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computer screen. Based on verbosity settings, a screen-reading program informs users of certain formatting changes, such as when a frame or table begins and ends, where graphics have been inserted into the text, or when a list appears in the document. The verbosity settings can also control the level of descriptiveness of elements, such as lists, tables, and regions. For example,
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Operating system and application designers have attempted to address these problems by providing ways for screen readers to access the display contents without having to maintain an off-screen model. These involve the provision of alternative and accessible representations of what is being displayed
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Screen readers can also communicate information on menus, controls, and other visual constructs to permit blind users to interact with these constructs. However, maintaining an off-screen model is a significant technical challenge; hooking the low-level messages and maintaining an accurate model are
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For example, the operating system might send messages to draw a command button and its caption. These messages are intercepted and used to construct the off-screen model. The user can switch between controls (such as buttons) available on the screen and the captions and control contents will be read
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functionality to web content. The primary audience for such applications is those who have difficulty reading because of learning disabilities or language barriers. Although functionality remains limited compared to equivalent desktop applications, the major benefit is to increase the accessibility
483:
Screen readers can be assumed to be able to access all display content that is not intrinsically inaccessible. Web browsers, word processors, icons and windows and email programs are just some of the applications used successfully by screen reader users. However, according to some users, using a
460:
Screen readers can query the operating system or application for what is currently being displayed and receive updates when the display changes. For example, a screen reader can be told that the current focus is on a button and the button caption to be communicated to the user. This approach is
586:
Verbosity is a feature of screen reading software that supports vision-impaired computer users. Speech verbosity controls enable users to choose how much speech feedback they wish to hear. Specifically, verbosity settings allow users to construct a mental model of web pages displayed on their
553:
This functionality depends on the quality of the software but also on a logical structure of the text. Use of headings, punctuation, presence of alternate attributes for images, etc. is crucial for a good vocalization. Also a web site may have a nice look because of the use of appropriate two
484:
screen reader is considerably more difficult than using a GUI, and many applications have specific problems resulting from the nature of the application (e.g. animations) or failure to comply with accessibility standards for the platform (e.g. Microsoft Word and Active
Accessibility).
380:
has characters and graphics drawn on the screen at particular positions, and therefore there is no purely textual representation of the graphical contents of the display. Screen readers were therefore forced to employ new low-level techniques, gathering messages from the
540:
A relatively new development in the field is web-based applications like Spoken-Web that act as web portals, managing content like news updates, weather, science and business articles for visually-impaired or blind computer users. Other examples are ReadSpeaker or
476:, so screen readers must still maintain an off-screen model for Word or find another way to access its contents. One approach is to use available operating system messages and application object models to supplement accessibility
622:
also include language verbosity, which automatically detects verbosity settings related to speech output language. For example, if a user navigated to a website based in the United
Kingdom, the text would be read with
125:
508:
Some telephone services allow users to interact with the internet remotely. For example, TeleTender can read web pages over the phone and does not require special programs or devices on the user side.
1003:
Zong, Jonathan; Lee, Crystal; Lundgard, Alan; Jang, JiWoong; Hajas, Daniel; Satyanarayan, Arvind (2022). "Rich Screen Reader
Experiences for Accessible Data Visualization".
340:
the flow of information around the system and reading the screen buffer or by using a standard hardware output socket and communicating the results to the user.
554:
dimensional positioning with CSS but its standard linearization, for example, by suppressing any CSS and
Javascript in the browser may not be comprehensible.
276:
can use ChromeVox. Similarly, Android-based devices from Amazon provide the VoiceView screen reader. There are also free and open source screen readers for
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of said websites when viewed on public machines where users do not have permission to install custom software, giving people greater "freedom to roam".
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provides low, medium, and high web verbosity preset levels. The high web verbosity level provides more detail about the contents of a webpage.
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Some programs and applications have voicing technology built in alongside their primary functionality. These programs are termed
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and using these to build up an "off-screen model", a representation of the display in which the required text content is stored.
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project on micro-computer systems and computer assisted learning", British
Journal of Visual Impairment, 4/3, 101-103 (1986).
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considerably easier for the developers of screen readers, but fails when applications do not comply with the accessibility
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572:. One advantage of scripting is that it allows customizations to be shared among users, increasing accessibility for all.
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151:) that renders text and image content as speech or braille output. Screen readers are essential to people who are
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183:. They do this by applying a wide variety of techniques that include, for example, interacting with dedicated
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position. Input was by keyboard. All this information could therefore be obtained from the system either by
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An example of someone using a screen reader showing documents that are inaccessible, readable and accessible
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is announced or silently ignored. Some screen readers can be tailored to a particular application through
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December 1991, p. 118-128), the first screen reader to build an off-screen model was outSPOKEN.
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928:"Access to personal computers using speech synthesis. RNIB New Beacon No.76, May 1992"
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990:"Oracle Technology Network for Java Developers – Oracle Technology Network – Oracle"
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In the 1980s, the
Research Centre for the Education of the Visually Handicapped (
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Assistive technology that converts text or images to speech or
Braille
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791:"Accessibility Basics: How Does Your Page Look To A Screen Reader?"
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that attempt to convey what people with normal eyesight see on a
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if they are designed to remove the need to use a screen reader.
253:
603:, provided that the language of the material is encoded in its
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can sometimes read out written documents (textual web content,
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documents, e-mails etc.) The best-known examples are Apple's
862:
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Most screen readers allow the user to select whether most
1083:"Yahoo! search results now with natural language support"
240:
by NV Access are more popular for that operating system.
578:
enjoys an active script-sharing community, for example.
599:Some screen readers can read text in more than one
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
739:"Screen Readers and how they work with E-Learning"
376:s), the situation became more complicated. A
8:
175:to their users via non-visual means, like
1016:
885:"Talking Terminals. BYTE, September 1982"
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
687:"Types of Assistive Technology Products"
678:
184:
488:Self-voicing programs and applications
1096:from the original on January 25, 2009
962:Implementing Accessibility on Android
708:
706:
704:
7:
765:"Hear text read aloud with Narrator"
317:s), the screen display consisted of
47:adding citations to reliable sources
260:as a built-in screen reader, while
220:, though separate products such as
155:, and are useful to people who are
789:Coyier, Chris (October 29, 2007).
406:on the screen accessed through an
351:developed a Screen Reader for the
14:
1081:Chris Heilmann (March 13, 2008).
23:
420:Android Accessibility Framework
34:needs additional citations for
838:"Screen Reader User Survey #9"
741:. Virginia.gov. Archived from
440:Microsoft Active Accessibility
1:
948:" (by Richard Schwerdtfeger,
915:Free HTML version at Visugate
610:Screen reading programs like
284:systems, such as Speakup and
714:"Screen reading technology"
391:refreshable braille display
199:properties), and employing
193:inter-process communication
1145:
224:'s commercially available
1061:www.freedomscientific.com
813:"What is a Screen Reader"
689:. Microsoft Accessibility
469:does not comply with the
370:graphical user interfaces
232:screen magnifier and the
1088:Yahoo! Developer Network
389:aloud and/or shown on a
349:University of Birmingham
1005:Computer Graphics Forum
450:Microsoft UI Automation
311:command-line interfaces
637:List of screen readers
397:both difficult tasks.
270:Talkback screen reader
136:
909:Paul Blenkhorn, "The
496:and can be a form of
169:software applications
167:. Screen readers are
134:
1122:Assistive technology
1057:"JAWS Web Verbosity"
974:Apple Accessibility
745:on November 13, 2018
498:assistive technology
423:Apple Accessibility
368:With the arrival of
234:free and open source
216:screen reader since
179:, sound icons, or a
145:assistive technology
43:improve this article
297:Command-line (text)
165:learning disability
652:Speech recognition
512:Virtual assistants
455:Java Access Bridge
401:Accessibility APIs
355:and NEC Portable.
228:screen reader and
222:Freedom Scientific
214:Microsoft Narrator
212:have included the
185:accessibility APIs
137:
1027:10.1111/cgf.14519
647:Speech processing
625:an English accent
364:Off-screen models
309:, which employed
303:operating systems
210:operating systems
207:Microsoft Windows
157:visually impaired
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793:. CSS-Tricks
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530:Amazon Alexa
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203:techniques.
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504:Cloud-based
416:s include:
412:. Existing
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319:characters
305:, such as
242:Apple Inc.
161:illiterate
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1043:248665696
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769:Microsoft
749:March 31,
667:VoiceOver
620:VoiceOver
582:Verbosity
569:scripting
545:that add
536:Web-based
359:Graphical
353:BBC Micro
347:) at the
301:In early
282:Unix-like
258:VoiceOver
99:July 2017
1094:Archived
869:March 9,
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797:June 13,
774:June 13,
693:June 13,
631:See also
605:metadata
601:language
595:Language
274:ChromeOS
272:and its
256:include
230:ZoomText
847:July 1,
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338:hooking
322:mapping
266:Android
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618:, and
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332:and a
330:memory
307:MS-DOS
262:Google
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292:Types
278:Linux
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153:blind
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1102:2015
1090:Blog
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950:BYTE
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871:2020
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799:2016
776:2016
751:2019
725:2022
695:2016
616:NVDA
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589:JAWS
575:JAWS
522:Siri
471:MSAA
444:MSAA
286:Orca
280:and
254:tvOS
238:NVDA
226:JAWS
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