by Gordon Gauchat, Timothy O'Brien, and Oriol Mirosa, the researchers conclude that attitudes about environmental scientists as policy advisers are highly politicized. Their results demonstrate that, to be perceived by the

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opposing laws that would discourage smoking. The lobbyists trivialize evidence as uncertain, emphasizing lack of conclusion. Freudenberg concludes that politicians and lobby groups are too often able to make "successful efforts to argue for full 'scientific certainty' before a regulation can be said

2130:"That this controversy is one largely manufactured by the proponents of creationism and intelligent design may not matter, and as long as the controversy is taught in classes on current affairs, politics, or religion, and not in science classes, neither scientists nor citizens should be concerned." 830:

A growing number of scientists, policy makers, and technical specialists both inside and outside the government allege that the current Bush administration has suppressed or distorted the scientific analyses of federal agencies to bring these results in line with administration policy. In addition,

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The General Social Survey (GSS) of 1974 recorded that conservatives had the highest rates of trust in science between the three major political demographics: conservatives, liberals, and moderates. This study was repeated annually between 1972 and 1994, and biannually from 1994 until 2010. In 2010,

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resigned after the Interior Department Inspector General, Honorable Earl E. Devaney, reported that MacDonald broke federal rules by giving non-public, internal government documents to oil industry and property rights groups, and manipulated scientific findings to favor Bush policy goals and assist

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Barack Obama and other politicians, since Bush's presidency, have expressed their concerns with the politicization of science in both the public and government sphere. In 2011, during his State of the Union speech, Obama discussed his dissatisfaction of the relationships between organized science,

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and even pet birds. Denying the case against tobacco was "closed," they called for more research as a tactic to delay regulation. John Horgan, notes a rhetoric tactic that has been used by tobacco companies. It is summarized in a line that appeared in a confidential memo from a tobacco company, in

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and key legal opinions. Those who have studied organizations that set up to delay action and manufacture uncertainty about the well-established scientific consensus have divided their tactics into three steps: first, deny that there is a problem, second, make the case that there are benefits

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A cornerstone of modern scientific biological theory is that all forms of life on Earth are related by common descent with modification. While many valid criticisms to the theory of evolution have existed throughout time, often certain ideological proponents seek to expand the scope of these

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The most notable example of the politicization of this topic was the modification of the National Cancer Institute (NCI) fact sheet by the George W. Bush administration from concluding no link to a more ambiguous assessment regarding the abortion-breast cancer hypothesis, despite the NCI's

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reported that according to data found in official Exxon documents, 124 organizations have taken money from ExxonMobil or worked closely with those that have, and that "These organizations take a consistent line on climate change: that the science is contradictory, the scientists are split,

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The same year, Francesca Grifo, executive director of the Union of Concerned Scientists' Scientific Integrity Program, stated "We have reports that stay in draft form and don't get out to the public. We have reports that are changed. We have reports that are ignored and overwritten."

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1969, when they sought to cast doubt on evidence that supports smoking causes cancer. It read, "Doubt is our product since it is the best means of competing with the 'body of fact' that exists in the mind of the general public. It is also the means of establishing a controversy."

1081:, which handles investigative and oversight activities on matters covering the committee's entire jurisdiction. The subcommittee has authority to look into a whole range of important issues, particularly those concerning manipulation of scientific data at Federal agencies. 1104:

The Trump administration marginalized the role of science in policy making, halted numerous research projects, and saw the departure of scientists who said their work was marginalized or suppressed. It was the first administration since 1941 not to name a

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Politicization occurs as scientific information is presented with emphasis on the uncertainty associated with the interpretation of scientific evidence. The emphasis capitalizes on the lack of consensus, which influences the way the studies are perceived.

1324:; political science; and the sociology of science, knowledge, and technology. Increasingly in recent decades, these fields have examined the process through which science and technology are shaped. Some of the scholarly work in this area is reviewed in 381:

Opinion about human causation of climate change increased substantially with education among Democrats, but not among Republicans. Conversely, opinions favoring becoming carbon neutral declined substantially with age among Republicans, but not among

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The sharp divide over the existence of and responsibility for global warming and climate change falls largely along political lines. Overall, 60% of Americans surveyed said oil and gas companies were "completely or mostly responsible" for climate

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of Sciences and Medicine issued a statement expressing alarm at political interference in science during a pandemic, "particularly the overriding of evidence and advice from public health officials and derision of government scientists".

1191:'s Earth Science division of its funding, a move that "would mean the elimination of NASA's world-renowned research into temperature, ice, clouds and other climate phenomena". Subsequently, the Trump administration successfully nominated 598:

In the early 20th century, Eugenics enjoyed substantial international support, from leading politicians and scientists. The First International Congress of Eugenics in 1912 was supported by many prominent persons, including its president

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The study by Gordon Gauchat, which investigates time trends in the public trust of science in the United States, suggests that the increase of distrust of conservatives can be attributed to two cultural shifts. The first was during the

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environmentalists are charlatans, liars or lunatics, and if governments took action to prevent global warming, they would be endangering the global economy for no good reason. The findings these organisations dislike are labelled '

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to promote scientific research and education to ensure American competitiveness in the world, vowing to "double the federal commitment to the most critical basic research programs in the physical sciences over the next 10 years."

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panels, and minimize scientific research with federal funds. Miller, as part of the House Committee of Science and Technology, collected evidence of interference with scientific integrity by Bush's political appointees.

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to be 'justified' and maintain that what is needed is a balanced approach that carefully considers the risks of both Type 1 and Type 2 errors in a situation while noting that scientific conclusions are always tentative.

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when the same study was repeated, conservatives' trust rates had decreased from 49% to 38%, moderates' trust rates from 45% to 40%, and liberals' trust rates staying relatively stable, rising slightly from 48% to 50%.

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concluded that intelligent design is not science, that it "cannot uncouple itself from its creationist, and thus religious, antecedents", and concluded that the school district's promotion of it therefore violated the

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Tactics such as shifting conversation, failing to acknowledge facts, and capitalizing on doubt of scientific consensus have been used to gain more attention for views that have been undermined by scientific evidence.

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William R. Freudenburg and colleagues have written about politicization of science as a rhetorical technique and states that it is an attempt to shift the burden of proof in an argument. He offers the example of

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The level of support for eugenics research by the Nazis prompted an American eugenics advocate to seek an expansion of the American program, with the complaint that "the Germans are beating us at our own game".

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convictions". The Discovery Institute portrays evolution as a "theory in crisis" with scientists criticizing evolution and that "fairness" and "equal time" requires educating students about "the controversy."

1094: 375: 3526:"The Subcommittee handles investigative and oversight activities on matters covering the entire jurisdiction of the Committee on Science and Technology. This Subcommittee is new for the 110th Congress." 2155: 3130: 1213:

reported that an official at the Interior Department has repeatedly inserted climate change-denying language into the agency's scientific reports, such as those that affect water and mineral rights.

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use legal or economic pressure to influence the findings of scientific research or the way it is disseminated, reported or interpreted. The politicization of science may also negatively affect

1844: 1242: 3650: 4176: 595:. The Nazis manipulated scientific research in Germany, by forcing some scholars to emigrate, and by allocating funding for research based on ideological rather than scientific merit. 2340:

By the middle decades of the twentieth century, eugenics had become widely accepted throughout the whole of the economically developed world, with the exception of the Soviet Union.

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land developers. On November 29, 2007, another report by Devaney found that MacDonald could have also benefitted financially from a decision she was involved with to remove the

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these experts contend that irregularities in the appointment of scientific advisors and advisory panels are threatening to upset the legally mandated balance of these bodies.

883:"Anything that doesn't fit into the political appointees' ideological, theological or political agenda is often ignored, marginalized or simply buried," Carmona testified. 1738: 1382: 1007: 1316:

The politicization of science is a subset of a broader topic, the politics of science, which has been studied by scholars in a variety of fields, including most notably

918: 530: 683: 654:, said that the emphasis on pursuing social justice and political activism "threatens the very definition of science as primarily a search for truth". In October 2021, 105: 4992: 4987: 1932: 1364: 1074: 990:

public as a reputable policy advisor, the public's perception of their integrity and understanding weigh more strongly than their agreement with scientific consensus.

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distasteful views." Some researchers have defended these efforts against the charge of politicization, arguing that science has always been inherently political.

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and lobbying groups, started health reassurance campaigns, ran advertisements in medical journals, and researched alternate explanations for lung cancer, such as

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A 2024 analysis found that 100 U.S. Representatives and 23 U.S. Senators—23% of the 535 members of Congress—were climate change deniers. All were Republicans.

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National political divides on the seriousness of climate change consistently correlate with political ideology, with right-wing opinion being more negative.

388: 3546: 1398: 526: 1821: 1953: 1739:"As Economic Concerns Recede, Environmental Protection Rises on the Public's Policy Agenda / Partisan gap on dealing with climate change gets even wider" 1387: 1250: 1234: 350:

have long differed in views of climate change, with the gap widening in the late 2010s, and Democrats three times more likely to view it as human-caused.

67: 3294: 464:, an organization created to provide independent research and policy analysis on issues at the intersection of development, environment, and security. 4309: 3238: 1415: 1333: 876:

appointed by President George W. Bush, publicly accused the administration in July 2007 of political interference and muzzling him on key issues like

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Hansson, Lena; Yacoubian, Hagop A. (2020), Yacoubian, Hagop A.; Hansson, Lena (eds.), "Nature of Science for Social Justice: Why, What and How?",

1946: 1290: 1134: 732: 3665: 3642: 2103: 1539: 1494: 5219: 3802: 1196: 545:

A cigarette carton warns about the health risks of smoking. Public awareness was delayed by a SCAM (Scientific Certainty Argumentation Method).

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In July 2006 the Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) released survey results that demonstrate pervasive political influence of science at the

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The Department of Health and Human Services also conducted a survey addressing the same topic which generated similar findings. According to

5183: 5027: 3354: 1447: 873: 406: 4670: 4384: 3169: 1784: 1403: 1129:. The position of chief scientist in the State Department or the Department of Agriculture was not filled. The administration nominated 3985: 1332:. There is an annual award for books relevant to the politics of science given by the Society for Social Studies of Science called the 4934: 1200: 275:, fear for business interests, institutional academic ideological biases or potentially implicit bias amongst scientific researchers. 3067: 2909: 5239: 4379: 4372: 4355: 4234: 4224: 4206: 713: 204: 139: 81: 3137: 2820: 2009: 3860: 3528: 2884: 2053: 4606: 1106: 651: 347: 343: 3697: 1995: 4715: 4004: 2353: 2135: 1525: 1026: 245:

to mix politics with science. Historically, groups have conducted various campaigns to promote their interests in defiance of

4185: 2056: 1317: 695: 117: 73: 3914: 2925: 2201: 5244: 1421: 1352: 1041:. The website was updated after protests and now holds that no such risk has been found in recent, well-designed studies. 819: 808: 5234: 4902: 4732: 4660: 4360: 4289: 1409: 1294: 1146: 1114: 905: 877: 521: 3314:"Susceptibility of the mammary gland to carcinogenesis. II. Pregnancy interruption as a risk factor in tumor incidence" 1762: 3572: 2938: 1429: 1305: 1037:

website has been changed to reflect the administration view that there may be a risk of breast cancer associated with

1015: 952: 483: 425: 3726: 3429: 121: 1814:"Americans Largely Favor U.S. Taking Steps To Become Carbon Neutral by 2050 / Appendix (Detailed charts and tables)" 591:

programs which attempted to maintain a "pure" German race through a series of programs that ran under the banner of

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As part of an effort to "refresh and reinvigorate our national science and technology strategy," President-elect

1034: 969: 840: 421: 417: 280: 4347: 3550: 1540:"The Politicization of Scientific Issues: Looking through Galileo's Lens or through the Imaginary Looking Glass" 1125:, the White House did so without the assistance of a White House science adviser or senior counselor trained in 5020: 4797: 4700: 4294: 3608: 2220: 1982: 1905:

America's Climate Choices: Panel on Advancing the Science of Climate Change; National Research Council (2010).

1813: 1270: 631: 457: 410: 3235: 1018:. According to the report, information about comprehensive sex education was removed from the CDC's website. 5178: 4817: 4645: 4596: 4121: 3154: 2821:"Politicization of Science in the Public Sphere: A Study of Public Trust in the United States, 1974 to 2010" 1262: 742: 541: 401:

Both mainstream climatologists and their critics have accused each other of politicizing the science behind

2903:"Scientific Integrity in Policymaking: An 'Investigation into the Bush Administration's Misuse of Science'" 4827: 4812: 4772: 4544: 4367: 4107: 4083: 3053: 2238: 1022: 553:

fought the findings, both in the public eye and within the scientific community. Tobacco companies funded

327: 1751:(Discontinuity resulted from survey changing in 2015 from reciting "global warming" to "climate change".) 1595: 17: 5157: 4924: 4892: 4867: 4752: 4705: 4601: 4579: 4569: 4554: 4494: 4481: 4454: 4319: 4284: 4241: 3889: 3105: 1441: 616: 477: 3394: 1957: 1113:

for the position, and Droegemeier was confirmed by the Senate on January 2, 2019, the final day of the

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Scientific Integrity in Policymaking: An Investigation into the Bush Administration's Misuse of Science

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scientific reports and attempted to silence the government's most senior infectious disease expert,

741:, scientific research was under strict political control. A number of research areas were declared " 261:

Many factors can act as facets of the politicization of science. These can range, for example, from

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released a report concluding that the administration of George W. Bush had politicized science and

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Censoring Science: Inside the Political Attack on Dr. James Hansen and the Truth of Global Warming

3295:"Politics and Science: Investigating the Bush Administration's Promotion of Ideology Over Science" 2544: 1412: – Commissioning of research in order to support a policy which has already been decided upon 650:

advocates. David Randall, director of research at the politically conservative advocacy group the

5249: 4877: 4747: 4549: 4449: 4444: 4229: 3362: 2843: 2801: 2680: 2626: 2496: 2472: 2425: 1926: 1544: 1435: 1321: 1209: 1110: 940: 931: 893: 473: 289: 238: 5086: 3188:"Report of Investigation: Julie MacDonald, Deputy Assistant Secretary, Fish, Wildlife and Parks" 2955: 2297: 2291: 2044: 2010:"The Political and Selective Use of Data: Cherry-Picking Climate Information in the White House" 5188: 5060: 4965: 4929: 4564: 4499: 4469: 4140: 4102: 4074: 4057: 3835: 3673: 3616: 3580: 3484: 3335: 3274: 2975: 2969: 2793: 2785: 2672: 2664: 2616: 2577: 2569: 2464: 2417: 2409: 2329: 2301: 2267: 2083: 1912: 1887: 1651: 1576: 1453: 1301: 1253:

on words that the agency was prohibited from using in its official communications, including "

1222: 974: 608: 461: 31: 3502: 3173: 1137:, but he had no scientific background and the White House later withdrew the nomination. The 549:

By the mid-1950s there was a scientific consensus that smoking promotes lung cancer, but the

5142: 4882: 4857: 4757: 4618: 4613: 4394: 3948: 3474: 3466: 3325: 2835: 2775: 2744: 2724: 2656: 2606: 2456: 2399: 2181: 1877: 1718: 1685: 1641: 1633: 758: 550: 429: 234: 3422:"Politics & Science – Investigating the State of Science Under the Bush Administration" 1444: – Violation of codes of scholarly conduct and ethical behavior in scientific research 5116: 5096: 4897: 4742: 4720: 4489: 4404: 4389: 3242: 2060: 1192: 1126: 1003: 982: 888: 869: 836: 1376: 745:" and forbidden. This has led to significant setbacks for the Soviet science, notably in 456:'. The findings they welcome are labelled 'sound science'." The "selective use of data", 2740: 892:

reported on July 29 that the official who blocked at least one of Carmona's reports was

5101: 5050: 4955: 4907: 4862: 4655: 4591: 4504: 4464: 4304: 4264: 3722: 3532: 3479: 3454: 3330: 3313: 3218: 3001: 2644: 2170:"Scientific Certainty Argumentation Methods (SCAMs): Science and the Politics of Doubt" 2131: 1707:"Scientific Certainty Argumentation Methods (SCAMs): Science and the Politics of Doubt" 1674:"Scientific Certainty Argumentation Methods (SCAMs): Science and the Politics of Doubt" 1646: 1621: 1620:

van der Linden, Sander; Leiserowitz, Anthony; Rosenthal, Seth; Maibach, Edward (2017).

1521: 1406: – List of nonsense papers that were accepted by an academic journal or conference 1230: 1204: 783: 647: 604: 600: 592: 448: 437: 402: 230: 42: 35: 3298: 2888: 630:

research. Nazis based their eugenics program on the United States' programs of forced

5213: 5162: 5065: 4767: 4737: 4675: 4476: 4424: 4419: 4329: 3940: 3752:"'It just created a public relations nightmare': Inside Michael Caputo's time at HHS" 2805: 2684: 2630: 2476: 2429: 2186: 2169: 1861: 1723: 1706: 1690: 1673: 1266: 1238: 1057: 1030: 1011: 999: 981:

could speak with reporters, as well as edited scientists' congressional testimony on

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A petition, signed on February 18, 2004, by more than 9,000 scientists, including 49

775: 627: 612: 269: 250: 3915:"Betsy Weatherhead, director of National Climate Assessment, removed by White House" 2847: 1166:

The people that gave you global warming are the same people that gave you ObamaCare!

611:, then First Lord of the Admiralty and future Prime Minister of the United Kingdom; 5137: 5055: 4727: 4586: 4524: 4259: 4134: 3777:"NAS and NAM Presidents Alarmed By Political Interference in Science Amid Pandemic" 3269:. United States House of Representatives. Archived from the original on 2004-09-24. 2748: 2321: 2287: 1184: 738: 584: 580: 502: 453: 272: 2519: 2460: 1289:

announced, before taking office, that he will elevate the role of Director of the

4154: 2261: 2077: 1906: 5111: 5106: 4762: 4459: 4429: 4414: 4279: 4274: 4118: 4066: 3885: 3643:"Donald Trump has tweeted climate change skepticism 115 times. Here's all of it" 2780: 2763: 2660: 2611: 2444: 2404: 1346: 1254: 1122: 803: 491: 3952: 5152: 5036: 4695: 4690: 4635: 4299: 4269: 4251: 3470: 2570:"M.I.T.'s Choice of Lecturer Ignited Criticism. So Did Its Decision to Cancel" 2387: 1785:"Revealed: 60% of Americans say oil firms are to blame for the climate crisis" 1130: 1118: 786:

era when the NR intensified and conservatives commenced the "war on science".

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Don Gonyea. National Public Radio, Weekend Edition Sunday, February 26, 2006.

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In response to criticisms, President Bush in 2006 unveiled a campaign in his

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in recent decades and that the trend is caused primarily by human-induced

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For the process by which ideas, entities and facts become political, see

4216: 3070:, Christopher Lee and Marc Kaufman, The Washington Post, July 29, 2007. 3028: 1225:, the Trump administration replaced career public affairs staff at the 977:, the George W. Bush administration broadly attempted to control which 746: 3698:"Energy Department climate office bans use of phrase 'climate change'" 2030: 1705:

Freudenburg, William R.; Gramling, Robert; Davidson, Debra J. (2008).

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Freudenberg, William R.; Gramling, Robert; Davidson, Debra J. (2008).

1367: – Campaigns which seek to promote intelligent design creationism 310:

for many years, by demanding more "certainty" before action is taken.

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involved, and, third, insist that there is nothing that can be done.

506: 3083: 1866:"Beyond the Ivory Tower: The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change" 1622:"Inoculating the Public against Misinformation about Climate Change" 1475: 407:

scientific consensus that global surface temperatures have increased

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Freedom's Laboratory: The Cold War Struggle for the Soul of Science

3155:"Report: Interior official blasted for twisting environmental data" 1837:"Climate Change Remains Top Global Threat Across 19-Country Survey" 1361: – Person's choice to deny psychologically uncomfortable truth 3941:"Influential US climate report moves ahead – under new leadership" 2699:"'Don't politicize STEM! Stick to the science, not social issues'" 2132:

Intelligent Judging – Evolution in the Classroom and the Courtroom

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Intelligent Judging – Evolution in the Classroom and the Courtroom

1328:(1995, 2008), a collection of literature reviews published by the 1258: 761:, which drastically influenced the Soviet economy and technology. 540: 242: 4098: 3828:"CDC gets list of forbidden words: fetus, transgender, diversity" 3609:"In the Trump Administration, Science Is Unwelcome. So Is Advice" 3455:"Breast cancer and the politics of abortion in the United States" 3058:

Note: archive.org backup has much better formatting than live URL

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Source: Guardian/Vice/CCN/YouGov poll. Note: ±4% margin of error.

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Trump administration political interference with science agencies

3170:"U.S. Endangered Species Program Burdened by Political Meddling" 3131:"Scientific Integrity at Risk: The Food and Drug Administration" 1835:

Poushter, Jacob; Fagan, Moira; Gubbala, Sneha (31 August 2022).

1188: 5009: 4158: 1349: – Attitudes that reject science and the scientific method 619:, the inventor of the telephone; among other prominent people. 3727:"A Trump Insider Embeds Climate Denial in Scientific Research" 2202:"Tobacco companies obstructed science, history professor says" 666: 151: 88: 47: 5005: 3861:"CDC director says there are 'no banned words' at the agency" 682:

deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a

460:, is identified as a notable form of scientific abuse by the 2293:

The Vertigo Years: Change and Culture in the West, 1900–1914

1763:"A Steady Six in 10 Say Global Warming's Effects Have Begun" 1373: – Effect of how information is presented on perception 3967:"Republicans ask why White House removed climate scientist" 1456: – Form of propaganda in public relations and politics 634:, especially on the eugenics laws that had been enacted in 2076:

National Academy of Science Institute of Medicine (2008).

4054:

Fool Me Twice: Fighting The Assault On Science In America

3803:"Science academies sound alarm on political interference" 3529:"Investigations and Oversight Committee – 110th Congress" 3219:"Study finds White House manipulation on climate science" 2241:. University of California, San Francisco. 21 August 1969 917:, a survey of Food and Drug Administration scientists by 2859: 2857: 1812:

Tyson, Alec; Funk, Cary; Kennedy, Brian (1 March 2022).

973:

reported that at least since 2003, and especially after

646:

Some critics argue that science has been politicized by

3355:"Induced abortion does not increase breast cancer risk" 1579:(2015). "Counteracting the Politicization of Science". 691: 113: 2445:"A Model of Political Bias in Social Science Research" 843:

recipients, followed the report. The petition stated:

1179:

The issue of politicized science surfaced during the

1121:

on February 11, 2019. While preparing for talks with

1069:

United States House Science Subcommittee on Oversight

3826:

Sun, Lena H.; Eilperin, Juliet (December 15, 2017).

3571:

Plumer, Brad; Davenport, Coral (December 28, 2019).

3503:"Summary Report: Early Reproductive Events Workshop" 2354:"Eugenics and the Nazis – the California connection" 1778: 1776: 1308:

has been criticized as being politically motivated.

1199:, to lead NASA. Under the Trump administration, the 1195:, who had no background in science and rejected the 5171: 5125: 5079: 5043: 4848: 4634: 4403: 4338: 4250: 4215: 4192: 4069:, "Pissing in the Snow" (review of Audra J. Wolfe, 3084:"Media Center | Union of Concerned Scientists" 2154:, 04 cv 2688 (December 20, 2005)., 2111:

American Association for the Advancement of Science

1502:

American Association for the Advancement of Science

1077:announced the formation of a new subcommittee, the 886:Although he did not make personal accusations, the 626:There was a strong connection between American and 2296:. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, Ltd. p. 1911:. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. 1395: – 2005 Board of Education hearings in Kansas 1383:Governmental impact on science during World War II 936:On May 1, 2007, deputy assistant secretary at the 4087:, vol. 41, no. 14 (18 July 2019), pp. 31–33. 3890:"Biden to Elevate Science Adviser to His Cabinet" 3391:Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists 3264:"Politics and Science in the Bush Administration" 3024:"Former Bush surgeon general says he was muzzled" 2997:"Surgeon General Sees 4-Year Term as Compromised" 1849:Only statistically significant differences shown. 1277:". The Director of the CDC denied these reports. 1249:The administration reportedly sent a list to the 1065:scientifically based assessment to the contrary. 919:Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility 4119:Politicized Science: Science as Public Relations 3279:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 3205:"Interior Dept. official quits ahead of hearing" 3193:. US Department of the Interior. March 23, 2007. 2926:"Restoring Scientific Integrity in Policymaking" 2645:"Science Is Political, and We Must Deal with It" 1947:"Understanding and Responding to Climate Change" 1667: 1665: 1365:Discovery Institute intelligent design campaigns 1326:The Handbook of Science & Technology Studies 1075:House Committee on Science, Space and Technology 790:private economic interests, and the government. 416:In 1991, a US corporate coalition including the 3384:"The Care of Women Requesting Induced Abortion" 3258: 3256: 3254: 3136:. Union of Concerned Scientists. Archived from 2941:. Union of Concerned Scientists. Archived from 2908:. Union of Concerned Scientists. Archived from 1807: 1805: 1418: – Impact of COVID-19 on political systems 1379: – Every PhD has an equal and opposite PhD 1160: 1143:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 948:fish from the federal endangered species list. 3984:Choi, Matthew; Adragna, Anthony (2021-05-04). 2956:"Bush Science Push Fails to Transform Critics" 1109:. In July 2018, Trump nominated meteorologist 5021: 4170: 2974:. National Academy of Sciences. p. 110. 2443:Honeycutt, Nathan; Jussim, Lee (2020-01-02). 2221:"The Republican War on Science – Book Review" 2104:"AAAS Statement on the Teaching of Evolution" 1495:"AAAS Statement on the Teaching of Evolution" 1021:Other issues considered for removal included 680:The examples and perspective in this section 268:and perceived threats to religious belief to 102:The examples and perspective in this article 8: 4034:Handbook of Science & Technology Studies 4022:Handbook of Science & Technology Studies 3547:"Subcommittee on Oversight – 115th Congress" 3416: 3414: 2939:"Scientific Integrity Statement Signatories" 2545:"Politicized Science by David Randall | NAS" 1931:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1312:Scholarly studies of the politics of science 5230:George W. Bush administration controversies 3099: 3097: 1399:List of books about the politics of science 82:Learn how and when to remove these messages 5028: 5014: 5006: 4177: 4163: 4155: 4024:, Second Edition, Sage Publications (1995) 3052:. USA Today. 7 August 2007. Archived from 3050:"Science vs. politics gets down and dirty" 1954:United States National Academy of Sciences 1450: – Professional advocacy organization 1388:Journal of Global Drug Policy and Practice 698:, or create a new section, as appropriate. 440:, might have on their business interests. 3478: 3329: 3078: 3076: 2779: 2768:The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters 2649:The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters 2610: 2403: 2392:The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters 2239:"Original "Doubt is our product..." memo" 2185: 1881: 1745:. Pew Research Center. 13 February 2020. 1722: 1689: 1645: 1438: – Dissent from scientific consensus 1416:Political impact of the COVID-19 pandemic 1355: – Liberation-focused math education 714:Learn how and when to remove this message 205:Learn how and when to remove this message 140:Learn how and when to remove this message 18:Scientific Certainty Argumentation Method 4108:Science vs. politics gets down and dirty 3448: 3446: 2492:"Conservatives Try New Tack on Campuses" 2150:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 1181:2016 United States presidential campaign 1139:United States Department of the Interior 938:United States Department of the Interior 926:United States Department of the Interior 531:First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution 517:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 182:of all important aspects of the article. 5194:Suppressed research in the Soviet Union 5148:Inheritance of acquired characteristics 3509:. National Cancer Institute. 2003-02-26 2866:"Climate Deniers of the 118th Congress" 2369:"Is Social Science Politically Biased?" 1908:Advancing the Science of Climate Change 1467: 1291:Office of Science and Technology Policy 1227:Department of Health and Human Services 1135:United States Department of Agriculture 733:Suppressed research in the Soviet Union 3801:Owermohle, Sarah (24 September 2020). 3272: 2971:Space Studies Board Annual Report 2006 2490:Cohen, Patricia (September 21, 2008). 1924: 1795:from the original on 26 October 2021. 1197:scientific consensus on climate change 1187:. Trump stated his intention to strip 501:in favor of "a science consonant with 434:Information Council on the Environment 178:Please consider expanding the lead to 3603: 3601: 2260:Ute Deichmann; Thomas Dunlap (1999). 2225:Sunday Book Review, Political Science 1847:from the original on 31 August 2022. 1749:from the original on 16 January 2021. 1476:"Evolution or design debate heats up" 1330:Society for Social Studies of Science 1229:with political appointees, including 922:at the Food and Drug Administration. 27:Use of science for political purposes 7: 5184:Collectivization in the Soviet Union 2603:Nature of Science for Social Justice 2054:Evolution or design debate heats up. 1448:Scientists and Engineers for America 1117:. He was sworn in by Vice President 4671:Digital media use and mental health 4385:Sociology of the history of science 3664:Milman, Oliver (23 November 2016). 3104:Schmit, Julie (December 17, 2004). 2872:from the original on 5 August 2024. 2764:"The Peril of Politicizing Science" 2388:"The Peril of Politicizing Science" 2138:, Volume 354:2277–2281 May 25, 2006 2079:Science, Evolution, and Creationism 1983:"The PR Plot to Overheat the Earth" 1824:from the original on 18 April 2022. 1769:from the original on 20 April 2023. 1528:, Volume 354:2277–2281 May 25, 2006 1404:List of scholarly publishing stings 782:emerged, and the second during the 241:, and as a result it is considered 3653:from the original on June 1, 2017. 2995:Harris, Gardiner (July 11, 2007). 2885:"When Advocates Become Regulators" 2113:. 16 February 2006. Archived from 1783:McGreal, Chris (26 October 2021). 1504:. 16 February 2006. Archived from 25: 4380:Sociology of scientific ignorance 4225:History and philosophy of science 4207:Economics of scientific knowledge 4036:, Third Edition, MIT Press (2008) 3939:Tollefson, Jeff (July 16, 2021). 2887:. The Denver Post. Archived from 2729:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 2352:Black, Edwin (November 9, 2003). 2328:. New York: Praeger. p. 18. 1426: – 2005 book by Chris Mooney 1304:from her role as director of the 1079:Science Subcommittee on Oversight 1051:Abortion–breast cancer hypothesis 1045:Abortion–breast cancer hypothesis 951:MacDonald's conduct violated the 305:Politicization by advocacy groups 249:, and in an effort to manipulate 63:This article has multiple issues. 4973: 4972: 4947: 3986:"Biofuels want in on the action" 3641:Matthews, Dylan (June 1, 2017). 3106:"FDA scientists question safety" 2883:Anne C. Mulkern (May 23, 2004). 2219:John Horgan (18 December 2005). 2187:10.1111/j.1475-682X.2008.00219.x 2168:Freudenburg, William R. (2008). 2008:Peter H. Gleick (8 March 2007). 1998:The Guardian, September 19, 2006 1724:10.1111/j.1475-682X.2008.00219.x 1691:10.1111/j.1475-682X.2008.00219.x 1203:prohibited the use of the term " 1107:Science Advisor to the President 671: 652:National Association of Scholars 387: 374: 355: 336: 156: 93: 52: 4073:, Johns Hopkins, January 2019, 2367:Shermer, Michael (2016-03-01). 2136:New England Journal of Medicine 1596:"The Republican War on Science" 1526:New England Journal of Medicine 1149:disbanded advisory committees. 1027:Arctic National Wildlife Refuge 497:" represented by the theory of 221:for political gain occurs when 170:may be too short to adequately 71:or discuss these issues on the 4186:Science and technology studies 3236:Global Warming is Good for You 3022:Dunham, Will (July 10, 2007). 2762:Krylov, Anna I. (2021-06-10). 2749:10.1080/00963402.1962.11454353 2568:Powell, Michael (2021-10-20). 2386:Krylov, Anna I. (2021-06-10). 1432: – Aspect of science news 1318:Science and Technology Studies 284:discredit scientific studies. 180:provide an accessible overview 1: 5220:Discovery Institute campaigns 3297:. August 2003. Archived from 3168:Pegg, JR (29 November 2007). 2928:Union of Concerned Scientists 2520:"CU dean resigns, rips state" 2518:Curtin, Dave (8 April 2001). 2461:10.1080/1047840X.2020.1722600 1761:Saad, Lydia (20 April 2023). 1423:The Republican War on Science 1353:Critical mathematics pedagogy 1233:, who interfered with weekly 1183:by then Republican candidate 1133:to be chief scientist in the 826:which charged the following: 820:Union of Concerned Scientists 814:Also in 2004, the scientific 809:George W. Bush administration 797:George W. Bush administration 411:emissions of greenhouse gases 4733:Normalization process theory 4290:Philosophy of social science 4003:Lucas, Fred (May 14, 2021). 3393:. p. 43. Archived from 3157:. USA Today. March 30, 2007. 2968:Space Studies Board (2007). 2828:American Sociological Review 2266:. Harvard University Press. 2050:. Discovery Institute. 1999. 1410:Policy-based evidence making 1147:Food and Drug Administration 1115:115th United States Congress 906:Food and Drug Administration 900:Food and Drug Administration 878:embryonic stem cell research 615:, famous Swiss pathologist; 2781:10.1021/acs.jpclett.1c01475 2723:Glass, Bentley (May 1962). 2661:10.1021/acs.jpclett.1c02017 2643:Ball, Philip (2021-07-15). 2612:10.1007/978-3-030-47260-3_1 2405:10.1021/acs.jpclett.1c01475 1594:Horgan, John (2005-12-18). 1430:Science by press conference 1306:National Climate Assessment 1235:Centers for Disease Control 1016:Centers for Disease Control 1008:Government Reform Committee 953:Code of Federal Regulations 694:, discuss the issue on the 522:United States federal court 484:intelligent design movement 426:Edison Electrical Institute 116:, discuss the issue on the 5266: 4356:construction of technology 3953:10.1038/d41586-021-01969-x 2356:. San Francisco Chronicle. 2082:. National Academy Press. 1552:(5): 34–39. Archived from 1092: 1073:In January 2007, the U.S. 1048: 1033:; the report found that a 929: 858:State of the Union Address 730: 607:; honorary vice-president 573: 471: 325: 322:Global warming controversy 319: 40: 29: 5199:Politicization of science 4943: 4888:Politicization of science 3471:10.1017/S0025727300009145 3312:Russo J, Russo I (1980). 3223:Christian Science Monitor 1538:Goldberg, Jeanne (2017). 1393:Kansas evolution hearings 1371:Framing (social sciences) 1035:National Cancer Institute 1002:, Democratic Congressman 970:Christian Science Monitor 841:National Medal of Science 663:Government politicization 432:organization called the " 422:Western Fuels Association 418:National Coal Association 219:politicization of science 5240:Scientific controversies 4295:Philosophy of technology 3068:Bush Aide Blocked Report 2864:So, Kat (18 July 2024). 2840:10.1177/0003122412438225 2819:Gauchat, Gordon (2012). 2725:"Scientists in Politics" 2326:Eugenics: a reassessment 1581:Journal of Communication 1061:rather than scientific. 30:Not to be confused with 5179:Bourgeois pseudoscience 2263:Biologists Under Hitler 1883:10.1126/science.1103618 1843:. Pew Research Center. 743:bourgeois pseudoscience 490:, attempts to "defeat 4368:Sociology of knowledge 4084:London Review of Books 4056:, Rodale Books, 2011, 2052:– cited in Handley P. 1956:. 2008. Archived from 1638:10.1002/gch2.201600008 1169: 1023:agricultural pollution 967:In December 2007, the 850: 833: 546: 5158:Mendelian inheritance 4935:Transition management 4925:Technology assessment 4893:Regulation of science 4868:Evidence-based policy 4753:Sociotechnical system 4602:Traditional knowledge 4482:Psychology of science 4455:Mapping controversies 4361:shaping of technology 4320:Social constructivism 4285:Philosophy of science 4242:History of technology 2868:. American Progress. 2703:neuro.hms.harvard.edu 2449:Psychological Inquiry 1442:Scientific misconduct 1265:", "science-based", " 1172:Tweet of Donald Trump 1006:and the staff of the 845: 828: 617:Alexander Graham Bell 544: 478:Teach the controversy 5245:Religion and science 4840:Women in engineering 4686:Financial technology 4666:Digital anthropology 4435:Criticism of science 4348:Actor–network theory 4310:Religion and science 4202:Economics of science 4139:. New York: Dutton. 4099:Integrity of Science 3225:. December 12, 2007. 2915:on 14 February 2006. 2174:Sociological Inquiry 2156:Conclusion of Ruling 1711:Sociological Inquiry 1678:Sociological Inquiry 1281:Biden administration 1201:Department of Energy 1089:Trump administration 946:Sacramento splittail 692:improve this section 527:Establishment Clause 486:associated with the 266:anti-intellectualism 247:scientific consensus 122:create a new article 114:improve this article 104:may not represent a 5235:Politics of science 5092:Georgii Karpechenko 4681:Engineering studies 4651:Cyborg anthropology 4440:Demarcation problem 4325:Social epistemology 4050:Shawn Lawrence Otto 3919:The Washington Post 3888:(15 January 2021). 3783:. 24 September 2020 3758:. 16 September 2020 3426:oversight.house.gov 3301:on 7 December 2006. 3247:Houston Press, 2002 3245:Dylan Otto Krider, 2891:on 1 February 2010. 2741:1962BuAtS..18e...2G 2373:Scientific American 2120:on 4 February 2012. 1996:The Denial Industry 1511:on 4 February 2012. 1482:. December 1, 2004. 1480:Discovery Institute 1334:Rachel Carson Prize 1300:Biden's removal of 587:was well known for 488:Discovery Institute 328:I'm not a scientist 298:cigarette lobbyists 4961:History of science 4878:Funding of science 4748:Skunkworks project 4445:Double hermeneutic 4230:History of science 4101:initiative of the 3894:The New York Times 3781:National Academies 3731:The New York Times 3613:The New York Times 3577:The New York Times 3241:2021-03-19 at the 3176:on August 6, 2020. 2945:on 29 August 2005. 2574:The New York Times 2497:The New York Times 2059:2011-03-11 at the 1600:The New York Times 1577:Druckman, James N. 1545:Skeptical Inquirer 1436:Scientific dissent 1322:history of science 1243:National Academies 1210:The New York Times 1163: 1111:Kelvin Droegemeier 979:climate scientists 932:Julie A. MacDonald 894:William R. Steiger 807:reported that the 656:The New York Times 547: 537:Tobacco and cancer 474:Intelligent design 468:Intelligent design 290:Merchants of Doubt 239:scientific freedom 5225:Politics by issue 5207: 5206: 5189:Pavlovian session 5061:Nikita Khrushchev 5003: 5002: 4930:Technology policy 4661:Dematerialization 4470:black swan events 4146:978-0-525-95014-1 4103:Pacific Institute 4079:978-1-4214-2673-0 4062:978-1-60529-217-5 3725:(March 2, 2020). 3535:on 26 March 2008. 3453:Jasen, P (2005). 3207:. AP. 1 May 2007. 3143:on 25 April 2016. 2981:978-0-309-11555-1 2774:(22): 5371–5376. 2655:(27): 6336–6340. 2622:978-3-030-47260-3 2398:(22): 5371–5376. 2335:978-0-275-95822-0 2307:978-0-7710-1630-1 2273:978-0-674-07405-7 2206:medicalxpress.com 2134:George J. Annas, 2089:978-0-309-10586-6 2064:The Times of Oman 2017:Pacific Institute 1918:978-0-309-14588-6 1864:(December 2004). 1626:Global Challenges 1524:George J. Annas, 1454:Spin (propaganda) 1302:Betsy Weatherhead 1223:COVID-19 pandemic 1207:". In March 2020 1056:hypothesis, many 975:Hurricane Katrina 822:issued a report, 724: 723: 716: 609:Winston Churchill 462:Pacific Institute 215: 214: 207: 197: 196: 150: 149: 142: 124:, as appropriate. 86: 32:political science 16:(Redirected from 5257: 5030: 5023: 5016: 5007: 4976: 4975: 4951: 4903:Right to science 4883:Horizon scanning 4858:Academic freedom 4758:Technical change 4619:Women in science 4614:Unity of science 4395:Strong programme 4179: 4172: 4165: 4156: 4150: 4037: 4031: 4025: 4019: 4013: 4012: 4000: 3994: 3993: 3981: 3975: 3974: 3963: 3957: 3956: 3936: 3930: 3929: 3927: 3926: 3911: 3905: 3904: 3902: 3900: 3882: 3876: 3875: 3873: 3871: 3857: 3851: 3850: 3848: 3846: 3823: 3817: 3816: 3814: 3813: 3798: 3792: 3791: 3789: 3788: 3773: 3767: 3766: 3764: 3763: 3748: 3742: 3741: 3739: 3737: 3719: 3713: 3712: 3710: 3708: 3694: 3688: 3687: 3685: 3684: 3661: 3655: 3654: 3638: 3632: 3631: 3629: 3627: 3615:. 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Archived from 3165: 3159: 3158: 3151: 3145: 3144: 3142: 3135: 3127: 3121: 3120: 3118: 3116: 3101: 3092: 3091: 3080: 3071: 3065: 3059: 3057: 3056:on 23 June 2015. 3046: 3040: 3039: 3037: 3036: 3019: 3013: 3012: 3010: 3009: 2992: 2986: 2985: 2965: 2959: 2953: 2947: 2946: 2935: 2929: 2923: 2917: 2916: 2914: 2907: 2899: 2893: 2892: 2880: 2874: 2873: 2861: 2852: 2851: 2825: 2816: 2810: 2809: 2783: 2759: 2753: 2752: 2720: 2714: 2713: 2711: 2710: 2695: 2689: 2688: 2640: 2634: 2633: 2614: 2598: 2592: 2591: 2589: 2588: 2565: 2559: 2558: 2556: 2555: 2541: 2535: 2534: 2532: 2530: 2515: 2509: 2508: 2506: 2504: 2487: 2481: 2480: 2440: 2434: 2433: 2407: 2383: 2377: 2376: 2364: 2358: 2357: 2349: 2343: 2342: 2318: 2312: 2311: 2284: 2278: 2277: 2257: 2251: 2250: 2248: 2246: 2235: 2229: 2228: 2216: 2210: 2209: 2198: 2192: 2191: 2189: 2165: 2159: 2153: 2145: 2139: 2128: 2122: 2121: 2119: 2108: 2100: 2094: 2093: 2073: 2067: 2051: 2049: 2045:"Wedge Document" 2041: 2035: 2034: 2031:"Our Priorities" 2027: 2021: 2020: 2014: 2005: 1999: 1993: 1987: 1986: 1979: 1973: 1972: 1970: 1968: 1962: 1951: 1943: 1937: 1936: 1930: 1922: 1902: 1896: 1895: 1885: 1858: 1852: 1851: 1832: 1826: 1825: 1809: 1800: 1799: 1780: 1771: 1770: 1758: 1752: 1750: 1735: 1729: 1728: 1726: 1702: 1696: 1695: 1693: 1669: 1660: 1659: 1649: 1617: 1611: 1610: 1608: 1606: 1591: 1585: 1584: 1572: 1566: 1565: 1563: 1561: 1535: 1529: 1519: 1513: 1512: 1510: 1499: 1490: 1484: 1483: 1472: 1297:level position. 1221:During the 2020 1175: 1167: 1164: 998:In August 2003, 759:computer science 719: 712: 708: 705: 699: 675: 674: 667: 551:tobacco industry 430:public relations 391: 378: 359: 340: 210: 203: 192: 189: 183: 160: 152: 145: 138: 134: 131: 125: 97: 96: 89: 78: 56: 55: 48: 21: 5265: 5264: 5260: 5259: 5258: 5256: 5255: 5254: 5210: 5209: 5208: 5203: 5172:Soviet policies 5167: 5121: 5117:Nikolai Vavilov 5097:Zhores Medvedev 5087:Wacław Gajewski 5075: 5039: 5034: 5004: 4999: 4939: 4898:Research ethics 4844: 4743:Reverse salient 4637: 4630: 4406: 4399: 4390:Sociotechnology 4334: 4246: 4211: 4188: 4183: 4153: 4147: 4129: 4094: 4046: 4044:Further reading 4041: 4040: 4032: 4028: 4020: 4016: 4002: 4001: 3997: 3983: 3982: 3978: 3965: 3964: 3960: 3938: 3937: 3933: 3924: 3922: 3913: 3912: 3908: 3898: 3896: 3884: 3883: 3879: 3869: 3867: 3859: 3858: 3854: 3844: 3842: 3832:Washington Post 3825: 3824: 3820: 3811: 3809: 3800: 3799: 3795: 3786: 3784: 3775: 3774: 3770: 3761: 3759: 3750: 3749: 3745: 3735: 3733: 3723:Tabuchi, Hiroko 3721: 3720: 3716: 3706: 3704: 3696: 3695: 3691: 3682: 3680: 3663: 3662: 3658: 3640: 3639: 3635: 3625: 3623: 3607: 3606: 3599: 3589: 3587: 3570: 3569: 3565: 3556: 3554: 3545: 3544: 3540: 3527: 3525: 3521: 3512: 3510: 3501: 3500: 3496: 3452: 3451: 3444: 3435: 3433: 3420: 3419: 3412: 3403: 3401: 3397: 3386: 3382: 3381: 3377: 3368: 3366: 3353: 3352: 3348: 3311: 3310: 3306: 3293: 3292: 3288: 3271: 3266: 3262: 3261: 3252: 3243:Wayback Machine 3234: 3230: 3217: 3216: 3212: 3203: 3202: 3198: 3190: 3186: 3185: 3181: 3167: 3166: 3162: 3153: 3152: 3148: 3140: 3133: 3129: 3128: 3124: 3114: 3112: 3103: 3102: 3095: 3082: 3081: 3074: 3066: 3062: 3048: 3047: 3043: 3034: 3032: 3021: 3020: 3016: 3007: 3005: 2994: 2993: 2989: 2982: 2967: 2966: 2962: 2954: 2950: 2937: 2936: 2932: 2924: 2920: 2912: 2905: 2901: 2900: 2896: 2882: 2881: 2877: 2863: 2862: 2855: 2823: 2818: 2817: 2813: 2761: 2760: 2756: 2722: 2721: 2717: 2708: 2706: 2697: 2696: 2692: 2642: 2641: 2637: 2623: 2600: 2599: 2595: 2586: 2584: 2567: 2566: 2562: 2553: 2551: 2543: 2542: 2538: 2528: 2526: 2517: 2516: 2512: 2502: 2500: 2489: 2488: 2484: 2442: 2441: 2437: 2385: 2384: 2380: 2366: 2365: 2361: 2351: 2350: 2346: 2336: 2320: 2319: 2315: 2308: 2286: 2285: 2281: 2274: 2259: 2258: 2254: 2244: 2242: 2237: 2236: 2232: 2218: 2217: 2213: 2200: 2199: 2195: 2167: 2166: 2162: 2147: 2146: 2142: 2129: 2125: 2117: 2106: 2102: 2101: 2097: 2090: 2075: 2074: 2070: 2066:, 7 March 2005. 2061:Wayback Machine 2047: 2043: 2042: 2038: 2029: 2028: 2024: 2012: 2007: 2006: 2002: 1994: 1990: 1981: 1980: 1976: 1966: 1964: 1963:on 11 July 2019 1960: 1949: 1945: 1944: 1940: 1923: 1919: 1904: 1903: 1899: 1860: 1859: 1855: 1841:pewresearch.org 1834: 1833: 1829: 1811: 1810: 1803: 1782: 1781: 1774: 1765:. 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Waxman 996: 983:climate science 965: 941:Julie MacDonald 934: 928: 902: 889:Washington Post 874:surgeon general 870:Richard Carmona 867: 865:Surgeon General 837:Nobel laureates 799: 767: 735: 729: 720: 709: 703: 700: 689: 676: 672: 665: 644: 578: 572: 539: 480: 472:Main articles: 470: 399: 398: 397: 396: 395: 392: 384: 383: 379: 368: 367: 366: 365: 364: 360: 352: 351: 341: 330: 324: 318: 307: 259: 231:advocacy groups 211: 200: 199: 198: 193: 187: 184: 177: 165:This article's 161: 146: 135: 129: 126: 111: 98: 94: 57: 53: 46: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5263: 5261: 5253: 5252: 5247: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5227: 5222: 5212: 5211: 5205: 5204: 5202: 5201: 5196: 5191: 5186: 5181: 5175: 5173: 5169: 5168: 5166: 5165: 5160: 5155: 5150: 5145: 5140: 5135: 5129: 5127: 5123: 5122: 5120: 5119: 5114: 5109: 5104: 5102:Georgii Nadson 5099: 5094: 5089: 5083: 5081: 5077: 5076: 5074: 5073: 5068: 5063: 5058: 5053: 5051:Trofim Lysenko 5047: 5045: 5041: 5040: 5035: 5033: 5032: 5025: 5018: 5010: 5001: 5000: 4998: 4997: 4996: 4995: 4990: 4985: 4970: 4969: 4968: 4963: 4958: 4944: 4941: 4940: 4938: 4937: 4932: 4927: 4922: 4921: 4920: 4915: 4908:Science policy 4905: 4900: 4895: 4890: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4865: 4863:Digital divide 4860: 4854: 4852: 4846: 4845: 4843: 4842: 4837: 4836: 4835: 4830: 4825: 4820: 4815: 4807: 4806: 4805: 4800: 4795: 4790: 4785: 4779:Technological 4777: 4776: 4775: 4765: 4760: 4755: 4750: 4745: 4740: 4735: 4730: 4725: 4724: 4723: 4718: 4713: 4708: 4703: 4693: 4688: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4668: 4663: 4658: 4656:Design studies 4653: 4648: 4642: 4640: 4632: 4631: 4629: 4628: 4627: 4626: 4616: 4611: 4610: 4609: 4599: 4594: 4592:Scientometrics 4589: 4584: 4583: 4582: 4577: 4572: 4567: 4562: 4557: 4552: 4547: 4542: 4537: 4529: 4528: 4527: 4522: 4517: 4512: 4507: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4484: 4479: 4474: 4473: 4472: 4465:Paradigm shift 4462: 4457: 4452: 4447: 4442: 4437: 4432: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4411: 4409: 4401: 4400: 4398: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4376: 4375: 4365: 4364: 4363: 4358: 4350: 4344: 4342: 4336: 4335: 4333: 4332: 4327: 4322: 4317: 4312: 4307: 4305:Postpositivism 4302: 4297: 4292: 4287: 4282: 4277: 4272: 4267: 4265:Antipositivism 4262: 4256: 4254: 4248: 4247: 4245: 4244: 4239: 4238: 4237: 4235:and technology 4227: 4221: 4219: 4213: 4212: 4210: 4209: 4204: 4198: 4196: 4190: 4189: 4184: 4182: 4181: 4174: 4167: 4159: 4152: 4151: 4145: 4127: 4116: 4105: 4095: 4093: 4092:External links 4090: 4089: 4088: 4064: 4045: 4042: 4039: 4038: 4026: 4014: 3995: 3976: 3973:. May 4, 2021. 3958: 3931: 3906: 3877: 3852: 3818: 3793: 3768: 3743: 3714: 3689: 3656: 3633: 3597: 3563: 3538: 3519: 3494: 3465:(2): 423–444. 3442: 3410: 3375: 3346: 3324:(2): 505–506. 3304: 3286: 3250: 3228: 3210: 3196: 3179: 3160: 3146: 3122: 3093: 3088:www.ucsusa.org 3072: 3060: 3041: 3014: 3002:New York Times 2987: 2980: 2960: 2948: 2930: 2918: 2894: 2875: 2853: 2834:(2): 168–187. 2811: 2754: 2715: 2690: 2635: 2621: 2593: 2560: 2536: 2524:denverpost.com 2510: 2482: 2435: 2378: 2359: 2344: 2334: 2313: 2306: 2279: 2272: 2252: 2230: 2211: 2193: 2160: 2140: 2123: 2095: 2088: 2068: 2036: 2022: 2000: 1988: 1974: 1938: 1917: 1897: 1876:(5702): 1686. 1862:Oreskes, Naomi 1853: 1827: 1801: 1772: 1753: 1730: 1697: 1661: 1612: 1586: 1575:Bolsen, Toby; 1567: 1530: 1514: 1485: 1466: 1465: 1463: 1460: 1458: 1457: 1451: 1445: 1439: 1433: 1427: 1419: 1413: 1407: 1401: 1396: 1390: 1385: 1380: 1374: 1368: 1362: 1356: 1350: 1343: 1341: 1338: 1313: 1310: 1282: 1279: 1263:evidence-based 1231:Michael Caputo 1218: 1215: 1205:climate change 1158:Global warming 1157: 1156: 1154: 1153:Climate change 1151: 1101: 1098: 1093:Main article: 1090: 1087: 1070: 1067: 1049:Main article: 1046: 1043: 995: 992: 964: 963:Climate change 961: 930:Main article: 927: 924: 901: 898: 866: 863: 798: 795: 766: 763: 749:due to ban on 731:Main article: 728: 725: 722: 721: 686:of the subject 684:worldwide view 679: 677: 670: 664: 661: 648:social justice 643: 642:Social justice 640: 605:Charles Darwin 601:Leonard Darwin 593:racial hygiene 574:Main article: 571: 568: 538: 535: 469: 466: 458:cherry picking 449:George Monbiot 438:Kyoto Protocol 403:climate change 393: 386: 385: 380: 373: 372: 371: 370: 369: 361: 354: 353: 342: 335: 334: 333: 332: 331: 320:Main article: 317: 316:Climate change 314: 306: 303: 258: 255: 213: 212: 195: 194: 174:the key points 164: 162: 155: 148: 147: 108:of the subject 106:worldwide view 101: 99: 92: 87: 61: 60: 58: 51: 43:politicization 36:science policy 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 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