404:
have evolved to become incompatible with their own gametes. While these species would not be well served by having autogamous self-fertilization as a reproductive mechanism, other species, which do not have self-incompatibility, would benefit from autogamy. Protists have the advantage of diversifying their modes of reproduction. This is useful for a multitude of reasons. First, if there is an unfavorable change in the environment that puts the ability to deliver offspring at risk, then it is advantageous for an organism to have autogamy at its disposal. In other organisms, it is seen that genetic diversity arising from sexual reproduction is maintained by changes in the environment that favor certain genotypes over others. Aside from extreme circumstances, it is possible that this form of reproduction gives rise to a genotype in the offspring that will increase fitness in the environment. This is due to the nature of the genetic degeneration and remodeling intrinsic to autogamy in unicellular organisms. Thus, autogamous behavior may become advantageous to have if an individual wanted to ensure offspring viability and survival. This advantage also applies to flowering plants. However, it is important to note that this change has not shown to produce a progeny with more fitness in unicellular organisms. It is possible that the nutrition deprived state of the parent cells before autogamy created a barrier for producing offspring that could thrive in those same stressful environments.
121:. Some of these daughter nuclei will continue to divide to create potential future gametic nuclei. Of these potential gametic nuclei, one will divide two more times. Of the four daughter nuclei arising from this step, two of them become anlagen, or cells that will form part of the new organism. The other two daughter nuclei become the gametic micronuclei that will undergo autogamous self-fertilization. These nuclear divisions are observed mainly when the
306:. In the former, the egg and sperm cells that unite come from the same flower. In the latter, the sperm and egg cells can come from a different flower on the same plant. While the latter method does blur the lines between autogamous self-fertilization and normal sexual reproduction, it is still considered autogamous self-fertilization.
320:. Meiosis followed by self-pollination results in little genetic variation, raising the question of how meiosis in self-pollinating plants is adaptively maintained over an extended period in preference to a less complicated and less costly asexual ameiotic process for producing progeny. For instance,
267:
has the added consequence of giving rise to daughter cells that are substantially smaller than those rising from binary fission. It is hypothesized that this is a survival mechanism employed when the cell is in stressful environments, and thus not able to allocate all resources to creating offspring.
403:
There are several advantages for the self-fertilization observed in flowering plants and protists. In flowering plants, it is important for some plants not to be dependent on pollinating agents that other plants rely on for fertilization. This is unusual, however, considering that many plant species
374:
fungi). In this case, two haploid nuclei derived from the same individual fuse to form a zygote than can then undergo meiosis. Examples of homothallic fungi that undergo selfing include species with an aspergillus-like asexual stage (anamorphs) occurring in many different genera, several species of
1002:
The evolutionary shift from outcrossing to self-fertilization is one of the most frequent evolutionary transitions in plants. Since autogamy in flowering plants and autogamy in unicellular species is fundamentally different, and plants and protists are not related, it is likely that both instances
416:
in the species that use it as the predominant mode of reproduction. This leaves those species particularly susceptible to pathogens and viruses that can harm it. In addition, the foraminiferans that use autogamy have shown to produce substantially smaller progeny as a result. This indicates that
326:
is a predominantly self-pollinating plant that has an outcrossing rate in the wild estimated at less than 0.3%, and self-pollination appears to have evolved roughly a million years ago or more. An adaptive benefit of meiosis that may explain its long-term maintenance in self-pollinating plants is
437:, which can have serious consequences for the individual. The effects are most extreme when self-fertilization occurs in organisms that are usually out-crossing. In plants, selfing can occur as autogamous or geitonogamous pollinations and can have varying fitness affects that show up as
164:
that had just experienced meiosis followed by syngamy. These paramecia are rejuvenated in the sense of having a restored clonal lifespan. Thus it appears that clonal aging is due in large part to the progressive accumulation of DNA damage, and that rejuvenation is due to
1784:
Eckert, Christopher G., and
Christopher R. Herlihy. "Using a Cost-benefit Approach to Understand the Evolution of Self-fertilization in Plants: The Perplexing Case of Aquilegia Canadensis (Ranunculaceae)." Plant Species Biology 19.3 (2004): 159-73.
395:). A review of evidence on the evolution of sexual reproduction in the fungi led to the concept that the original mode of sexual reproduction in the last eukaryotic common ancestor was homothallic or self-fertile unisexual reproduction.
417:
since it is generally an emergency survival mechanism for unicellular species, the mechanism does not have the nutritional resources that would be provided by the organism if it were undergoing binary fission.
192:
has also been shown to engage in meiosis, autogamy and development of new macronuclei when placed under nutritional stress. Due to the degeneration and remodeling of genetic information that occurs in autogamy,
64:
have also been observed using autogamy as a means of reproduction. Flowering plants engage in autogamy regularly, while the protists that engage in autogamy only do so in stressful environments.
1003:
evolved separately. However, due to the little overall genetic variation that arises in progeny, it is not fully understood how autogamy has been maintained in the tree of life.
169:
during meiosis that occurs in the micronucleus during conjugation or automixis and reestablishment of the macronucleus by replication of the newly repaired micronuclear DNA.
1483:
Tang C, Toomajian C, Sherman-Broyles S, Plagnol V, Guo YL, Hu TT, Clark RM, Nasrallah JB, Weigel D, Nordborg M (2007). "The evolution of selfing in
Arabidopsis thaliana".
632:
606:
580:
480:
708:
685:
526:
503:
655:
548:
715:
Illustration model of the decrease in genetic variation in a population of self-fertilized organisms derived from a heterozygous individual, assuming equal
1252:
Kaczanowski A (2016). "Cohesion of Clonal Life
History, Senescence and Rejuvenation Induced by Autogamy of the Histophagous Ciliate Tetrahymena Rostrata".
268:
If a cell was under nutritional stress and not able to function regularly, there would be a strong possibility of its offspring's fitness being sub-par.
286:
are predominantly self-fertilizing. Self-pollination is an example of autogamy that occurs in flowering plants. Self-pollination occurs when the
160:, either during conjugation or automixis, the old macronucleus disintegrates and a new macronucleus is formed by replication of the micronuclear
220:
can alternate between sexual reproduction via cross-fertilization and asexual reproduction via binary fission. The details of the life cycle of
452:
If no other effects interfere, the proportion of heterozygous loci is halved in each successive generation, as shown in the following table.
1679:
Richard, S.; Almeida, J. M. G. C. F.; Cissé, O. H.; Luraschi, A.; Nielsen, O.; Pagni, M.; Hauser, P. M.; Weiss, Louis M. (20 February 2018).
1681:"Functional and Expression Analyses of the Pneumocystis MAT Genes Suggest Obligate Sexuality through Primary Homothallism within Host Lungs"
1062:
Berger, James D. "Autogamy in
Paramecium cell cycle stage-specific commitment to meiosis." Experimental cell research 166.2 (1986): 475-485.
425:
Self-fertilization results in the loss of genetic variation within an individual (offspring), because many of the genetic loci that were
109:-like nuclei. This process, defined as hemixis, a chromosomal rearrangement process, takes place in a number of steps. First, the two
1551:
153:
1072:
Diller WF (1936). "Nuclear reorganization processes in
Paramecium aurelia, with descriptions of autogamy and 'hemixis'".
1795:
Eckert CG (2000). "Contributions of
Autogamy and Geitonogamy to Self-Fertilization in a Mass-Flowering, Clonal Plant".
1730:"Evolution of sexual reproduction: A view from the fungal kingdom supports an evolutionary epoch with sex before sexes"
1372:
Eckert CG (2000). "Contributions of
Autogamy and Geitonogamy to Self-Fertilization in a Mass-Flowering, Clonal Plant".
660:
generation, heterozygotes have almost completely disappeared, and the population is polarized, with almost exclusively
302:
of that same plant and fertilizes the egg cell present. Self-pollination can either be done completely autogamously or
1830:
Bernstein H, Byerly HC, Hopf FA, Michod RE (September 1985). "Genetic damage, mutation, and the evolution of sex".
1042:
252:
This is indicative of nuclear and chromosomal degeneration, a process similar to the subdivisions observed in
208:
1012:
1045:; the organism spends part of its life as a female and part as a male; self-fertilization is not possible.
1037:
387:
188:
101:
or sexually via cross-fertilization. However, studies have shown that when put under nutritional stress,
1879:
1032:
442:
328:
313:
232:
is also shown to sometimes defer to autogamous behavior when placed in nutritional stress. As seen in
1839:
1741:
1633:
1492:
1206:
1116:
322:
149:
52:
that come from one individual. Autogamy is predominantly observed in the form of self-pollination, a
997:
438:
340:
194:
1812:
1516:
1432:
1389:
1175:
1089:
237:
85:
1855:
1767:
1710:
1661:
1602:
1557:
1547:
1508:
1424:
1354:
1269:
1234:
1167:
1132:
716:
413:
98:
197:
arises and possibly increases an offspring's chances of survival in stressful environments.
1847:
1804:
1757:
1749:
1700:
1692:
1651:
1641:
1592:
1539:
1500:
1463:
1416:
1381:
1344:
1336:
1296:
1261:
1224:
1214:
1159:
1150:
Holmes GE, Holmes NR (1986). "Accumulation of DNA damages in aging
Paramecium tetraurelia".
1124:
1081:
983:
976:
969:
781:
774:
767:
309:
277:
31:
1622:"Evolution of the fungal self-fertile reproductive life style from self-sterile ancestors"
1107:
Smith-Sonneborn J (1979). "DNA repair and longevity assurance in
Paramecium tetraurelia".
1017:
283:
57:
611:
585:
559:
459:
152:
cell divisions by binary fission. Clonal aging is associated with a dramatic increase in
1843:
1745:
1637:
1496:
1210:
1120:
690:
667:
508:
485:
1762:
1729:
1705:
1680:
1534:
Bernstein H, Hopf FA, Michod RE (1987). "The
Molecular Basis of the Evolution of Sex".
1349:
1324:
1300:
640:
533:
352:
263:
individuals can exist before autogamy actually takes place. The autogamous behavior in
1543:
1452:"Population genetic structure and outcrossing rate of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh"
1873:
1656:
1621:
1597:
1576:
1229:
1194:
721:
30:"Selfing" redirects here. For self-pollination specifically in flowering plants, see
1520:
1179:
1093:
634:, which means that the frequency of heterozygotes now is 50% of the starting value.
426:
392:
381:
371:
245:
213:
118:
110:
53:
1436:
1287:
Lee JJ, McEnery ME (1970). "Autogamy in Allogromia laticollaris (Foraminifera)".
1265:
1027:
449:
because the individuals carrying them have mostly died or failed to reproduce.
348:
303:
45:
17:
1753:
1313:
K., Sen Gupta B. Modern Foraminifera. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1999. Print.
1022:
726:
661:
553:
446:
430:
376:
166:
139:
1851:
1646:
1504:
1085:
299:
129:
undergo autogamy synchronously with other individuals of the same species.
1771:
1714:
1665:
1606:
1512:
1428:
1407:
Charlesworth D, Willis JH (2009). "The genetics of inbreeding depression".
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145:
90:
1468:
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1620:
Yun, S.-H.; Berbee, M. L.; Yoder, O. C.; Turgeon, B. G. (11 May 1999).
1163:
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61:
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1393:
434:
363:
360:
356:
344:
295:
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257:
106:
49:
1420:
412:
In flowering plants, autogamy has the disadvantage of producing low
1808:
1385:
1577:"Sexual development and cryptic sexuality in fungi: insights from
287:
161:
1195:"Lack of telomere shortening during senescence in Paramecium"
156:. When paramecia that have experienced clonal aging undergo
1325:"Evolutionary consequences of self-fertilization in plants"
355:
fungi). In this case, mating occurs between two different
433:. This can result in the expression of harmful recessive
1538:. Advances in Genetics. Vol. 24. pp. 323–70.
370:. The second type is self-fertilization or selfing (in
93:
for autogamy. Similar to other unicellular organisms,
693:
670:
643:
614:
588:
562:
536:
511:
488:
462:
125:
is put under nutritional stress. Research shows that
445:
is likely to purge the deleterious alleles from the
1575:Dyer, Paul S.; O'Gorman, Céline M. (January 2012).
702:
679:
649:
626:
600:
574:
542:
520:
497:
474:
1626:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
105:will undergo meiosis and subsequent fusion of
8:
1323:Wright SI, Kalisz S, Slotte T (June 2013).
316:due to expression of deleterious recessive
117:enlarge and divide two times to form eight
339:There are basically two distinct types of
27:Fusion of gametes from the same individual
1761:
1704:
1655:
1645:
1596:
1467:
1348:
1228:
1218:
692:
669:
642:
613:
587:
561:
535:
510:
487:
461:
248:and chromosomal fragments coexisting in
1055:
148:declines over the course of successive
7:
272:Self-pollination in flowering plants
1301:10.1111/j.1550-7408.1970.tb02354.x
97:typically reproduce asexually via
25:
1728:Heitman, Joseph (December 2015).
1536:Molecular Genetics of Development
1598:10.1111/j.1574-6976.2011.00308.x
244:There are often observations of
1193:Gilley D, Blackburn EH (1994).
469:
463:
1:
1544:10.1016/s0065-2660(08)60012-7
441:. After several generations,
133:Clonal aging and rejuvenation
89:is the most commonly studied
1450:Abbott RJ, Gomes MF (1989).
1266:10.1016/j.protis.2016.08.003
1199:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
959:
940:
921:
902:
883:
864:
845:
826:
807:
788:
760:
740:
731:
724:
224:are unknown, but similar to
212:is perhaps the best-studied
1289:The Journal of Protozoology
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56:mechanism employed by many
1896:
1043:Sequential hermaphroditism
995:
275:
29:
1754:10.1016/j.fbr.2015.08.002
1585:FEMS Microbiology Reviews
391:(for other examples, see
366:, that can then undergo
256:Multiple generations of
1852:10.1126/science.3898363
1647:10.1073/pnas.96.10.5592
1505:10.1126/science.1143153
1086:10.1002/jmor.1050590103
1013:Effective selfing model
298:of a plant goes to the
209:Allogromia laticollaris
202:Allogromia laticollaris
1734:Fungal Biology Reviews
1341:10.1098/rspb.2013.0133
1220:10.1073/pnas.91.5.1955
1129:10.1126/science.424739
1038:Outbreeding depression
704:
681:
651:
628:
602:
576:
544:
522:
499:
476:
388:Pneumocystis jirovecii
359:individuals to form a
331:repair of DNA damage.
214:foraminiferan amoeboid
60:. However, species of
1697:10.1128/mBio.02201-17
1033:Inbreeding depression
705:
682:
652:
629:
603:
577:
545:
523:
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477:
443:inbreeding depression
385:, and the ascomycete
314:inbreeding depression
691:
668:
641:
612:
586:
560:
534:
509:
486:
460:
421:Genetic consequences
323:Arabidopsis thaliana
189:Tetrahymena rostrata
174:Tetrahymena rostrata
167:repair of DNA damage
1844:1985Sci...229.1277B
1746:2015FunBR..29..108H
1638:1999PNAS...96.5592Y
1497:2007Sci...317.1070T
1469:10.1038/hdy.1989.56
1211:1994PNAS...91.1955G
1121:1979Sci...203.1115S
998:Autogamy depression
627:{\displaystyle 1aa}
601:{\displaystyle 2Aa}
575:{\displaystyle 1AA}
475:{\displaystyle (P)}
439:autogamy depression
341:sexual reproduction
195:genetic variability
1335:(1760): 20130133.
1164:10.1007/bf00330196
703:{\displaystyle aa}
700:
680:{\displaystyle AA}
677:
647:
624:
598:
572:
540:
521:{\displaystyle Aa}
518:
498:{\displaystyle Aa}
495:
472:
238:nuclear dimorphism
226:Paramecium aurelia
181:Paramecium aurelia
103:Paramecium aurelia
95:Paramecium aurelia
86:Paramecium aurelia
79:Paramecium aurelia
42:self-fertilization
1838:(4719): 1277–81.
1632:(10): 5592–5597.
989:
988:
650:{\displaystyle F}
543:{\displaystyle F}
414:genetic diversity
16:(Redirected from
1887:
1864:
1863:
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1740:(3–4): 108–117.
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1617:
1611:
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1491:(5841): 1070–2.
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1115:(4385): 1115–7.
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310:Self-pollination
284:flowering plants
282:About 10–15% of
278:Self-pollination
250:A. laticollaris.
242:A. laticollaris.
236:, there is some
183:, the parasitic
58:flowering plants
32:Self-pollination
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18:Self-fertilizing
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1018:Parthenogenesis
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982:49.995117187 ≈
968:49.995117187 ≈
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347:. The first is
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329:recombinational
304:geitonogamously
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265:A. laticollaris
261:A. laticollaris
230:A. laticollaris
222:A. laticollaris
218:A. laticollaris
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1809:10.2307/177446
1803:(2): 532–542.
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1777:
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1671:
1612:
1591:(1): 165–192.
1567:
1552:
1526:
1475:
1462:(3): 411–418.
1442:
1415:(11): 783–96.
1399:
1386:10.2307/177446
1380:(2): 532–542.
1364:
1315:
1306:
1295:(2): 184–195.
1279:
1260:(5): 490–510.
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528:(100%), and in
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333:
276:Main article:
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216:for autogamy.
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99:binary fission
81:
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44:refers to the
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1226:
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1216:
1212:
1208:
1205:(5): 1955–8.
1204:
1200:
1196:
1189:
1186:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1158:(1): 108–14.
1157:
1153:
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1130:
1126:
1122:
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1114:
1110:
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991:
985:
979:
978:
974:0.09765626 ≈
971:
962:
958:
943:
939:
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920:
905:
901:
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882:
867:
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728:
723:
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718:
697:
694:
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664:individuals (
663:
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621:
618:
615:
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569:
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489:
466:
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436:
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408:Disadvantages
407:
405:
398:
396:
394:
390:
389:
384:
383:
378:
373:
369:
365:
362:
358:
354:
353:heterothallic
350:
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297:
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72:
67:
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63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
33:
19:
1880:Reproduction
1835:
1831:
1825:
1800:
1796:
1790:
1780:
1737:
1733:
1723:
1688:
1684:
1674:
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1412:
1408:
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1377:
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1328:
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1282:
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1108:
1102:
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1073:
1067:
1058:
1001:
975:
960:
955:49.90234375
949:49.90234375
941:
922:
903:
884:
865:
846:
827:
808:
789:
780:
773:
766:
761:
751:
750:
742:
741:
733:
732:
725:
714:
713:
451:
427:heterozygous
424:
411:
402:
393:Homothallism
386:
382:Cochliobolus
380:
338:
321:
312:can lead to
308:
281:
264:
260:
253:
249:
241:
240:observed in
233:
229:
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187:
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173:
138:
136:
126:
122:
114:
102:
94:
84:
83:
78:
54:reproductive
41:
37:
36:
1579:Aspergillus
1028:Outcrossing
936:49.8046875
930:49.8046875
372:homothallic
349:outcrossing
254:P. aurelia.
246:macronuclei
179:Similar to
142:tetraurelia
111:micronuclei
1074:J. Morphol
1050:References
1023:Inbreeding
996:See also:
952:0.1953125
917:49.609375
911:49.609375
727:Generation
662:homozygous
554:generation
447:population
431:homozygous
399:Advantages
377:ascomycete
327:efficient
234:Paramecium
154:DNA damage
140:Paramecium
127:P. aurelia
123:P. aurelia
115:P. aurelia
68:Occurrence
1080:: 11–67.
992:Evolution
933:0.390625
898:49.21875
892:49.21875
456:Parental
318:mutations
294:from the
91:protozoan
1874:Category
1772:26834823
1715:29463658
1666:10318929
1607:22091779
1581:species"
1521:45853624
1513:17656687
1456:Heredity
1429:19834483
1359:23595268
1274:27631279
1180:11992591
1094:84511785
1007:See also
914:0.78125
879:48.4375
873:48.4375
582: :
556:gives:
146:vitality
73:Protists
62:protists
38:Autogamy
1860:3898363
1840:Bibcode
1832:Science
1797:Ecology
1763:4730888
1742:Bibcode
1706:5821091
1634:Bibcode
1562:3324702
1493:Bibcode
1485:Science
1374:Ecology
1350:3652455
1254:Protist
1239:8127914
1207:Bibcode
1172:3091993
1117:Bibcode
1109:Science
895:1.5625
860:46.875
854:46.875
717:fitness
637:By the
435:alleles
429:become
368:meiosis
361:diploid
357:haploid
300:carpels
290:in the
258:haploid
185:ciliate
158:meiosis
150:asexual
107:gametic
50:gametes
48:of two
1858:
1817:177446
1815:
1770:
1760:
1713:
1703:
1664:
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1437:771357
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1394:177446
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1178:
1170:
1137:424739
1135:
1092:
876:3.125
841:43.75
835:43.75
379:genus
364:zygote
343:among
296:stamen
292:pollen
119:nuclei
46:fusion
1813:JSTOR
1691:(1).
1657:21905
1517:S2CID
1433:S2CID
1390:JSTOR
1230:43283
1176:S2CID
1090:S2CID
857:6.25
838:12.5
822:37.5
816:37.5
345:fungi
335:Fungi
288:sperm
1856:PMID
1785:Web.
1768:PMID
1711:PMID
1685:mBio
1662:PMID
1603:PMID
1558:PMID
1548:ISBN
1509:PMID
1425:PMID
1355:PMID
1270:PMID
1235:PMID
1168:PMID
1133:PMID
984:50.0
970:50.0
756:(%)
747:(%)
738:(%)
687:and
375:the
351:(in
1848:doi
1836:229
1805:doi
1758:PMC
1750:doi
1701:PMC
1693:doi
1652:PMC
1642:doi
1593:doi
1540:doi
1501:doi
1489:317
1464:doi
1417:doi
1382:doi
1345:PMC
1337:doi
1333:280
1297:doi
1262:doi
1258:167
1225:PMC
1215:doi
1160:doi
1156:204
1125:doi
1113:203
1082:doi
977:0.0
819:25
803:25
800:50
797:25
775:100
162:DNA
137:In
113:of
40:or
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1078:59
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743:Aa
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658:10
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228:,
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1162::
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1096:.
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961:F
945:9
942:F
926:8
923:F
907:7
904:F
888:6
885:F
869:5
866:F
850:4
847:F
831:3
828:F
812:2
809:F
793:1
790:F
782:–
768:–
762:P
710:)
698:a
695:a
675:A
672:A
645:F
622:a
619:a
616:1
596:a
593:A
590:2
570:A
567:A
564:1
551:1
538:F
516:a
513:A
493:a
490:A
470:)
467:P
464:(
34:.
20:)
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