264:, in which, among other topics, he distinguished between four concepts of evidence: epistemic-situation evidence (evidence relative to a given epistemic situation), subjective evidence (considered to be evidence by a particular person at a particular time), veridical evidence (a good reason to believe that a hypothesis is true), and potential evidence (a good reason to believe that a hypothesis is highly probable). Achinstein defined all his concepts of evidence in terms of potential evidence, since any other kind of evidence must at least be potential evidence, and he argued that scientists mainly seek veridical evidence but they also use the other concepts of evidence, which rely on a distinctive concept of probability, and Achinstein contrasted this concept of probability with previous probabilistic theories of evidence such as Bayesian, Carnapian, and frequentist.
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presenting this hypothesis or evidence in the context-independent manner of positivistic confirmation (or even of postpositivistic corroboration), it is presented instead in extended networks of implications that (although never complete) are nonetheless crucial to its scientific evaluation. This strategy includes making explicit other implications of the hypothesis for other available data and reporting how these fit. It also includes seeking out rival explanations of the focal evidence and examining their plausibility. The plausibility of these rivals is usually reduced by ramification extinction, that is, by looking at their other implications on other data sets and seeing how well these fit.
320:, who emphasized hypothesis testing throughout his career, later increasingly emphasized that the essence of science is "not experimentation per se" but instead the iterative competition of "plausible rival hypotheses", a process that at any given phase may start from evidence or may start from hypothesis. Other scientists and philosophers have emphasized the central role of questions and problems in the use of data and hypotheses.
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528:"Discussions about empirical evidence have tended to focus on epistemological questions regarding its role in theory testing ... even though empirical evidence also plays important and philosophically interesting roles in other areas including scientific discovery, the development of experimental tools and techniques, and the application of scientific theories to practical problems."
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evidence, that is sufficient for the discipline, or more generally the context in which the proposition was claimed, can something be properly said to be knowledge. The standard has to be high enough in a scientific inquiry to minimize the possibility that the proposition accepted as true will later have to be retracted.
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A question regularly posed by scientists and philosophers of science is: When do empirical data provide a good test of, or reliable evidence for, a scientific hypothesis? Despite this shared interest, the considerations scientists appeal to in answering it are markedly different from those invoked in
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The scientific theorist is not to be envied. For Nature, or more precisely experiment, is an inexorable and not very friendly judge of his work. It never says "Yes" to a theory. In the most favorable cases it says "Maybe", and in the great majority of cases simply "No". If an experiment agrees with a
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recommended distinguishing such approaches into three categories: classificatory (whether the evidence confirms the hypothesis), comparative (whether the evidence supports a first hypothesis more than an alternative hypothesis) or quantitative (the degree to which the evidence supports a hypothesis).
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Traditional epistemology established knowledge on the basis of a false concept—true belief. On our theory, scientific evidence should be based on a process of justifying the agent's reasonable acceptance of a hypothesis in an inquiry that ends in proof. We have shown in section V how this procedure
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that the simplest comprehensive description of the evidence is most likely correct. It states formally, "The ideal principle states that the prior probability associated with the hypothesis should be given by the algorithmic universal probability, and the sum of the log universal probability of the
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A person's assumptions or beliefs about the relationship between observations and a hypothesis will affect whether that person takes the observations as evidence. These assumptions or beliefs will also affect how a person utilizes the observations as evidence. For example, the Earth's apparent lack
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The features of abductive prototypes are hypothesized in order to explain observations, as when
Rutherford inferred that the mass of an atom is concentrated in a very small region in order to explain why alpha particles pass through gold foil. Abductive prototypes can change dramatically when new
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Emphasis on hypothesis testing as the essence of science is prevalent among both scientists and philosophers. However, philosophers have noted that testing hypotheses by confronting them with new evidence does not account for all the ways that scientists use evidence. For example, when Geiger and
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To say that something is knowledge, it is important that the proposition claimed as knowledge be based on evidence of a kind that reaches a level where the proposition passes beyond the level of being accepted as true because it is based on evidence. Only when it is proved by a certain kind of
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More and more I have come to the conclusion that the core of the scientific method is not experimentation per se but rather the strategy connoted by the phrase 'plausible rival hypotheses'. This strategy may start its puzzle solving with evidence, or it may start with hypothesis. Rather than
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within which scientific evidence plays a central role. In summary, Popper provides that a scientist creatively develops a theory that may be falsified by testing the theory against evidence or known facts. Popper's theory presents an asymmetry in that evidence can prove a theory wrong, by
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provided four factors (clarity of the data, replication by others, consistency with results arrived at by alternative methods, and consistency with plausible theories of mechanisms) that biologists used to settle controversies about procedures and reliability of evidence.
211:, by the end of the 20th century philosophers had come to understand that "there are key features of scientific practice that are overlooked or misdescribed by all such logical accounts of evidence, whether hypothetico-deductive, Bayesian, or instantiationist".
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once wrote that "In the empirical sciences, which alone can furnish us with information about the world we live in, proofs do not occur, if we mean by 'proof' an argument which establishes once and for ever the truth of a theory."
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relationship between the observations and hypothesis does not exist to cause the observation to be taken as evidence, but rather the causal relationship is provided by the person seeking to establish observations as evidence.
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can be modeled using the
Carneades Argumentation System. Any proposition that cannot be proved in an inquiry to an appropriate standard of proof following this kind of epistemological procedure is not acceptable as knowledge.
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There were a variety of 20th-century philosophical approaches to decide whether an observation may be considered evidence; many of these focused on the relationship between the evidence and the hypothesis. In the 1950s,
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after observing evidence. As a result, two independent observers of the same event will rationally arrive at different conclusions if their priors (previous observations that are also relevant to the conclusion) differ.
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data require revision of hypotheses concerning explanatory features. This is just what happened to the concept of an atom when the experiments of
Thompson and Rutherford revealed the divisibility of atoms.
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establishing facts that are inconsistent with the theory. In contrast, evidence cannot prove a theory correct because other evidence, yet to be discovered, may exist that is inconsistent with the theory.
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No other criterion of a good scientific theory is as widely recognized as the falsifiability or testability of a theory—not only within the philosophy of science, but also way beyond it.
358:. In this limited sense, proof is the high degree of acceptance of a theory following a process of inquiry and critical evaluation according to the standards of a scientific community.
121:. However, after sufficient evidence is presented for heliocentric cosmology and the apparent lack of motion is explained, the initial observation is strongly discounted as evidence.
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In the 20th century, many philosophers investigated the logical relationship between evidence statements and hypotheses, whereas scientists tended to focus on how the data used for
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Mayo's paper was part of the symposium "Evidence, data generation, and scientific practice: toward a reliabilist philosophy of experiment" at the 1998 biennial meetings of the
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theory it means for the latter "Maybe", and if it does not agree it means "No". Probably every theory will someday experience its "No"—most theories, soon after conception.
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Nickles, Thomas (1988). "Questioning and problems in philosophy of science: problem-solving versus directly truth-seeking epistemologies". In Meyer, Michel (ed.).
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While the phrase "scientific proof" is often used in the popular media, many scientists and philosophers have argued that there is really no such thing as
292:) have adopted a skeptical or deflationary view of the role of simplicity in science, arguing in various ways that its importance has been overemphasized.
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Data sometimes do not constitute the problem (or the primary problem) but serve chiefly as evidence that a problem (or at least a deeper problem) exists.
100:. Standards for scientific evidence vary according to the field of inquiry, but the strength of scientific evidence is generally based on the results of
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Taper, Mark L.; Lele, Subhash (2004). "The nature of scientific evidence: a forward-looking synthesis". In Taper, Mark L.; Lele, Subhash (eds.).
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When rational observers have different background beliefs, they may draw different conclusions from the same scientific evidence. For example,
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model plus the log of the probability of the data given the model should be minimized." However, some philosophers (including
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However, in contrast to the ideal of infallible proof, in practice theories may be said to be proved according to some
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Simplicity is one common philosophical criterion for scientific theories. Based on the philosophical assumption of the
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also use evidence in other ways, such as when applying theories to practical problems. Such evidence is expected to be
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The importance of background beliefs in the determination of what observations are evidence can be illustrated using
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Rutherford's interpretation of the Geiger–Marsden experiment is also mentioned as an example of abduction in:
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809:(1990). "Scientific evidence: creating and evaluating experimental instruments and research techniques".
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This article is about evidence derived from scientific methods. For its use by expert witnesses, see
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Scientific evidence is generally taken to be anything tending to refute or confirm a hypothesis.
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677:(2000). "Why philosophical theories of evidence are (and ought to be) ignored by scientists".
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provided a concise presentation by prominent philosophers on scientific evidence, including
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The nature of scientific evidence: statistical, philosophical, and empirical considerations
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fame, on a theory of projection), Rudolf Carnap (on the concept of confirming evidence),
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628:(September 2000). "Experimental practice and an error statistical account of evidence".
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Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association
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Nickles, Thomas (April 1981). "What is a problem that we may solve it?".
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Testing hypotheses and theories is at the core of the process of science.
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A more formal method to characterize the effect of background beliefs is
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1598:. Law, governance and technology series. Vol. 23. Cham; New York:
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Thomas S. Kuhn, The
Structure of Scientific Revolution, 2nd Ed. (1970).
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431: – use of probability and logic to deal with uncertain situations
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888:. Routledge philosophy companions (2nd ed.). London; New York:
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406: – Person whose opinion is accepted by the judge as an expert
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Theoretical virtues in science: uncovering reality through theory
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Schindler, Samuel (2018). "Testability and non–ad hocness".
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In 2001, Achinstein published his own book on the subject titled
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An introduction to
Kolmogorov complexity and its applications
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Evidence that either supports or counters a scientific theory
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the 3rd edition of
Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence
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Karl R. Popper,"The Logic of
Scientific Discovery" (1959).
300:, the resulting data enabled their experimental adviser,
132:, explained his observations about the decomposition of
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This idea is further discussed in several chapters in:
672:. See also Achinstein's contribution to the symposium:
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Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1121:"Understanding Science 101: Testing scientific ideas"
609:, 2nd Ed. (2000), p. 71. Accessed Feb 21, 2020. see:
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philosophical accounts of evidence and confirmation.
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Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
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875:Achinstein's four concepts are also summarized in:
781:. Oxford readings in philosophy. Oxford; New York:
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1015:. Texts in computer science (4th ed.). Cham:
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588:George Kenneth Stone, "Evidence in Science"(1966)
1207:. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire; New York:
886:The Routledge companion to philosophy of science
298:scattered alpha particles through thin gold foil
1160:Handbook of categorization in cognitive science
1129:University of California Museum of Paleontology
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415: – Systematic endeavour to gain knowledge
394: – Evidence relying on personal testimony
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1518:Gaither's Dictionary of Scientific Quotations
1465:(5th ed.). Routledge. pp. 229–230.
1153:"Atoms, categorization and conceptual change"
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1158:. In Cohen, Henri; Lefebvre, Claire (eds.).
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207:are generated. But according to philosopher
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232:(on the structure of a scientific system),
156:), and then updates that probability using
80:that serves to either support or counter a
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1247:Campbell, Donald T. (1984) "Foreword". In
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1555:"The epistemology of scientific evidence"
1066:"Simplicity in the philosophy of science"
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117:of motion may be taken as evidence for a
96:and interpretable in accordance with the
56:of all important aspects of the article.
1254:Case study research: design and methods
974:IEEE Transactions on Information Theory
607:Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence
565:William Talbott "Bayesian Epistemology"
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880:(2014) . "Evidence". In Curd, Martin;
823:10.1086/psaprocbienmeetp.1990.1.192732
471:10.7208/chicago/9780226789583.003.0016
52:Please consider expanding the lead to
248:(on confirmation and relevance), and
199:Philosophical versus scientific views
7:
1394:And from a scientist's perspective:
1071:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
940:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
523:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
514:"Theory and observation in science"
1488:"29+ Evidences for Macroevolution"
1076:See especially Sections 1b and 4c.
729:Logical foundations of probability
14:
2304:Sociology of scientific knowledge
2299:Sociology of scientific ignorance
2252:History and philosophy of science
670:Philosophy of Science Association
252:(on relevant evidence). In 1990,
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1596:Argument evaluation and evidence
1462:The Open Society and Its Enemies
1172:10.1016/B978-008044612-7/50065-2
1011:Li, Ming; Vitányi, Paul (2019).
929:Baker, Alan (20 December 2016).
857:"Book review: Peter Achinstein,
316:). Social-science methodologist
228:(on the logic of confirmation),
30:
1559:Artificial Intelligence and Law
1486:Theobald, Douglas (1999–2012).
1323:One article from the issue is:
136:using phlogiston. In contrast,
44:may be too short to adequately
1693:Analytic–synthetic distinction
1522:. New York: Springer. p.
1401:"The big unanswered questions"
1286:Bickman, Leonard, ed. (2000).
543:Philosophy of Science, Vol. 46
176:Utility of scientific evidence
54:provide an accessible overview
1:
1553:; Zhang, Nanning (May 2013).
1256:(6th ed.). Los Angeles:
1203:(2014). "On interpretation".
855:McArthur, Dan (August 2003).
541:Longino, Helen (March 1979).
236:(on the logic of discovery),
2026:Hypothetico-deductive model
2001:Deductive-nomological model
1986:Constructivist epistemology
1091:. Cambridge, UK; New York:
1064:Fitzpatrick, Simon (2013).
735:University of Chicago Press
463:University of Chicago Press
424:Probabilistic argumentation
324:Concept of scientific proof
269:strong Church-Turing thesis
220:A 1983 anthology edited by
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1166:. pp. 243–254 (253).
1093:Cambridge University Press
465:. pp. 527–551 (547).
179:
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2087:Semantic view of theories
2006:Epistemological anarchism
1943:dependent and independent
1612:10.1007/978-3-319-19626-8
1571:10.1007/s10506-012-9132-9
1368:Questions and questioning
1025:10.1007/978-3-030-11298-1
733:(2nd ed.). Chicago:
687:(Supplement): S180–S192.
638:(Supplement): S193–S207.
404:Scientific evidence (law)
382:Resources in your library
21:Scientific evidence (law)
1829:Intertheoretic reduction
1818:Ignoramus et ignorabimus
1795:Functional contextualism
1380:10.1515/9783110864205.43
1288:Donald Campbell's legacy
1151:; Toombs, Ethan (2005).
579:. Accessed May 13, 2007.
2543:Probabilistic arguments
2314:Philosophers of science
2092:Scientific essentialism
2041:Model-dependent realism
1976:Constructive empiricism
1869:Evidence-based practice
1217:10.1057/9781137389831_3
1009:See also Chapter 5 in:
783:Oxford University Press
777:The concept of evidence
577:Thomas Kelly "Evidence"
419:Probabilistic causation
398:Evidence-based medicine
112:Principles of inference
2397:Alfred North Whitehead
2387:Charles Sanders Peirce
1514:Gaither, Carl (2009).
567:Accessed May 13, 2007.
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234:Norwood Russell Hanson
186:Philosophers, such as
2496:Philosophy portal
2247:Hard and soft science
2242:Faith and rationality
2111:Scientific skepticism
1891:Scientific Revolution
1674:Philosophy of science
1290:. Thousand Oaks, CA:
1260:. pp. xiii–xiv.
1101:10.1017/9781108381352
898:10.4324/9780203744857
680:Philosophy of Science
631:Philosophy of Science
205:statistical inference
2533:Sources of knowledge
2222:Criticism of science
2097:Scientific formalism
1981:Constructive realism
1886:Scientific pluralism
1859:Problem of induction
1565:(2): 173–219 (214).
892:. pp. 381–392.
866:Philosophy in Review
859:The book of evidence
817:(1): 559–572 (561).
332:proof. For example,
262:The Book of Evidence
119:geocentric cosmology
104:and the strength of
102:statistical analysis
2289:Rhetoric of science
2227:Descriptive science
1971:Confirmation holism
1864:Scientific evidence
1824:Inductive reasoning
1753:Demarcation problem
1493:TalkOrigins Archive
1406:The Huffington Post
1397:Krauss, Lawrence M.
1125:undsci.berkeley.edu
958:Vitányi, Paul M. B.
429:Probabilistic logic
373:Scientific evidence
166:deductive reasoning
106:scientific controls
74:Scientific evidence
2508:Science portal
2437:Carl Gustav Hempel
2392:Wilhelm Windelband
2279:Questionable cause
2102:Scientific realism
1923:Underdetermination
1758:Empirical evidence
1748:Creative synthesis
1592:Walton, Douglas N.
1551:Walton, Douglas N.
1437:. 28 February 2014
1426:See, for example,
1374:. pp. 43–67.
1341:10.1007/BF01064267
1211:. pp. 60–84.
1209:Palgrave Macmillan
508:Boyd, Nora Mills;
392:Anecdotal evidence
318:Donald T. Campbell
150:Bayesian inference
94:empirical evidence
2528:Scientific method
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2269:Normative science
2126:Uniformitarianism
1881:Scientific method
1775:Explanatory power
1533:978-0-387-49575-0
1292:SAGE Publications
1258:SAGE Publications
1131:. 14 April 2022.
997:10.1109/18.825807
878:Achinstein, Peter
771:Achinstein, Peter
675:Achinstein, Peter
545:. pp. 37–42.
512:(June 14, 2021).
368:Library resources
352:standard of proof
314:C. S. Peirce
302:Ernest Rutherford
230:R. B. Braithwaite
192:scientific method
130:phlogiston theory
98:scientific method
82:scientific theory
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529:
527:
518:Zalta, Edward N.
505:
496:
495:
454:
434:
409:
354:used in a given
306:new atomic model
246:Wesley C. Salmon
222:Peter Achinstein
66:
63:
57:
34:
26:
2558:
2557:
2553:
2552:
2551:
2549:
2548:
2547:
2518:
2517:
2516:
2511:
2500:
2490:
2488:
2476:
2457:Paul Feyerabend
2417:Michael Polanyi
2353:
2339:Galileo Galilei
2308:
2294:Science studies
2210:
2140:
2131:Verificationism
2036:Instrumentalism
2021:Foundationalism
1996:Conventionalism
1954:
1790:Feminist method
1676:
1671:
1641:
1622:
1600:Springer-Verlag
1590:
1589:
1582:
1549:
1548:
1541:
1534:
1513:
1512:
1508:
1498:
1496:
1485:
1484:
1480:
1473:
1455:
1454:
1450:
1440:
1438:
1427:
1425:
1421:
1411:
1409:
1399:(14 May 2015).
1395:
1390:
1365:
1324:
1313:
1311:
1307:
1285:
1268:
1248:
1246:
1242:
1227:
1199:
1182:
1155:
1147:
1146:
1139:
1119:
1111:
1086:
1084:
1080:
1063:
1062:
1058:
1035:
1017:Springer-Verlag
1010:
968:
956:
955:
948:
928:
927:
923:
908:
876:
854:
853:
846:
805:
804:
800:
793:
769:
768:
764:
749:
721:
720:
716:
673:
624:
623:
616:
605:
601:
596:
592:
587:
583:
575:
571:
563:
559:
554:
550:
540:
539:
532:
507:
506:
499:
481:
456:
455:
451:
447:
432:
407:
388:
387:
386:
376:
375:
371:
364:
339:Albert Einstein
326:
254:William Bechtel
201:
184:
178:
128:, working with
114:
67:
61:
58:
51:
39:This article's
35:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2556:
2554:
2546:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2520:
2519:
2513:
2512:
2510:
2498:
2486:
2481:
2478:
2477:
2475:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2442:W. V. O. Quine
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2377:Rudolf Steiner
2374:
2369:
2367:Henri Poincaré
2364:
2358:
2355:
2354:
2352:
2351:
2346:
2341:
2336:
2331:
2325:
2323:
2316:
2310:
2309:
2307:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2265:
2264:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2239:
2237:Exact sciences
2234:
2229:
2224:
2218:
2216:
2215:Related topics
2212:
2211:
2209:
2208:
2207:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2174:Social science
2171:
2170:
2169:
2167:Space and time
2159:
2154:
2148:
2146:
2142:
2141:
2139:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2099:
2094:
2089:
2080:
2071:
2066:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1962:
1960:
1956:
1955:
1953:
1952:
1947:
1946:
1945:
1940:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1919:
1918:
1913:
1908:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1876:Scientific law
1873:
1872:
1871:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1814:
1813:
1812:
1807:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1785:Falsifiability
1782:
1777:
1772:
1771:
1770:
1760:
1755:
1750:
1745:
1744:
1743:
1733:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1717:
1716:
1714:Mill's Methods
1706:
1695:
1690:
1684:
1682:
1678:
1677:
1672:
1670:
1669:
1662:
1655:
1647:
1640:
1639:
1620:
1580:
1539:
1532:
1506:
1478:
1472:978-1136700323
1471:
1448:
1419:
1388:
1305:
1267:978-1506336169
1266:
1250:Yin, Robert K.
1240:
1226:978-1137389824
1225:
1180:
1137:
1110:978-1108422260
1109:
1078:
1056:
1034:978-3030112974
1033:
981:(2): 446–464.
964:(March 2000).
946:
921:
906:
844:
798:
791:
773:, ed. (1983).
762:
748:978-0226093437
747:
723:Carnap, Rudolf
714:
693:10.1086/392818
644:10.1086/392819
614:
599:
590:
581:
569:
557:
548:
530:
497:
479:
448:
446:
443:
442:
441:
435:
426:
421:
416:
410:
401:
395:
385:
384:
378:
377:
366:
365:
363:
360:
325:
322:
286:John D. Norton
238:Nelson Goodman
200:
197:
188:Karl R. Popper
182:Falsifiability
177:
174:
158:Bayes' theorem
134:mercuric oxide
113:
110:
69:
68:
48:the key points
38:
36:
29:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2555:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2525:
2523:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2497:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2479:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2427:Rudolf Carnap
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2362:Auguste Comte
2360:
2359:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2334:Francis Bacon
2332:
2330:
2327:
2326:
2324:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2311:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2263:
2262:Pseudoscience
2260:
2259:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2219:
2217:
2213:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2176:
2175:
2172:
2168:
2165:
2164:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
2149:
2147:
2143:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2121:Structuralism
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2084:
2083:Received view
2081:
2079:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1991:Contextualism
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1963:
1961:
1957:
1951:
1948:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1935:
1934:
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1909:
1907:
1904:
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1902:
1899:
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1815:
1811:
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1801:
1798:
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1786:
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1781:
1778:
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1773:
1769:
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1707:
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1700:
1696:
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1689:
1686:
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1683:
1679:
1675:
1668:
1663:
1661:
1656:
1654:
1649:
1648:
1645:
1636:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1621:9783319196268
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1587:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1546:
1544:
1540:
1535:
1529:
1525:
1520:
1519:
1510:
1507:
1495:
1494:
1489:
1482:
1479:
1474:
1468:
1464:
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1458:
1452:
1449:
1436:
1435:
1430:
1423:
1420:
1408:
1407:
1402:
1398:
1391:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1335:(1): 85–118.
1334:
1330:
1329:
1321:. April 1981.
1320:
1318:
1312:For example:
1309:
1306:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1282:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1263:
1259:
1255:
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1244:
1241:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1196:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1162:. Amsterdam:
1161:
1154:
1150:
1149:Thagard, Paul
1144:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1116:
1112:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1085:For example:
1082:
1079:
1073:
1072:
1067:
1060:
1057:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
989:
984:
980:
976:
975:
967:
963:
959:
953:
951:
947:
942:
941:
936:
932:
925:
922:
917:
913:
909:
907:9780415518741
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
873:(4): 235–237.
872:
868:
867:
862:
860:
851:
849:
845:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
802:
799:
794:
788:
784:
779:
778:
772:
766:
763:
758:
754:
750:
744:
740:
736:
731:
730:
724:
718:
715:
710:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
681:
676:
671:
666:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
632:
627:
621:
619:
615:
612:
608:
603:
600:
594:
591:
585:
582:
578:
573:
570:
566:
561:
558:
552:
549:
544:
537:
535:
531:
525:
524:
519:
515:
511:
504:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
482:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
453:
450:
444:
439:
436:
430:
427:
425:
422:
420:
417:
414:
411:
405:
402:
399:
396:
393:
390:
389:
383:
380:
379:
374:
369:
361:
359:
357:
353:
347:
342:
340:
335:
331:
323:
321:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
293:
291:
290:Elliott Sober
287:
283:
279:
274:
273:Occam's razor
270:
265:
263:
258:
255:
251:
250:Clark Glymour
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
218:
217:Rudolf Carnap
212:
210:
206:
198:
196:
193:
189:
183:
175:
173:
171:
167:
162:
159:
155:
151:
146:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
122:
120:
111:
109:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
65:
55:
49:
47:
42:
37:
33:
28:
27:
22:
2472:Larry Laudan
2452:Imre Lakatos
2407:Otto Neurath
2382:Karl Pearson
2372:Pierre Duhem
2344:Isaac Newton
2274:Protoscience
2232:Epistemology
2106:Anti-realism
2104: /
2085: /
2076: /
2062: /
2060:Reductionism
2058: /
2031:Inductionism
2011:Evolutionism
1863:
1816:
1703:a posteriori
1702:
1698:
1633:
1595:
1574:
1562:
1558:
1517:
1509:
1497:. Retrieved
1491:
1481:
1460:
1457:Popper, Karl
1451:
1439:. Retrieved
1432:
1422:
1410:. Retrieved
1404:
1367:
1360:
1332:
1326:
1316:
1308:
1287:
1279:
1253:
1243:
1204:
1193:
1159:
1132:
1124:
1114:
1088:
1081:
1069:
1059:
1012:
978:
972:
938:
931:"Simplicity"
924:
885:
870:
864:
858:
814:
810:
801:
776:
765:
728:
717:
684:
678:
663:
635:
629:
602:
593:
584:
572:
560:
551:
542:
521:
510:Bogen, James
492:
458:
452:
372:
349:
344:
327:
294:
278:Richard Boyd
266:
261:
259:
213:
209:Deborah Mayo
202:
185:
163:
147:
123:
115:
73:
72:
59:
43:
41:lead section
2462:Ian Hacking
2447:Thomas Kuhn
2432:Karl Popper
2412:C. D. Broad
2329:Roger Bacon
2257:Non-science
2199:Linguistics
2179:Archaeology
2074:Rationalism
2064:Determinism
2051:Physicalism
2016:Fallibilism
1966:Coherentism
1896:Testability
1849:Observation
1844:Objectivity
1805:alternative
1736:Correlation
1726:Consilience
461:. Chicago:
334:Karl Popper
312:(following
282:Mario Bunge
226:Carl Hempel
88:, although
2522:Categories
2349:David Hume
2322:Precursors
2204:Psychology
2184:Economics‎
2078:Empiricism
2069:Pragmatism
2056:Positivism
2046:Naturalism
1916:scientific
1800:Hypothesis
1763:Experiment
1602:. p.
1389:3110106809
1372:De Gruyter
1364:See also:
1181:0080446124
1043:1106165074
988:cs/9901014
792:0198750625
737:. p.
480:0226789551
445:References
330:infallible
180:See also:
170:syllogisms
168:, such as
90:scientists
86:hypothesis
2189:Geography
2157:Chemistry
2116:Scientism
1911:ladenness
1731:Construct
1709:Causality
1630:919080389
1459:(2011) .
1276:983826254
1252:(2018) .
1235:870285649
1201:Faye, Jan
1051:184483493
916:824535995
890:Routledge
725:(1962) .
709:120774584
310:abduction
138:Lavoisier
126:Priestley
62:June 2021
46:summarize
2538:Evidence
2484:Category
2136:Vitalism
1959:Theories
1933:Variable
1854:Paradigm
1741:function
1699:A priori
1688:Analysis
1681:Concepts
1594:(2016).
1499:19 March
1441:19 March
1357:46982553
1349:20115620
1328:Synthese
1317:Synthese
1300:42603382
1190:60667797
1164:Elsevier
962:Li, Ming
884:(eds.).
839:62119768
660:61281250
489:54461920
362:See also
296:Marsden
78:evidence
2194:History
2162:Physics
2152:Biology
1950:more...
1938:control
1834:Inquiry
1005:5971084
937:(ed.).
520:(ed.).
438:Opinion
413:Science
356:inquiry
1906:choice
1901:Theory
1839:Nature
1768:design
1628:
1618:
1530:
1469:
1412:15 May
1386:
1355:
1347:
1298:
1274:
1264:
1233:
1223:
1188:
1178:
1107:
1049:
1041:
1031:
1003:
914:
904:
837:
831:192732
829:
789:
757:372957
755:
745:
707:
701:188667
699:
658:
652:188668
650:
487:
477:
370:about
341:said:
288:, and
142:causal
1353:S2CID
1345:JSTOR
1156:(PDF)
1118:And:
1047:S2CID
1001:S2CID
983:arXiv
969:(PDF)
933:. In
835:S2CID
827:JSTOR
705:S2CID
697:JSTOR
656:S2CID
648:JSTOR
516:. In
154:prior
1810:null
1780:Fact
1701:and
1626:OCLC
1616:ISBN
1528:ISBN
1524:1602
1501:2014
1467:ISBN
1443:2014
1414:2015
1384:ISBN
1296:OCLC
1272:OCLC
1262:ISBN
1231:OCLC
1221:ISBN
1186:OCLC
1176:ISBN
1105:ISBN
1039:OCLC
1029:ISBN
912:OCLC
902:ISBN
815:1990
787:ISBN
753:OCLC
743:ISBN
485:OCLC
475:ISBN
242:grue
240:(of
1608:doi
1604:224
1567:doi
1376:doi
1337:doi
1213:doi
1168:doi
1097:doi
1021:doi
993:doi
894:doi
819:doi
739:462
689:doi
640:doi
467:doi
84:or
76:is
2524::
1632:.
1624:.
1614:.
1606:.
1583:^
1573:.
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