Black Seminoles - Knowledge

1033: 48: 1271: 555:, a sort of porridge often used as a beverage, with water added— ashes from the fire wood used to cook the sofkee were occasionally added to it for extra flavor. They also introduced their Gullah staple of rice to the Seminole, and continued to use it as a basic part of their diets. Rice remained part of the diet of the black Seminoles who moved to Oklahoma. In addition, the language of the black Seminoles is a mix of African, Seminole, and Spanish words. The African heritage of the black Seminoles, according to academics, is from the 694:, who had a practice of chattel slavery. There was increasing pressure from both Creek and pro-Creek Seminole for the adoption of the Creek model of slavery for the Black Seminoles. Creek slavers and those from other Native groups, and whites, began raiding the Black Seminole settlements to kidnap and enslave people. The Seminole leadership would become headed by a pro-Creek faction who supported the institution of chattel slavery. These threats led to many Black Seminoles escaping to Mexico. 1208:, the federal registry established in the early 20th century. At the time, during rushed conditions, registrars had separate lists for Seminole-Indian and Freedmen. They classified those with visible African ancestry as Freedmen, regardless of their proportion of Native American ancestry or whether they were considered Native members of the tribe at the time. This excluded some black Seminole from being listed on the Seminole-Indian list who qualified by ancestry. 784:. Hundreds left in the early 1820s after the United States acquired the territory from Spain, effective 1821. Contemporary accounts noted a group of 120 migrating in 1821, and a much larger group of 300 African-American slaves escaping in 1823, picked up by Bahamians in 27 sloops and also by canoes. Their concern about living under American rule was not unwarranted. In 1821, Andrew Jackson became the territorial governor of Florida and ordered an attack on 7153: 1189:

standing. The Oklahoma and Florida groups were awarded portions of the judgement related to their respective populations in the early 20th century, when records were made of the mostly full-blood descendants of the time. The settlement apportionment was disputed in court cases between the Oklahoma and Florida tribes, but finally awarded in 1990, with three-quarters going to the Oklahoma people and one-quarter to those in Florida.

1382: 804: 519: 839:, played key roles. In addition to aiding the natives in their fight, black Seminoles recruited plantation slaves to rebellion at the start of the war. The slaves joined Native Americans and maroons in the destruction of 21 sugar plantations from Christmas Day, December 25, 1835, through the summer of 1836. Historians do not agree on whether these events should be considered a separate 3544: 1094:. The Army disbanded the unit in 1914. The veterans and their families settled in and around Brackettville, where scouts and family members were buried in its cemetery. The town remains the spiritual center of the Texas-based black Seminoles. In 1981, descendants at Brackettville and the Little River community of Oklahoma met for the first time in more than a century, in Texas for a 1212:

Department of Interior said that it would not recognize a Seminole government that did not have Seminole Freedmen participating as voters and on the council, as they had officially been members of the nation since 1866. In October 2000, the Seminole Nation filed its own suit against the Interior Department, contending it had the sovereign right to determine tribal membership. The

605:, so those born to ethnic African mothers would have been considered black by the Seminole. While the children might integrate customs from both parents' cultures, the Seminole believed they belonged to the mother's group more than the father's. African Americans adopted some elements of the European-American patriarchal system. But, under the South's adoption of the principle of 645:

wealth in cattle and crops. Most importantly, they bore arms for self-defense. Florida real estate records show that the Seminole and Black Seminole people owned large quantities of Florida land. In some cases, a portion of that Florida land is still owned by the Seminole and black Seminole descendants in Florida. In the 19th century, the Black Seminoles were called "Seminole

1243:(CDIB) is based on registration of ancestors in the Indian lists of the Dawes Rolls. Although the BIA could not issue CDIBs to the Seminole Freedmen, in 2003 the agency recognized them as members of the tribe and advised them of continuing benefits for which they were eligible. Journalists theorized the decision could affect the similar case in which the 499: 670: 1220:

that Freedmen retained membership and voting rights. The tribe however maintained a separate status for Freedmen and does not consider them full members, or members "by blood". In Oklahoma during 2006 and 2007, historian Ray Von Robertson conducted oral interviews with sixteen Black Seminoles who had

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The Dawes Rolls included in the Seminole-Indian list many Intermarried Whites who lived on Native American lands, but did not include blacks of the same status. The Seminole Freedmen believed the tribe's 21st-century decision to exclude them was racially based and has opposed it on those grounds. The

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Since the 1930s, the Seminole Freedmen have struggled with cycles of exclusion from the Seminole Tribe of Oklahoma. In 1990, the tribe received the majority of a $ 56 million judgment trust by the United States, for seizure of lands in Florida in 1823, and the Freedmen have worked to gain a share of

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In 1900, Seminole Freedmen numbered about 1,000 on the Oklahoma reservation, about one-third of the total population at the time. Members were registered on the Dawes Rolls for allocation of communal land to individual households. Since then, numerous Freedmen left after losing their land, as their

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After allotment, "reedmen, unlike their peers on the blood roll, were permitted to sell their land without clearing the transaction through the Indian Bureau. That made the poorly educated Freedmen easy marks for white settlers migrating from the Deep South." Numerous Seminole Freedmen lost their

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We found these negroes in possession of large fields of the finest land, producing large crops of corn, beans, melons, pumpkins, and other esculent vegetables.... I saw, while riding along the borders of the ponds, fine rice growing; and in the village large corn-cribs were filled, while the houses

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In exchange for paying an annual tribute of livestock, crops, hunting, and war party obligations, Black prisoners or fugitives found sanctuary among the Seminole. Seminoles, in turn, acquired an important strategic ally in a sparsely-populated region. They elected their own leaders, and could amass

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The black Seminole culture that took shape after 1800 was a dynamic mixture of African, Native American, Spanish, and slave traditions. Adopting certain practices of the Native Americans, maroons wore Seminole clothing and ate the same foodstuffs prepared the same way: they gathered the roots of a

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The judgement trust was based on the Seminole tribe as it existed in 1823. Black Seminoles were not recognized legally as part of the tribe, nor was their ownership or occupancy of land separately recognized. The US government at the time would have assumed most were fugitive slaves, without legal

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The traditional relationship between Seminole Blacks and natives changed in the course of the Second Seminole War when the old tribal system broke down and the Seminole resolved themselves into loose war bands living off the land with no distinction between tribal members and Black fugitives. That

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The land allotments and participation in Oklahoma society altered relations between the Seminole and Freedmen, particularly after the 1930s. Both peoples faced racial discrimination from whites in Oklahoma, who essentially divided society into two: white and "other". Public schools and facilities

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and some Seminole, whose allegiance to the blacks diminished after defeat by the US in the war. Officers of the federal army may have tried to protect the black Seminoles, but in 1848 the U.S. Attorney General bowed to pro-slavery lobbyists and ordered the army to disarm the community. This left

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In terms of spirituality, the ethnic groups remained distinct. Seminole historian Susan Miller explained that Black Seminoles did not participate in Seminole ceremonies such as the Seminole Busk ritual. Participation in spiritual practices required matrilineal descent within a Seminole clan. The

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Not all the slaves escaping south found military service in St. Augustine to their liking. More escaped slaves sought refuge in wilderness areas in northern Florida, where their knowledge of tropical agriculture—and resistance to tropical diseases—served them well. Most of the black people who

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However, the black Seminole descendants asserted their ancestors had also held and farmed land in Florida, and suffered property losses as a result of US actions. They filed suit in 1996 against the Department of Interior to share in the benefits of the judgement trust of the Seminole Nation of

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Historically, the Black Seminoles lived mostly in distinct bands near the Native American Seminoles. Some were held as slaves, particularly of Seminole leaders, but the Black Seminole had more freedom than did slaves held by whites in the South and by other Native American tribes, including the

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The name, as is well known, is applied by the Creeks to people who remove from populous towns and live by themselves, and it is commonly stated that the Seminole consisted of "runaways" and outlaws from the Creek Nation proper. A careful study of their history, however, shows this to be only a

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When the tribe reorganized under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, some Seminole wanted to exclude the Freedmen and keep the tribe as Native American only. It was not until the 1950s that the black Seminole were officially recognized in the constitution. Another was adopted in 1969, that

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full citizenship rights in the tribes if they chose to stay in Indian Territory. In the late nineteenth century, Seminole Freedmen thrived in towns near the Seminole communities on the reservation. Most had not been living as slaves to the Native Americans before the war. They lived —as their

439:(1775–83), escaping during the disruption of war. During the Revolution, the Seminole allied with the British, and African Americans and Seminole came into increased contact with each other. The Seminole held some slaves, as did the Creek and other Southeast Native American tribes. During the 619:

Historian Ray Von Robertson conducted oral interviews with sixteen Black Seminoles from 2006 and 2007 and found that Seminole cultural influences were incorporated into their daily lives in practices such as food ways, herbal medicine, and language. Black Seminoles cooked and ate fry bread,

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and Black people. Seminole practice in Florida had acknowledged slavery, though not on the chattel slavery model then common in the American south. It was, in fact, more like feudal dependency and taxation since African Americans among the Seminole generally lived in their own communities.

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obtained Seminole Freedman identification cards and found that Black Seminoles were disenfranchised, did not receive full acceptance in the Seminole Nation, and did not receive full benefits from the funds programs offered to the Seminole nation coming from the Bureau of Indian Affairs.

714:, and social structure. In general, the Black former-slaves never wholly adopted Seminole culture and beliefs but were accepted into Seminole society, as seen by the skin tone in the pictures of the early 1900s. They were not considered Native American by the middle of the 20th century. 792:, on the Manatee River. Raiders captured over 250 people, most of whom were sold into slavery. Some of the survivors fled to the Florida interior and others to Florida's east coast and escaped to the Bahamas. In the Bahamas, the black Seminoles developed a village known as Red Bays on 681:

Historians estimate that during the 1820s, 800 blacks were living with the Seminoles. The Black Seminole settlements were highly militarized, unlike the communities of most of the slaves in the Deep South. The military nature of the African and Seminole relationship led General

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of South Carolina (and later Georgia). As Gullah, they had developed an Afro-English based Creole, along with cultural practices and African leadership structure. The Gullah pioneers built their own settlements based on rice and corn agriculture. They became allies of

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visited the area, he referred to the Seminole as a distinct people. He believed their name was derived from the word "simanó-li", which according to John Reed Swanton, "is applied by the Creeks to people who remove from populous towns and live by themselves.".

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There have been "battles over tribal membership across the country, as gambling revenues and federal land payments have given Native Americans something to fight over." In 2000, Seminole Freedmen were in the national news because of a legal dispute with the

948:. Slave raiders from Texas continued to threaten the community but arms and reinforcements from the Mexican Army enabled the black warriors to defend their community. By the 1940s, descendants of the Mascogos numbered 400–500 in El Nacimiento de los Negros, 243:; the court ruled the Freedmen could not bring suit independently of the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, which refused to join on the claim issue. In 2000 the Seminole Nation voted to restrict membership to those who could prove descent from a Seminole on the 247:

of the early 20th century, which excluded about 1,200 Freedmen who were previously included as members. Excluded Freedmen argue that the Dawes Rolls were inaccurate and often classified persons with both Seminole and African ancestry as only Freedmen. The

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was among the black warriors who surrendered under this condition. Due to Seminole opposition, however, the Army did not fully follow through on its offer. After 1838, more than 500 black Seminoles traveled with the Seminoles thousands of miles to the

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from Bahamian officials (who freed them), the US consul in February 1834 was told by the Lieutenant Governor that "he was acting in regard to the slaves under an opinion of 1818 by Sir Christopher Robinson and Lord Gifford to the British Secretary of

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restructured the government according to more traditional Seminole lines. It established 14 town bands, of which two represented Freedmen. The two Freedmen's bands were given two seats each, like other bands, on the Seminole General Council.

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changed again in the new territory when the Seminole were obliged to settle on fixed lots of land and take up settled agriculture. Conflict arose in the territory because the transplanted Seminole had been placed on land allocated to the

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As time progressed, the Seminole and blacks had limited intermarriage, but historians and anthropologists have come to believe that generally the black Seminoles had independent communities. They allied with the Seminole at times of war.

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The status of black Seminoles and fugitive slaves was largely unsettled after they reached Indian Territory. The issue was compounded by the government's initially putting the Seminole and blacks under the administration of the

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After 1861, the black Seminoles in Mexico and Texas had little contact with those in Oklahoma. For the next 20 years, black Seminoles served as militiamen and Native American fighters in Mexico, where they became known as

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to which the Indians had no immunity, Florida's native population was quickly decimated. After the local Native Americans had all but died out, Spanish authorities encouraged Native Americans and refugee slaves from the

6532: 737:. Black Seminoles and Freedmen continued to speak Afro-Seminole Creole through the 19th century in Oklahoma. Hancock found that in 1978, some Black Seminole and Seminole elders still spoke it in Oklahoma and in Florida. 1008:

land in the early decades after allotment, and some moved to urban areas. Others left the state because of its conditions of racial segregation. As US citizens, they were exposed to the harsher racial laws of Oklahoma.

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Anticipating attempts to re-enslave more members of their community, black Seminoles opposed removal to the West. In councils before the war, they threw their support behind the most militant Seminole faction, led by

2500: 1000:, as did ethnic African leaders in other diaspora communities. In 1900 there were 1,000 Freedmen listed in the population of the Seminole Nation in Indian Territory, about one-third of the total. By the time of the 859:

in present-day Oklahoma; some traveled by ship across the Gulf of Mexico and up the Mississippi River. Because of harsh conditions, many of both peoples died along this trail from Florida to Oklahoma, also known as

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of 1850, even if the mother escaped to a free state, she and her children were legally considered slaves and fugitives. As a result, the black Seminoles born to slave mothers were always at risk from slave raiders.

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The ethnonym is of Muskogee origin: simanoli (earlier simaloni, surviving in some dialects) means "wild, runaway," as applied to animals and plants. It was originally borrowed by Muskogee from the Spanish word

874:, many of whom were slaveholders. The Creek tried to re-enslave some of the fugitive black slaves. John Horse and others set up towns, generally near Seminole settlements, repeating their pattern from Florida. 6537: 4943: 4872: 745:

After winning independence in the Revolution, American slaveholders were increasingly worried about the armed black communities in Florida. The territory was ruled again by Spain, as Britain had ceded both

769:, which had become a black Seminole stronghold after the British had allowed them to occupy it when they evacuated Florida. Breaking up the maroon communities was one of Jackson's major objectives in the 1011:

Since 1954, the Freedmen have been included in the constitution of the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma. They have two bands, each representing more than one town and named for 19th-century band leaders: the

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Initially living apart from the Native Americans, the maroons developed their own unique African-American culture, based in the Gullah culture of the Lowcountry. Black Seminoles inclined toward a

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held the black Seminoles could not share in services to be provided by a $ 56 million federal settlement, a judgement trust, originally awarded in 1976 to the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma and the

443:, members of both communities sided with the British against the US in the hopes of repelling American settlers; they strengthened their internal ties and earned the enmity of American general 1197:; the court ruled the Freedmen could not bring suit independently of the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, which refused to join. As a sovereign nation, they could not be ordered to join the suit. 1181:(and other Florida Seminoles) by the federal government. The settlement was in compensation for land taken from them in northern Florida by the United States at the time of the signing of the 4800: 2411: 1213: 249: 3087: 4750: 1303:

Red Bays, Andros, the historic settlement of black Seminoles in the Bahamas, and Nacimiento, Mexico are being recognized as related international sites on the Network to Freedom Trail.

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to move to their territory. The Spanish hoped that the increased number of inhabitants of Spanish Florida would be effective defense in case of potential raids by American colonists.

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Under pressure, the Native American and black communities moved into south and central Florida. Slaves and black Seminoles frequently migrated down the peninsula to escape from

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or Mikasuki-speaking Seminole. The Native Americans used them as translators to advance their trading with the British and other tribes. Together, in Florida, they developed

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their slaves, and to give the Seminole Freedmen full citizenship and voting rights. The BIA stopped federal funding for a time for services and programs to the Seminole.

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The Exiles of Florida, or, crimes committed by our government against maroons, who fled from South Carolina and other slave states, seeking protection under Spanish laws

502: 1145:. In 1833 Britain abolished slavery throughout its Empire. They have been sometimes referred to as "African Indians or Black Indians", in recognition of their history. 6515: 5100: 4765: 3966: 3948: 3236:

Baram, Uzi. "Cosmopolitan Meanings of Old Spanish Fields: Historical Archaeology of a Maroon Community in Southwest Florida" Historical Archaeology 46(1):108-122. 2012

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Uzi Baram. (2012) Cosmopolitan Meanings of Old Spanish Fields: Historical Archaeology of a Maroon Community in Southwest Florida" Historical Archaeology 46(1):108-122

3069: 7063: 6303: 435:. Communities of black Seminoles were established on the outskirts of major Seminole towns. A new influx of freedom-seeking black people reached Florida during the 7425: 7132: 7107: 7117: 7112: 6044: 5041: 4250: 4029: 5492: 1522: 819:(1835–42) marked the height of tension between the U.S. and the Seminoles, and also the historical peak of the African-Seminole alliance. Under the policy of 6833: 6669: 6378: 6368: 6026: 6016: 5095: 5088: 5025: 4988: 4877: 4240: 2955: 1185:

in 1823, when most of the Seminole and maroons were moved to a reservation in the center of the territory. This was before removal west of the Mississippi.

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Throughout the period, several hundred black Seminoles remained in the Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma). Because most of the Seminole and the other

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supported the Confederacy during the American Civil War, in 1866 the US required new peace treaties with them. The US required the tribes emancipate any

219:. Its two Freedmen's bands, the Caesar Bruner Band and the Dosar Barkus Band, are represented on the General Council of the Nation. Other centers are in 4225: 7351: 6754: 6258: 5367: 5123: 5105: 4086: 1387: 686:, who visited several flourishing black Seminole settlements in the 1800s, to describe the African Americans as "vassals and allies" of the Seminole. 7392: 7102: 6732: 6253: 5475: 5307: 3886: 2571: 1232:. They noted that the treaty was made with a tribe that included black as well as white and brown members. The treaty had required the Seminole to 7068: 7028: 6870: 6774: 6703: 6308: 4220: 796:, where basket making and certain grave rituals associated with Seminole traditions are still practiced. Federal construction and staffing of the 1200:

In another aspect of the dispute over citizenship, in the summer of 2000 the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma voted to restrict members, according to

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covers the several towns located north of the river. Each of the bands elects two representatives to the General Council of the Seminole Nation.

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tried to divide the black and Seminole warriors by offering freedom to the blacks if they surrendered and agreed to removal to Indian Territory.

3534: 2600: 7127: 7122: 7090: 6860: 6764: 6727: 6508: 4963: 3684: 2733: 2443: 2182: 1366: 5269: 5264: 2934: 204:. Many have Seminole lineage, but due to the stigma of having mixed origin, they have all been categorized as slaves or Freedmen in the past. 7085: 7043: 6855: 5403: 5149: 4983: 4810: 4755: 4718: 4657: 4245: 4019: 3957: 2555: 2528: 2354: 2304: 2277: 2250: 2223: 2138: 1995: 1797: 1564: 1240: 1228:

held that the exclusion of Black Seminoles constituted a violation of the Seminole Nation's 1866 treaty with the United States following the

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in the 17th century and incorporated into slavery law in slave states, children of slave mothers were considered legally slaves. Under the

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land sales were not overseen by the Indian Bureau. Others left because of having to deal with the harshly segregated society of Oklahoma.

590:" to celebrate marriage, hailed from the plantations; other customs, such as some names used for black towns, reflected African heritage. 3294: 7008: 6845: 6815: 6597: 6176: 5388: 5083: 4825: 3676: 1293:

commemorates the site where hundreds of African Americans escaped to freedom in the Bahamas in the early 1820s, as part of the National

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Network to Freedom Trail sign commemorating hundreds of black Seminoles who escaped from Cape Florida in the early 1820s to the Bahamas.

3533: 6998: 6892: 6808: 6652: 6433: 6233: 5384: 5362: 5020: 5000: 4846: 4841: 4081: 3659: 1400: 1290: 265: 2982: 7440: 7190: 7145: 5535: 5186: 5061: 5015: 4770: 4121: 4106: 2165: 919:, who led the expedition. The Mexican government welcomed the Seminole allies as border guards on the frontier, and they settled at 601:

kinship system, in which inheritance and descent went through the maternal line. Children were considered to belong to the mother's

340: 1204:, to those who had one-eighth Seminole ancestry, basically those who could document descent from a Seminole ancestor listed on the 1004:, there were numerous female-headed households registered. The Freedmen's towns were made up of large, closely connected families. 2847: 2068: 1258:

announced that Seminole Nation Freedmen are eligible for health care, after months of reports that the tribe was denying Freedmen

1141:, in 1818 Britain declared that African slaves or slaves who arrived in the Bahamas from outside the British West Indies would be 7361: 7073: 7038: 7023: 6781: 6383: 5627: 5597: 5413: 5142: 5118: 4958: 4126: 3893: 3446: 2155: 1496:"The History of the Black Seminoles The community's resilient history speaks of repeated invasions and resistance to enslavement" 827:. During the year before the war, prominent white citizens captured and claimed as fugitive slaves at least 100 black Seminoles. 1114:: one-quarter Seminole ancestry. About 50 black Seminoles, all of whom have at least one-quarter Seminole ancestry, live on the 7080: 7003: 6798: 6674: 6642: 6373: 6238: 5943: 5582: 5046: 3934: 3880: 2903: 2636: 304:

seeking freedom. Over centuries, the Africans in the Lowcountry and Sea Islands gradually formed what has become known as the

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19th-century engraving of a Black Seminole warrior - often believed to be John Horse - of the First Seminole War. (1817–1818)

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Massacre of the Whites by the Native Americans and blacks in Florida, engraving by D.F. Blanchard for an 1836 account of the

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The Shorter Oxford Dictionary explains maroon 'fugitive negro slave' as from 'Fr. marron, said to be a corruption of Sp.

989:, the community founded in 1849 by John Horse as a black settlement. Today it is the capital of the federally recognized 7356: 6710: 6686: 6681: 6664: 6632: 6575: 5688: 5637: 5470: 4713: 4436: 4152: 1193:

Oklahoma, of which they were members. In 1999, the Seminole Freedmen's suit against the government was dismissed in the

197: 823:, the US wanted to relocate Florida's 4,000 Seminole people and most of their 800 black Seminole allies to the western 6975: 6967: 6910: 6825: 6313: 6218: 6074: 6056: 5958: 5617: 5587: 5312: 5232: 5211: 4805: 4142: 3689: 3239:

Baram, Uzi. "Many Histories by the Manatee Mineral Spring". Time Sifters Archaeological Society Newsletter March 2014.

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and other Native Americans escaping into Florida from the Southeast at the same time. In Florida, they developed the

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In the west, the black Seminoles were still threatened by slave raiders. These included pro-slavery members of the

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hundreds of Seminoles and black Seminoles unable to leave the settlement or to defend themselves against slavers.

6902: 6715: 6547: 6108: 5607: 5445: 5252: 4667: 4390: 4091: 3694: 3568: 1178: 1107: 755: 297: 1118:, a 50-acre parcel taken in trust in 1995 by the Department of Interior for the Tribe as its sixth reservation. 7420: 7250: 6592: 6156: 6069: 5713: 5502: 5317: 5257: 5247: 5173: 4978: 4820: 4740: 4725: 4516: 3915: 3549: 2294: 1225: 1182: 956:

tribe. They had a thriving agricultural community. By the 1990s, most of the descendants had moved into Texas.

364: 312: 277: 2321: 3617: 636:) and the Seminole were in regular contact in Florida, where they evolved a system of relations unique among 6925: 6475: 6129: 6098: 5878: 5818: 5683: 5426: 4915: 4851: 4641: 4512: 4402: 4235: 4230: 4210: 4167: 4034: 3722: 3712: 2412:"Seeking Acceptance: Are the Black Seminoles Native Americans? Sylvia Davis v. the United States of America" 1133:

to go to the British colony for sanctuary from American enslavement. After banning its participation in the

1115: 1056: 797: 607: 7183: 6840: 3595: 3500:, Austin: University of Texas African and Afro-American Studies and Research Center, Series 2, No. 3, 1980. 3434:, Austin: University of Texas African and Afro-American Studies and Research Center, Series 2, No. 1, 1980. 405:

on the border of Virginia and North Carolina, on colonial islands of the Caribbean, and other parts of the

7435: 6570: 5808: 5602: 5592: 5530: 5340: 5279: 4735: 4677: 4618: 4613: 3737: 3652: 1581: 1079:. The scouts became famous for their tracking abilities and feats of endurance. Four men were awarded the 669: 470:, and formed communities. Their community evolved over the late 18th and early 19th centuries as waves of 356: 316: 4382: 3601: 3000: 2604: 2579: 2094: 6915: 6428: 6293: 6248: 6064: 5783: 5748: 5567: 5550: 5357: 5274: 4623: 4608: 4603: 4215: 4175: 4138: 4039: 4009: 3732: 3727: 3580: 2906:

Negro Comrades of the Crown: African Americans and the British Empire Fight the U.S. Before Emancipation

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Kashif, Annette. "Africanisms Upon the Land: A Study of African Influenced Placenames of the USA", In

7303: 7157: 6565: 6328: 6139: 6091: 5963: 5853: 5758: 5525: 5515: 5487: 5352: 5206: 4538: 4343: 4303: 4265: 4096: 3864: 3818: 3760: 3717: 3576: 3564: 1395: 1294: 1138: 1134: 1091: 902: 730: 512: 475: 349: 328: 108: 2737: 2440: 1902:"The USF Africana Heritage Project: Black Seminoles, Maroons and Freedom Seekers in Florida, Part 1" 280:. However, due to a combination of raids by South Carolinan colonists and newly introduced European 6945: 6940: 6298: 6213: 5693: 5482: 5372: 5302: 4889: 4593: 4450: 4367: 4278: 4205: 3823: 3791: 3704: 3623: 2634:

Howard, Rosalyn. (2006) "The 'Wild Indians' of Andros Island: Black Seminole Legacy in the Bahamas"

1334:, leader at the time of removal, founder of Wewoka, and co-leader of 1849 escape to northern Mexico 1319: 920: 847: 816: 436: 432: 360: 3035:"A Pan-Africanist Analysis of Black Seminole Perceptions of Racism, Discrimination, and Exclusion" 3034: 1768: 1313: 1021: 1013: 264:

The Spanish strategy for defending their claim of Florida at first was based on forcing the local

7387: 7258: 7013: 6950: 6693: 6151: 5918: 5898: 5803: 5728: 5555: 5460: 5450: 5438: 5329: 5226: 5201: 4884: 4775: 4730: 4697: 4496: 4377: 4147: 4116: 3999: 3377:, 1822. Intro. George E. Buker. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1973, available online. 3331:

Freedom on the Border: The Seminole Maroons in Florida, the Indian Territory, Coahuila, and Texas

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Kashif, Annette. "Africanisms Upon the Land: A Study of African Influenced Placenames of the USA"

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form of Christianity developed during the plantation years. Certain cultural practices, such as "

564: 371:, as it was lightly settled. Many slaves sought refuge near growing Native American settlements. 209: 31: 4508: 3627: 3607: 2789: 2190: 1556: 1170:, of which they had been legal members since 1866, over membership and rights within the tribe. 1129:

in an Area called Red Bay. A few hundred refugees had left in the early nineteenth century from

454:

Native Americans. Over time the Creek were joined by other remnant groups of Southeast American

2346: 428:, Spain (or Spanish America) probably gave the word directly to England (or English America)." 7341: 7322: 7288: 6460: 6181: 5843: 5813: 5408: 5165: 4662: 4428: 4394: 3770: 3765: 3742: 3645: 3291: 2551: 2545: 2524: 2518: 2350: 2300: 2273: 2267: 2246: 2240: 2219: 2161: 2134: 2128: 2032: 1991: 1793: 1560: 1495: 1259: 1248: 1072: 1068: 1037: 726: 587: 544: 388: 368: 286: 269: 128: 2213: 1985: 1889:, Spain (or Spanish America) probably gave the word directly to England (or English America). 1300:

A sign at the Manatee Mineral Spring marks the location where traces of Angola were uncovered

7235: 7176: 6616: 6587: 6582: 6480: 6448: 6421: 6146: 5763: 5733: 5723: 5718: 5285: 4973: 4910: 4905: 4525: 4372: 4323: 4066: 4014: 3910: 3170:

History of the Second Seminole War 1835-1842 (Revised Edition). University of Florida Press.

2882: 2020: 1848: 1352: 1251:

as members unless they could document a direct Native American ancestor on the Dawes Rolls.

1076: 1064: 986: 931: 856: 824: 683: 451: 345: 177: 112: 104: 2889:, Gales & Seaton, 1837, p. 251-253. Note: In trying to retrieve African slaves off the 2183:"Slavery and Native Americans in British North America and the United States: 1600 to 1865" 754:. The US slaveholders sought the capture and return of Florida's black fugitives under the 7430: 7375: 6611: 6348: 6343: 6124: 6079: 5933: 5923: 5903: 5888: 5788: 5663: 5653: 5292: 4534: 4520: 4466: 4004: 3989: 3298: 2986: 2640: 2447: 1122: 964: 953: 945: 889: 840: 793: 785: 722: 718: 397: 375: 301: 201: 4318: 3585: 3484:, Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981/1991, University of Illinois Press. 1090:

After the close of the Texas Indian Wars, the scouts remained stationed at Fort Clark in

660:

Lieutenant George McCall recorded his impressions of a Black Seminole community in 1826:

2979: 1960: 1909: 1762: 843:; generally they view the attacks on the sugar plantations as part of the Seminole War. 315:, the black refugees received liberty in exchange for defending the Spanish settlers at 7283: 7048: 6453: 6416: 6406: 6166: 6161: 6103: 5938: 5868: 5798: 5793: 5297: 5221: 4948: 4598: 4293: 4288: 4190: 4061: 4056: 3859: 3828: 2339: 1549: 1325: 1080: 820: 762: 707: 576: 568: 531: 444: 431:

Florida had been a refuge for fugitive slaves for at least 70 years by the time of the

156: 3457: 239:

it. In 1999, the Seminole Freedmen's suit against the government was dismissed in the

7414: 7278: 7268: 6006: 5988: 5978: 5948: 5893: 5848: 5833: 5778: 5768: 5753: 5703: 5698: 5668: 5465: 5393: 5216: 4759: 4578: 4416: 4398: 4386: 4363: 4308: 4180: 4111: 3994: 3974: 3854: 3633:"Tragedy and Survival: Virtual Landscapes of 19th Century Florida Gulf Coast Maroons" 3371: 3347:. Eds Thomas Senter and Alcione Amos. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1996. 2040: 1420: 1358: 1201: 1111: 808: 560: 124: 87: 1106:

Afro Seminole descendants continue to live in Florida today. They can enroll in the

6318: 6086: 6011: 5983: 5968: 5953: 5908: 5883: 5863: 5773: 5743: 5738: 5708: 5658: 5510: 5196: 4558: 4500: 3979: 3471: 2633: 2024: 1337: 1322:, band leader from Reconstruction through statehood, namesake for contemporary band 1130: 925: 871: 835:. After war broke out, individual black leaders, such as John Caesar, Abraham, and 803: 777: 751: 747: 703: 699: 556: 487: 471: 3416:

Hancock, Ian F. "A Provisional Comparison of the English-based Atlantic Creoles",

3190:

Harvest of Barren Regrets: The Army Career of Frederick William Benteen 1834–1898.

6274:

Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)

3532: 3487: 3478: 1055:

In 1870, the U.S. Army invited black Seminoles to return from Mexico to serve as

215:

Today, Black Seminole descendants live primarily in rural communities around the

17: 6338: 6323: 6171: 6134: 5973: 5928: 5913: 5678: 5673: 5520: 4692: 4583: 4548: 4432: 4424: 4420: 4412: 4358: 4348: 4313: 4298: 4273: 4195: 4076: 3833: 1410: 1362: 1205: 1142: 1001: 781: 734: 691: 598: 518: 440: 401:. This was used to describe the runaway slave communities of Florida and of the 244: 228: 3403:

Creeks and Seminoles: The Destruction and Regeneration of the Muscogulge People

2381:"Black Seminole Ethnogenisis: Origins, Cultural Characteristics, and Alliances" 1465:"Prejudice and the Estelusti: A Qualitative Examination of Contemporary Status" 996:

Following the Civil War, some Freedmen's leaders in Indian Territory practiced

761:

Wanting to disrupt Florida's maroon communities after the War of 1812, General

665:

were larger and more comfortable than those of the Native Americans themselves.

7313: 5873: 5858: 5828: 5823: 5572: 5540: 5379: 5347: 4856: 4553: 4543: 4530: 4492: 4488: 4458: 4407: 4283: 2380: 1686:"The long fight for Freedmen citizenship continues in Oklahoma tribal nations" 1377: 1348: 1331: 1233: 1095: 908: 851: 836: 766: 583: 483: 459: 193: 3632: 1877:'fugitive slave' (1701, in Furetiere). If there is a connection between Eng. 1723:

The Gullah: Rice, Slavery, and the Sierra Leone-American Connection – Website

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documented about fifteen words spoken by black Seminoles that came from the

563:, and other African ethnic groups. African American linguist and historian, 548: 406: 152: 3223:

Akil II, Bakari. "Seminoles With African Ancestry: The Right To Heritage",

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3384:. Eds Eleanor B. Leacock and Nancy O. Lurie. New York: Random House, 1971. 3374:

Notices of East Florida: with an account of the Seminole nation of Indians

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Bill Drummond, "Indian Land Claims Unsettled 150 Years After Jackson Wars"

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Rice and Slaves: Ethnicity and the Slave Trade in Colonial South Carolina

3001:"Estelusti Marginality: A Qualitative Examination of the Black Seminole" 2095:"Estelusti Marginality: A Qualitative Examination of the Black Seminole" 1316:, band leader from 1892 through allotment, namesake for contemporary band 1084: 997: 981: 949: 940: 883: 656:

Under the comparatively free conditions, the Black Seminoles flourished.

384: 189: 181: 148: 92: 74: 3338:

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3303:

Places of Cultural Memory: African Reflections on the American Landscape

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Places of Cultural Memory: African Reflections on the American Landscape

1726: 1464: 725:. That enabled them to communicate better with Anglo-Americans than the 7199: 5577: 4454: 4255: 4185: 3808: 1658: 1126: 911:

and about 180 black Seminoles staged a mass escape in 1849 to northern

832: 657: 539: 479: 463: 320: 281: 273: 220: 185: 78: 6209:

Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)

3552:

was created from a revision of this article dated 8 May 2008

1860: 6411: 3183:

Treaties and Other International Acts of the United States of America

1355:

and became a Black Seminole Indian Scout and Medal of Honor Recipient

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Amos, Alcione M. (2011). "Black Seminoles: The Gullah Connections".

788:, a village built by black Seminoles and other free blacks south of 3389:

The Black Seminole Legacy and Northern American Politics, 1693–1845

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2838:"On Fort Pierce Reservation, black Seminoles complain of isolation" 1852: 1121:

Descendants of Afro Seminoles, who identify as Bahamian, reside on

7263: 6224:

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

6223: 4873:

List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations

4801:

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

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Goggin, John M. "The Seminole Negroes of Andros Island, Bahamas."

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at the site of the first free black community in the United States

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Cultivating Race: The Expansion of Slavery in Georgia, 1750-1860

602: 308:

culture of the coastal Southeast, with its own Creole language.

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system. The Native Americans in the missions were to serve as a

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Bird, J.B (2005). "The Largest Slave Rebellion in U.S. History"

3197:

Official Opinions of the Attorneys General of the United States

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4148:

Native American rights movement/Red Power movement (1968-1977)

2547:

African Founders: How Enslaved People Expanded American Ideals

572: 30:"Black Seminole" redirects here. For the Lil Yachty song, see 571:. Other African words spoken by black Seminoles are from the 522:

Abraham, a black Seminole leader, from N. Orr's engraving in

367:. The area remained a sanctuary for fugitive slaves from the 4025:

Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas

3530: 3070:

Monica Keen, "Seminole Outcome May Affect Cherokee Freedmen"

907:

Facing the threat of enslavement, the black Seminole leader

800:

in 1825 reduced the number of slave escapes from this site.

733:, identified in 1978 as a distinct language by the linguist 675:

Lithographs of Events in the Seminole War in Florida in 1835

192:. They are mostly blood descendants of the Seminole people, 3637: 2822: 2820: 2269:

The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas

551:, as well as mashing corn with a mortar and pestle to make 276:

to protect the colony from incursions from the neighboring

7168: 3503:——— "Seminole-African Relations on the Florida Frontier", 2461:

Treaties and Other International Acts of the United States

1589:

The Gullah: Rice, Slavery, and the Sierre Leone Connection

632:

By the early 19th century, maroons (free Black people and

2989:, Indianz.com, January 29, 2001, accessed April 11, 2013. 2266:

Bruce G. Trigger; Wilcomb E. Washburn (13 October 1996).

4751:

Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States

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The Black Seminole Legacy and Northern American Politics

1725:. Yale University, Gilder Lehrman Center. Archived from 3423:——— "Gullah and Barbadian: Origins and Relationships." 3340:, Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007. 3326:. 1967. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1985. 2507:, National Park Service, 2010, accessed April 10, 2013. 706:

brought with them from the plantations and developed a

524:

The Origin, Progress, and Conclusion of the Florida War

3260:. PhD. Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1935. 1764:

Early History of the Creek Indians and Their Neighbors

1365:- Medal of Honor recipients for their service in the 758:, the first treaty ratified under the Confederation. 698:

Seminole followed the nativistic principles of their

256:

that Freedmen retained membership and voting rights.

3490:

Africans and Seminoles: From Removal to Emancipation

1719:"Black Seminoles – Gullahs Who Escaped From Slavery" 1195:

United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit

395:, supposedly the source as well of the English word 352:, which they spoke with the growing Seminole tribe. 327:, founded in 1738, was the first legally sanctioned 319:. The Spanish organized the black volunteers into a 241:

United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit

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at the outset of the Second Seminole War (1835–42).

653:("black People"), by their Native American allies. 138: 118: 98: 67: 57: 3213:. 7 vols. Washington: Gales and Seaton, 1832–1860. 3140:. Charles Young Buffalo Soldiers National Monument 3114:Mulroney (2007), "Seminole Freedmen", pp. 269-271. 2338: 1582:"Black Seminoles—Gullahs Who Escaped From Slavery" 1548: 1416:List of topics related to black and African people 543:, grinding, soaking, and straining them to make a 3361:. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000. 3206:. Vol 4. Washington: Gales and Seaton, 1832–1860. 1328:, one of the first black American military pilots 1067:unit despite the name) played a lead role in the 673:"An Indigenous town, residence of a chief", from 412:But linguist Leo Spitzer, writing in the journal 52:An Afro-Seminole elder smoking from a pipe (1952) 6259:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) 5101:List of Indian reservations in the United States 4766:Native American recognition in the United States 3602:Seminole and black Seminole genealogical records 3382:North American Indians in Historical Perspective 3366:It's Not Funny: Various Aspects of Black History 3305:. Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, 2001. 2909:, New York University (NYU) Press, 2012, p. 103. 2239:Philip Deloria; Neal Salisbury (15 April 2008). 2057:, Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, 2001. 1351:was born in 1843 to Black Seminole parents near 702:. Black enslaved people had a syncretic form of 6304:Black players in professional American football 6254:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) 3596:Bill Hubbard, "Story of Freedman Caesar Bruner" 3507:(University of Oklahoma), 22 (1) (1981), 11–52. 3319:. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1977. 416:, says, "If there is a connection between Eng. 4826:The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC) 3598:, c. 1958, Seminole Nation of Oklahoma website 3405:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986. 3380:Sturtevant, William C. "Creek into Seminole." 3088:"Many Histories by the Manatee Mineral Spring" 2523:. Univ. of Tennessee Press. pp. 222–223. 2160:. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott. p. 160. 1847:(2). Linguistic Society of America": 145–147. 944:, derived from the tribal name of the Creek – 7184: 5150: 4251:Native American identity in the United States 3942: 3653: 3590:Rebellion: John Horse and the black Seminoles 3368:Charlotte PA: Lemieux Press Publishers, 2005. 3333:. Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press, 1993. 3324:History of the Second Seminole War, 1835–1842 3312:. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999. 3286:"Seminole Freedmen rebuffed by Supreme Court" 3253:. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1934. 3123:Mulroney (2007), "Seminole Freedmen", p. 271. 2133:. University Press of Kentucky. p. 132. 482:under pressure from white settlement and the 8: 6017:Historically black colleges and universities 5096:State-recognized tribes in the United States 4878:Modern social statistics of Native Americans 3391:. Washington: Howard University Press, 1999. 3233:. 13 vols. Washington: B. Homans, 1835–1842. 3076:, November 4, 2003, accessed April 10, 2013. 2970:, October 20, 1978, accessed April 13, 2013. 2930: 2928: 2926: 2924: 2692:97, 111–123, United States Attorney General 2218:. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 25. 490:, the Native Americans formed the Seminole. 40: 3456:. No. 2. pp. 12–5. Archived from 3178:. Philadelphia: Lippincott & Co., 1868. 2326:. Oklahoma Historical Society. p. 522. 2272:. Cambridge University Press. p. 525. 2245:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 348–349. 1767:. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 1750:, p. 25, citing Royal Decree of Charles II. 1214:District Court for the District of Columbia 903:Underground Railroad § South to Mexico 250:District Court for the District of Columbia 7191: 7177: 7169: 6286: 5157: 5143: 5135: 4072:Native Americans in the American Civil War 3949: 3935: 3927: 3850:Indigenous people of the Everglades region 3660: 3646: 3638: 3441:, Gainesville: University of Florida, 2002 3281:. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980. 1523:"The Black Maroons of Florida (1693-1850)" 46: 39: 6234:National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC) 5079:Native American Medal of Honor recipients 4087:Cultural assimilation of Native Americans 3396:Ranald S. Mackenzie on the Texas Frontier 2883:Appendix: "Brigs Encomium and Enterprise" 2296:Westward Expansion in America (1803-1860) 1786:William C. Sturtevant (1 November 1987). 1681: 1679: 1677: 1388:Indigenous peoples of the Americas portal 1110:if they meet its membership criteria for 710:that was expressed in writing, language, 4437:Post 1887 Apache Wars period (1887–1924) 3887:Oklahoma Tax Commission v. United States 3560:, and does not reflect subsequent edits. 3543: 3498:A Brief History of the Seminole Freedmen 3493:, University of Mississippi Press, 1977. 3204:American State Papers: Foreign Relations 2951: 2949: 2947: 2550:. Simon and Schuster. pp. 699–700. 2345:. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 2069:"Native Americans and African Americans" 1839:Leo Spitzer (1938). "Spanish cimarrón". 1712: 1710: 1708: 1706: 1704: 1702: 1700: 1698: 1648: 1646: 1555:. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 359:signed in 1763 at the conclusion of the 3258:Negro-Indian Relations in the Southeast 3211:American State Papers: Military Affairs 3199:. Washington: United States, 1852–1870. 3065: 3063: 2067:Garrison, Timothy Alan; Haefeli, Evan. 1984:Joy Sheffield Harris (7 October 2014). 1437: 1149:Seminole Freedmen exclusion controversy 1083:, three for an 1875 action against the 7133:Topics related to the African diaspora 6239:National Council of Negro Women (NCNW) 3685:Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida 3432:The Texas Seminoles and their Language 3279:The Texas Seminoles and Their Language 2496: 2494: 2492: 2479:American State Papers: Foreign Affairs 2242:A Companion to American Indian History 2127:Watson W. Jennison (18 January 2012). 2073:Oxford African American Studies Center 1954: 1952: 1616:African Diaspora Archeology Newsletter 1610:Howard, Rosalyn; Hahn, Steven (2005). 1071:of the 1870s, when they were based at 649:" by their white American enemies and 374:In 1773, when the American naturalist 7113:Landmark African-American legislation 4811:National Congress of American Indians 4756:Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women 4719:National Congress of American Indians 4658:American Indian Religious Freedom Act 4246:Native American disease and epidemics 4020:European colonization of the Americas 2672:Race Relations in Territorial Florida 2572:"Excavators seeking freedom pioneers" 1990:. The History Press. pp. 60–62. 1241:Certificate of Degree of Indian Blood 1218:Seminole Nation of Oklahoma v. Norton 677:, published by Gray and James in 1837 254:Seminole Nation of Oklahoma v. Norton 200:, who allied with Seminole groups in 7: 6244:National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) 4816:National Indian Youth Council (NIYC) 4673:Native American people and Mormonism 4517:Northern Cheyenne Exodus (1878-1879) 2603:. Looking for Angola. Archived from 2501:"Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park" 1873:is attested earlier (1666) than Fr. 1036:Seminole Chief, Seminole Camp, near 985:descendants still do— in and around 597:The Seminole society was based on a 579:, and other West African languages. 68:Regions with significant populations 6598:African-American Vernacular English 5084:List of federally recognized tribes 2941:, January 29, 2001, April 11, 2013. 1469:Journal of African American Studies 952:, inhabiting lands adjacent to the 363:, Spanish Florida was ceded to the 6516:U.S. cities with large populations 6219:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) 4847:Indigenous peoples of the Americas 4842:Black Indians in the United States 4806:Native American Rights Fund (NARF) 4082:Certificate Degree of Indian Blood 3628:History of Central Florida Podcast 3352:The Negro on the American Frontier 3095:Origin.library.constantcontact.com 3042:The Journal of Pan African Studies 3008:The Journal of Pan African Studies 2102:The Journal of Pan African Studies 1822:History of the Second Seminole War 1401:Black Indians in the United States 1291:Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park 25: 7426:African–Native American relations 5389:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013 5385:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009 5192:African American founding fathers 4771:Native American women in politics 4122:Native Americans and World War II 4107:Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 3195:United States. Attorney-General. 2718:Foster 42–43; Mulroy 58; Porter, 339:people who escaped from the rice 7151: 6269:United Negro College Fund (UNCF) 5414:Nadir of American race relations 4403:Buffalo Hunters' War (1876–1877) 4391:Antelope Hills expedition (1858) 4127:American Indian boarding schools 3894:Seminole Nation v. United States 3542: 3310:Black Society in Spanish Florida 3185:. 2 vols. Washington: GPO, 1931. 2836:Mike Clary (November 26, 2007). 2780:Mulroy (2007), Seminole Freedmen 2341:The Seminole Freedmen: A History 2299:. Palm & Enke. p. 147. 2215:The Seminole Freedmen: A History 2212:Kevin Mulroy (18 January 2016). 1748:Black Society in Spanish Florida 1612:"Black Seminoles in the Bahamas" 1551:The Seminole Freedmen: A History 1380: 5275:Civil rights movement 1954–1968 5265:Civil rights movement 1865–1896 4821:Women of All Red Nations (WARN) 3267:. Columbus, Ohio: Follet, 1858. 2980:"Race part of Seminole dispute" 2887:Register of Debates in Congress 2544:Fischer, David Hackett (2022). 2320:James Shannon Buchanan (1955). 1654:"DAVIS v. UNITED STATES (1999)" 1444:Mahon p. 21, 60, and continuous 717:Most Black former-slaves spoke 638:North American Native Americans 172:, are an ethnic group of mixed 6264:Thurgood Marshall College Fund 5270:Civil right movement 1896–1954 4921:Native American Pidgin English 4726:American Indian Movement (AIM) 4102:Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 3985:Archaic period in the Americas 3454:South Florida History Magazine 3439:black Seminoles in the Bahamas 2870:The Seminoles of Andros Island 2647:, Vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 275–298. 2033:10.5816/blackscholar.41.1.0032 2025:10.5816/blackscholar.41.1.0032 1774:partial statement of the case. 1: 6444:Cherokee freedmen controversy 5420:The Negro Motorist Green Book 4619:Battle of Kelley Creek (1911) 4395:Comanche Campaign (1867–1875) 4383:Texas–Indian wars (1836–1877) 3354:. New York: Arno Press, 1971. 3246:73.3 (January 1995): 287–307. 3192:University of Nebraska Press. 1280:Fort Mose Historic State Park 1254:In October 2021, the federal 1045: 511:WIKITONGUES- Bertha speaking 450:Spain had given land to some 7347:British and French Caribbean 4714:Native American civil rights 4624:Battle of Bear Valley (1918) 4609:Crazy Snake Rebellion (1909) 4604:Battle of Sugar Point (1898) 4526:Rogue River Wars (1855–1856) 4153:Native American civil rights 3577:Black Seminole Indian Scouts 3418:Sierra Leone Language Review 3315:Littlefield, Daniel F., Jr. 3272:Florida Historical Quarterly 3244:Florida Historical Quarterly 2181:Tony Seybert (13 May 2008). 6314:Black players in ice hockey 6249:National Urban League (NUL) 6075:American Society of Muslims 5313:Selma to Montgomery marches 5233:Brown v. Board of Education 5067:Native American politicians 5057:Native American War Leaders 4535:Puget Sound War (1855–1856) 4521:Ghost Dance War (1890–1891) 4513:Great Sioux War (1876–1877) 4509:Red Cloud's War (1866–1868) 4493:First Sioux War (1854-1856) 4421:Chiricahua Wars (1860–1886) 4143:Native American Rights Fund 3690:Seminole Nation of Oklahoma 3677:Federally recognized tribes 3488:Littlefield, Daniel F. Jr. 3033:Robertson, Ray Von (2011). 2999:Robertson, Ray Von (2008). 2826:Mulroy (2004), pp. 472-473. 2093:Robertson, Ray Von (2008). 1809:which has the same meaning. 1640:Mulroy (2004), pp. 474-475. 1463:Robertson, Ray Van (2008). 1245:Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma 1216:ruled in September 2002 in 1175:Seminole Nation of Oklahoma 1168:Seminole Nation of Oklahoma 1059:for the United States. The 1016:band covers towns south of 991:Seminole Nation of Oklahoma 217:Seminole Nation of Oklahoma 180:origin associated with the 7457: 7352:Spanish New World colonies 6471:Great Dismal Swamp maroons 6229:Nashville Student Movement 5240:Children of the plantation 4746:Occupation of Wounded Knee 4463:Black Hawk War (1865–1872) 4451:Battle at Fort Utah (1850) 4433:Geronimo's War (1881–1886) 4429:Victorio's War (1879–1880) 4334:American Revolutionary War 3188:Mills, Charles K. (2011). 3181:Miller, David Hunter, ed. 3176:Letters From the Frontiers 2985:November 11, 2013, at the 2843:South Florida Sun-Sentinel 2796:, Vol. 13.09, August 2005. 2416:American Indian Law Review 2157:Letters from the Frontiers 2154:McCall, George A. (1868). 1869:, wild, untamed'. But Eng. 1761:John Reed Swanton (1922). 1284:National Historic Landmark 1158:were racially segregated. 900: 881: 628:African-Seminole relations 529: 526:(1848) by John T. Sprague. 29: 7141: 7108:Index of related articles 6289: 6109:Doctrine of Father Divine 5493:Women's suffrage movement 5446:Reconstruction Amendments 5253:Voting Rights Act of 1965 5114: 4928:Native American languages 4668:Native American religions 4417:Jicarilla War (1849–1855) 4399:Red River War (1874–1875) 4387:Comanche Wars (1836–1877) 4092:Indian Appropriations Act 3695:Seminole Tribe of Florida 3350:Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. 3343:Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. 3251:The Five Civilized Tribes 3209:United States. Congress. 3202:United States. Congress. 2966:News Service, printed in 2702:The Five Civilized Tribes 1297:Network to Freedom Trail. 1179:Seminole Tribe of Florida 1108:Seminole Tribe of Florida 1098:reunion and celebration. 960:Indian Territory/Oklahoma 756:Treaty of New York (1790) 298:South Carolina Lowcountry 143: 123: 103: 72: 62: 45: 7441:Fugitive American slaves 7158:United States portal 6593:African-American English 6022:Inventors and scientists 5714:George Washington Carver 5318:Chicago Freedom Movement 4741:Trail of Broken Treaties 4569:Hualapai War (1865–1870) 4559:Yavapai Wars (1861–1875) 4539:Coeur d'Alene War (1858) 4501:Colorado War (1863–1865) 3916:Miccosukee Indian School 2872:, pp. 201–6, Mulroy, 26. 2645:Journal of Black Studies 2517:Delle, James A. (2015). 2369:Littlefield 1977, p. 103 2293:Wolfgang Binder (1987). 1965:Handbook of Texas Online 1961:"Black Seminole Indians" 1792:. Garland. p. 105. 1226:Bureau of Indian Affairs 1183:Treaty of Moultrie Creek 721:, an Afro-English-based 365:Kingdom of Great Britain 313:King Charles II of Spain 311:Under a 1693 edict from 278:colony of South Carolina 7081:African-American firsts 6130:Back-to-Africa movement 6099:Black Hebrew Israelites 5879:Adam Clayton Powell Jr. 5427:Partus sequitur ventrem 4916:American Indian English 4852:Louisiana Creole people 4642:Native American studies 4594:Bannock Uprising (1895) 4549:Navajo Wars (1849–1866) 4505:Powder River War (1865) 4413:Apache Wars (1849–1924) 4231:Mesoamerican literature 4226:Indigenous Peoples' Day 4035:Partus sequitur ventrem 3479:Littlefield, Daniel C. 3427:, 55 (1) (1980), 17–35. 3401:Wright, J. Leitch, Jr. 3231:Army and Navy Chronicle 3168:Mahon, John K. (1967). 2968:Sarasota Herald-Tribune 2446:August 4, 2004, at the 2410:Melaku, Martha (2002). 2379:Dixon, Anthony (2020). 2019:(1): 33–34, 35, 38–44. 1826:Notices of East Florida 1308:Notable black Seminoles 1116:Fort Pierce Reservation 798:Cape Florida Lighthouse 684:Edmund Pendleton Gaines 624:, and grape dumplings. 608:partus sequitur ventrem 335:pioneered Florida were 331:town in North America. 7398:Quilombola territories 7393:Quilombola communities 7049:Spingarn Medal winners 6538:States and territories 6309:Black NFL quarterbacks 5809:Martin Luther King Jr. 5341:Dred Scott v. Sandford 5280:Montgomery bus boycott 4736:Occupation of Alcatraz 4678:Native American church 4544:Mohave War (1858–1859) 4531:Yakima War (1855–1858) 4489:Sioux Wars (1854–1891) 4467:White River War (1879) 4455:Walker War (1853–1854) 4339:Cherokee–American wars 3538: 3518:Listen to this article 3505:Papers in Anthropology 3447:"Blacks and Seminoles" 3387:Twyman, Bruce Edward. 3357:Rivers, Larry Eugene. 3317:Africans and Seminoles 3274:24 (July 1946): 201–6. 2918:Mulroy (2004), p. 473. 2771:Mulroy (2004), p. 471. 2706:Africans and Seminoles 2485:2: 114–6, Mahon 65–66. 2323:Chronicles of Oklahoma 1275: 1052: 969: 878:In the West and Mexico 846:By 1838, U.S. General 812: 678: 667: 527: 515: 391:from the Spanish word 323:; their settlement at 6359:Athletic associations 6294:Negro league baseball 6065:African-American Jews 5784:Ketanji Brown Jackson 5749:Henry Highland Garnet 5608:Negro National Anthem 5358:George Floyd protests 5323:Post–civil rights era 4599:Yaqui Uprising (1896) 4574:Modoc War (1872–1873) 4564:Snake War (1864–1869) 4479:Bluff Skirmish (1921) 4475:Bluff War (1914–1915) 4425:Tonto War (1871–1875) 4176:Mississippian culture 4139:Civil rights movement 4040:Five Civilized Tribes 3581:National Park Service 3537: 3445:Klos, George (1991). 3364:Schneider, Pamela S. 3225:The Black World Today 3138:National Park Service 3074:Sequoyah County Times 2757:Mulroy 56–73, Porter 2656:Mahon 69–134; Porter 2520:The Limits of Tyranny 2450:, Slavery in America. 2337:Kevin Mulroy (2007). 1944:Freedom on the Border 1789:A Seminole sourcebook 1547:Kevin Mulroy (2007). 1406:Black Seminole Scouts 1273: 1256:Indian Health Service 1061:black Seminole Scouts 1035: 974:Five Civilized Tribes 967: 806: 672: 662: 521: 510: 381:William C. Sturtevant 196:, and escaped former 139:Related ethnic groups 6566:Afro-Seminole Creole 6092:Azusa Street Revival 5964:Booker T. Washington 5488:Underground Railroad 5353:Free people of color 5207:Atlantic slave trade 4614:Last Massacre (1911) 4579:Nez Perce War (1877) 4447:Ute Wars (1850–1923) 4344:Northwest Indian War 4097:Racial Integrity Act 3865:Green Corn Rebellion 3819:Four Mothers Society 3787:Ah-Tah-Thi-Ki Museum 3761:Afro-Seminole Creole 3569:More spoken articles 3284:Indianz.com (2004). 3263:Giddings, Joshua R. 3227:, December 27, 2003. 2734:"Slavery in America" 2696:4: 720–29, Giddings 2601:"Looking for Angola" 2187:slaveryinamerica.org 1959:Tracé Etienne-Gray. 1931:Creeks and Seminoles 1906:Africanaheritage.com 1662:. September 21, 1999 1396:Afro-Seminole Creole 1295:Underground Railroad 1135:Atlantic slave trade 1092:Brackettville, Texas 731:Afro-Seminole Creole 537:native plant called 513:Afro-Seminole Creole 350:Afro-Seminole Creole 109:Afro-Seminole Creole 7338:History of slavery 6961:Trinidad and Tobago 6576:Black American Sign 6403:By African descent 6397:Ethnic subdivisions 6384:Southwestern (SWAC) 6299:Baseball color line 6214:Black Panther Party 6118:Political movements 6035:in computer science 5694:Carol Moseley Braun 5483:Tulsa race massacre 5476:Treatment of slaves 5308:March on Washington 5303:Birmingham movement 4890:Reservation poverty 4835:Ethnic subdivisions 4707:Political movements 4368:Second Seminole War 4279:Anglo-Powhatan Wars 3824:Green Corn Ceremony 3792:Alligator wrestling 3437:Howard, Rosalyn A. 2811:Ranald S. Mackenzie 2483:Army-Navy Chronicle 1820:Wright, 106, Mahon 1102:Florida and Bahamas 897:Migration to Mexico 848:Thomas Sydney Jesup 817:Second Seminole War 708:Pan-African culture 437:American Revolution 433:American Revolution 42: 7388:Haitian Revolution 7229:Great Dismal Swamp 7059:US representatives 7054:US cabinet members 6946:Dominican Republic 6533:Metropolitan areas 6374:Mid-Eastern (MEAC) 6199:Civic and economic 6177:Self-determination 5998:Education, science 5919:Fred Shuttlesworth 5899:A. Philip Randolph 5804:Coretta Scott King 5729:Frederick Douglass 5556:Harlem Renaissance 5461:Separate but equal 5451:Reconstruction era 5439:Plessy v. Ferguson 5330:Cornerstone Speech 5244:Civil Rights Acts 5227:Black Lives Matter 5202:American Civil War 4791:Civic and economic 4776:Tribal sovereignty 4731:Red Power Movement 4698:Longhouse Religion 4633:Education, science 4584:Bannock War (1878) 4378:American Civil War 4329:Lord Dunmore's War 4117:Blood quantum laws 4000:Post-Classic stage 3604:, Freepages GenWeb 3539: 3372:Simmons, William. 3359:Slavery in Florida 3297:2014-09-10 at the 3256:Foster, Laurence. 3174:McCall, George A. 2676:Slavery in Florida 2639:2015-11-05 at the 2505:Network to Freedom 1344:Sergeant John Ward 1276: 1230:American Civil War 1075:, the home of the 1053: 980:and extend to the 970: 863:The Trail of Tears 813: 771:First Seminole War 679: 613:Fugitive Slave Law 565:Lorenzo Dow Turner 528: 516: 486:. By a process of 403:Great Dismal Swamp 292:As early as 1689, 210:right to bear arms 32:The Black Seminole 7408: 7407: 7166: 7165: 6994:African Americans 6866:Dallas–Fort Worth 6461:Black Southerners 6392: 6391: 5844:Thurgood Marshall 5814:Bernard Lafayette 5409:Million Man March 5166:African Americans 5132: 5131: 4663:Eagle feather law 4554:Paiute War (1860) 4497:Dakota War (1862) 4459:Tintic War (1856) 4373:Osage Indian War 4304:King Philip's War 3924: 3923: 3771:Muscogee language 3766:Mikasuki language 3535: 3496:Opala, Joseph A. 3420:, 8 (1969), 7=72. 3394:Wallace, Ernest. 3218:Secondary sources 2809:175–216, Wallace 2704:257, Littlefield 2698:Exiles of Florida 2694:Official Opinions 2557:978-1-9821-4509-5 2530:978-1-62190-087-0 2356:978-0-8061-3865-7 2306:978-3-7896-0171-2 2279:978-0-521-57392-4 2252:978-1-4051-4378-3 2225:978-0-8061-5588-3 2140:978-0-8131-4021-6 2013:The Black Scholar 1997:978-1-62585-187-1 1799:978-0-8240-5885-2 1717:Joseph A. Opala. 1591:. Yale University 1566:978-0-8061-3865-7 1521:Alexander, Otis. 1266:Legacy and honors 1260:COVID-19 vaccines 1249:Cherokee Freedmen 1073:Fort Clark, Texas 1069:Texas-Indian Wars 588:jumping the broom 508: 474:left present-day 369:Southern colonies 294:enslaved Africans 287:Southern colonies 252:however ruled in 162: 161: 129:Roman Catholicism 18:Seminole Freedmen 16:(Redirected from 7448: 7367:colonial history 7193: 7186: 7179: 7170: 7156: 7155: 7154: 7118:Lynching victims 6617:Louisiana Creole 6588:American English 6476:Louisiana Creole 6449:Choctaw freedmen 6287: 5824:Huddie Ledbetter 5764:Fannie Lou Hamer 5734:W. E. B. Du Bois 5724:Claudette Colvin 5719:Shirley Chisholm 5536:Family structure 5404:Military history 5286:Browder v. Gayle 5159: 5152: 5145: 5136: 5042:Native Americans 4911:American English 4484:Posey War (1923) 4201:Iroquois culture 4067:Indian Territory 4015:Age of Discovery 3951: 3944: 3937: 3928: 3911:Ahfachkee School 3874:Politics and law 3662: 3655: 3648: 3639: 3559: 3557: 3546: 3545: 3536: 3526: 3524: 3519: 3475: 3469: 3468: 3462: 3451: 3288:, June 29, 2004. 3277:Hancock, Ian F. 3249:Foreman, Grant. 3150: 3149: 3147: 3145: 3130: 3124: 3121: 3115: 3112: 3106: 3105: 3103: 3101: 3092: 3083: 3077: 3067: 3058: 3057: 3055: 3053: 3039: 3030: 3024: 3023: 3021: 3019: 3005: 2996: 2990: 2977: 2971: 2953: 2942: 2932: 2919: 2916: 2910: 2901: 2895: 2880: 2874: 2866: 2860: 2859: 2857: 2855: 2846:. Archived from 2833: 2827: 2824: 2815: 2803: 2797: 2787: 2781: 2778: 2772: 2769: 2763: 2755: 2749: 2748: 2746: 2745: 2736:. Archived from 2730: 2724: 2716: 2710: 2700:327–28, Foreman 2686: 2680: 2668: 2662: 2654: 2648: 2631: 2625: 2622: 2616: 2615: 2613: 2612: 2597: 2591: 2590: 2588: 2587: 2578:. Archived from 2568: 2562: 2561: 2541: 2535: 2534: 2514: 2508: 2498: 2487: 2475: 2469: 2463:2: 344, Twyman, 2457: 2451: 2438: 2432: 2431: 2429: 2427: 2407: 2401: 2400: 2398: 2396: 2376: 2370: 2367: 2361: 2360: 2344: 2334: 2328: 2327: 2317: 2311: 2310: 2290: 2284: 2283: 2263: 2257: 2256: 2236: 2230: 2229: 2209: 2203: 2202: 2200: 2198: 2193:on June 17, 2012 2189:. Archived from 2178: 2172: 2171: 2151: 2145: 2144: 2124: 2118: 2117: 2115: 2113: 2099: 2090: 2084: 2083: 2081: 2079: 2064: 2058: 2051: 2045: 2044: 2008: 2002: 2001: 1981: 1975: 1974: 1972: 1971: 1956: 1947: 1940: 1934: 1927: 1921: 1920: 1918: 1917: 1908:. Archived from 1898: 1892: 1891: 1836: 1830: 1818: 1812: 1811: 1783: 1777: 1776: 1758: 1752: 1744: 1738: 1737: 1735: 1734: 1714: 1693: 1683: 1672: 1671: 1669: 1667: 1650: 1641: 1638: 1632: 1631: 1629: 1627: 1607: 1601: 1600: 1598: 1596: 1586: 1577: 1571: 1570: 1554: 1544: 1538: 1537: 1535: 1533: 1518: 1512: 1511: 1509: 1507: 1494:Gershon, Livia. 1491: 1485: 1484: 1482: 1480: 1460: 1454: 1453:Mills p. 331-332 1451: 1445: 1442: 1390: 1385: 1384: 1383: 1353:Alachua, Florida 1289:A large sign at 1282:in Florida is a 1077:Buffalo Soldiers 1065:African American 1050: 1047: 987:Wewoka, Oklahoma 929: 857:Indian Territory 825:Indian Territory 569:Kikongo language 509: 456:Native Americans 452:Muscogee (Creek) 387:was borrowed by 361:Seven Years' War 58:Total population 50: 43: 21: 7456: 7455: 7451: 7450: 7449: 7447: 7446: 7445: 7421:Black Seminoles 7411: 7410: 7409: 7404: 7376:Slave rebellion 7327: 7217:Black Seminoles 7202: 7197: 7167: 7162: 7152: 7150: 7137: 7103:Historic places 7096:US state firsts 6982: 6897: 6621: 6554: 6526:2010 majorities 6521:2000 majorities 6492: 6439:Black Seminoles 6388: 6379:Southern (SIAC) 6362: 6361:and conferences 6360: 6353: 6349:Serena Williams 6344:Jackie Robinson 6278: 6202: 6200: 6193: 6113: 6080:Nation of Islam 6051: 5999: 5993: 5934:Sojourner Truth 5924:Clarence Thomas 5889:Gabriel Prosser 5789:Michael Jackson 5664:Crispus Attucks 5654:Ralph Abernathy 5642: 5598:Musical theater 5497: 5363:Great Migration 5335:COVID-19 impact 5293:Sit-in movement 5168: 5163: 5133: 5128: 5110: 5030: 4932: 4894: 4861: 4830: 4794: 4792: 4785: 4702: 4646: 4634: 4628: 4589:Crow War (1887) 4260: 4186:Hohokam culture 4162: 4005:Woodland period 3990:Formative stage 3961: 3958:Native American 3955: 3925: 3920: 3899: 3869: 3838: 3797:Black Seminoles 3775: 3747: 3699: 3671: 3666: 3618:"black Indians" 3573: 3572: 3561: 3555: 3553: 3550:This audio file 3547: 3540: 3531: 3528: 3522: 3521: 3517: 3514: 3466: 3464: 3460: 3449: 3444: 3425:American Speech 3413: 3411:Further reading 3408: 3336:Mulroy, Kevin. 3329:Mulroy, Kevin. 3322:Mahon, John K. 3308:Landers, Jane. 3299:Wayback Machine 3220: 3165: 3163:Primary sources 3159: 3154: 3153: 3143: 3141: 3132: 3131: 3127: 3122: 3118: 3113: 3109: 3099: 3097: 3090: 3085: 3084: 3080: 3068: 3061: 3051: 3049: 3037: 3032: 3031: 3027: 3017: 3015: 3003: 2998: 2997: 2993: 2987:Wayback Machine 2978: 2974: 2964:Washington Post 2954: 2945: 2933: 2922: 2917: 2913: 2902: 2898: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2867: 2863: 2853: 2851: 2850:on May 26, 2013 2835: 2834: 2830: 2825: 2818: 2814: 2804: 2800: 2788: 2784: 2779: 2775: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2756: 2752: 2743: 2741: 2732: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2674:, 304; Rivers, 2669: 2665: 2661: 2655: 2651: 2641:Wayback Machine 2632: 2628: 2623: 2619: 2610: 2608: 2599: 2598: 2594: 2585: 2583: 2570: 2569: 2565: 2558: 2543: 2542: 2538: 2531: 2516: 2515: 2511: 2499: 2490: 2486: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2458: 2454: 2448:Wayback Machine 2439: 2435: 2425: 2423: 2409: 2408: 2404: 2394: 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905: 899: 886: 880: 841:slave rebellion 743: 723:creole language 634:freedom seekers 630: 534: 498: 496: 376:William Bartram 357:Treaty of Paris 302:Spanish Florida 262: 231:, and northern 202:Spanish Florida 174:Native American 166:Black Seminoles 90: 85: 73:United States: 53: 38: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7454: 7452: 7444: 7443: 7438: 7433: 7428: 7423: 7413: 7412: 7406: 7405: 7403: 7402: 7401: 7400: 7390: 7385: 7384: 7383: 7373: 7372: 7371: 7370: 7369: 7364: 7354: 7349: 7344: 7335: 7333: 7332:Related topics 7329: 7328: 7326: 7325: 7320: 7319: 7318: 7317: 7316: 7306: 7301: 7293: 7292: 7291: 7286: 7281: 7276: 7271: 7266: 7261: 7253: 7248: 7247: 7246: 7238: 7233: 7232: 7231: 7226: 7225: 7224: 7213:United States 7210: 7208: 7204: 7203: 7198: 7196: 7195: 7188: 7181: 7173: 7164: 7163: 7161: 7160: 7148: 7142: 7139: 7138: 7136: 7135: 7130: 7125: 7120: 7115: 7110: 7105: 7100: 7099: 7098: 7093: 7088: 7078: 7077: 7076: 7071: 7069:Visual artists 7066: 7061: 7056: 7051: 7046: 7041: 7036: 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6446: 6441: 6431: 6429:Alabama Creole 6426: 6425: 6424: 6419: 6414: 6409: 6400: 6398: 6394: 6393: 6390: 6389: 6387: 6386: 6381: 6376: 6371: 6369:Central (CIAA) 6365: 6363: 6358: 6355: 6354: 6352: 6351: 6346: 6341: 6336: 6331: 6326: 6321: 6316: 6311: 6306: 6301: 6296: 6290: 6284: 6280: 6279: 6277: 6276: 6271: 6266: 6261: 6256: 6251: 6246: 6241: 6236: 6231: 6226: 6221: 6216: 6211: 6205: 6203: 6198: 6195: 6194: 6192: 6191: 6186: 6185: 6184: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6162:Pan-Africanism 6159: 6154: 6149: 6144: 6143: 6142: 6132: 6127: 6121: 6119: 6115: 6114: 6112: 6111: 6106: 6104:Black theology 6101: 6096: 6095: 6094: 6084: 6083: 6082: 6077: 6067: 6061: 6059: 6053: 6052: 6050: 6049: 6048: 6047: 6045:in STEM fields 6042: 6037: 6029: 6024: 6019: 6014: 6009: 6003: 6001: 6000:and technology 5995: 5994: 5992: 5991: 5986: 5981: 5976: 5971: 5966: 5961: 5956: 5951: 5946: 5941: 5939:Harriet Tubman 5936: 5931: 5926: 5921: 5916: 5911: 5906: 5901: 5896: 5891: 5886: 5881: 5876: 5871: 5869:Michelle Obama 5866: 5861: 5856: 5851: 5846: 5841: 5836: 5831: 5826: 5821: 5816: 5811: 5806: 5801: 5799:Barbara Jordan 5796: 5794:Harriet Jacobs 5791: 5786: 5781: 5776: 5771: 5766: 5761: 5756: 5751: 5746: 5741: 5736: 5731: 5726: 5721: 5716: 5711: 5706: 5701: 5696: 5691: 5686: 5684:Amelia Boynton 5681: 5676: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5656: 5650: 5648: 5647:Notable people 5644: 5643: 5641: 5640: 5635: 5630: 5625: 5620: 5615: 5610: 5605: 5600: 5595: 5590: 5585: 5583:LGBT community 5580: 5575: 5570: 5565: 5564: 5563: 5553: 5548: 5543: 5538: 5533: 5528: 5523: 5518: 5513: 5507: 5505: 5499: 5498: 5496: 5495: 5490: 5485: 5480: 5479: 5478: 5468: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5435: 5430: 5423: 5416: 5411: 5406: 5401: 5396: 5391: 5382: 5377: 5376: 5375: 5370: 5360: 5355: 5350: 5345: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5326: 5325: 5320: 5315: 5310: 5305: 5300: 5298:Freedom Riders 5295: 5290: 5282: 5272: 5267: 5262: 5261: 5260: 5255: 5250: 5242: 5237: 5229: 5224: 5222:Black genocide 5219: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5184: 5178: 5176: 5170: 5169: 5164: 5162: 5161: 5154: 5147: 5139: 5130: 5129: 5127: 5126: 5121: 5115: 5112: 5111: 5109: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5093: 5092: 5091: 5081: 5076: 5075: 5074: 5069: 5064: 5059: 5054: 5049: 5038: 5036: 5032: 5031: 5029: 5028: 5023: 5018: 5013: 5008: 5006:North Carolina 5003: 4998: 4993: 4992: 4991: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4951: 4946: 4940: 4938: 4934: 4933: 4931: 4930: 4925: 4924: 4923: 4918: 4913: 4902: 4900: 4896: 4895: 4893: 4892: 4887: 4882: 4881: 4880: 4869: 4867: 4863: 4862: 4860: 4859: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4838: 4836: 4832: 4831: 4829: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4808: 4803: 4797: 4795: 4790: 4787: 4786: 4784: 4783: 4778: 4773: 4768: 4763: 4753: 4748: 4743: 4738: 4733: 4728: 4723: 4722: 4721: 4710: 4708: 4704: 4703: 4701: 4700: 4695: 4690: 4685: 4680: 4675: 4670: 4665: 4660: 4654: 4652: 4648: 4647: 4645: 4644: 4638: 4636: 4635:and technology 4630: 4629: 4627: 4626: 4621: 4616: 4611: 4606: 4601: 4596: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4576: 4571: 4566: 4561: 4556: 4551: 4546: 4541: 4528: 4523: 4486: 4481: 4471:Ute War (1887) 4444: 4439: 4410: 4405: 4380: 4375: 4370: 4361: 4356: 4351: 4346: 4341: 4336: 4331: 4326: 4321: 4316: 4311: 4306: 4301: 4296: 4294:Peach Tree War 4291: 4286: 4281: 4276: 4270: 4268: 4262: 4261: 4259: 4258: 4253: 4248: 4243: 4238: 4233: 4228: 4223: 4218: 4213: 4208: 4203: 4198: 4193: 4191:Plains Indians 4188: 4183: 4178: 4172: 4170: 4164: 4163: 4161: 4160: 4158:Discrimination 4155: 4150: 4145: 4136: 4135: 4134: 4124: 4119: 4114: 4109: 4104: 4099: 4094: 4089: 4084: 4079: 4074: 4069: 4064: 4062:Trail of Tears 4059: 4057:Indian removal 4054: 4053: 4052: 4042: 4037: 4032: 4027: 4022: 4017: 4012: 4007: 4002: 3997: 3992: 3987: 3982: 3977: 3971: 3969: 3963: 3962: 3956: 3954: 3953: 3946: 3939: 3931: 3922: 3921: 3919: 3918: 3913: 3907: 3905: 3901: 3900: 3898: 3897: 3890: 3883: 3881:List of chiefs 3877: 3875: 3871: 3870: 3868: 3867: 3862: 3860:Trail of Tears 3857: 3852: 3846: 3844: 3840: 3839: 3837: 3836: 3831: 3829:Seminole music 3826: 3821: 3816: 3811: 3806: 3805: 3804: 3794: 3789: 3783: 3781: 3777: 3776: 3774: 3773: 3768: 3763: 3757: 3755: 3749: 3748: 3746: 3745: 3740: 3735: 3730: 3725: 3720: 3715: 3709: 3707: 3701: 3700: 3698: 3697: 3692: 3687: 3681: 3679: 3673: 3672: 3667: 3665: 3664: 3657: 3650: 3642: 3636: 3635: 3630: 3621: 3615: 3612:Wired Magazine 3605: 3599: 3593: 3583: 3562: 3548: 3541: 3529: 3516: 3515: 3513: 3512:External links 3510: 3509: 3508: 3501: 3494: 3485: 3476: 3442: 3435: 3428: 3421: 3412: 3409: 3407: 3406: 3399: 3392: 3385: 3378: 3369: 3362: 3355: 3348: 3341: 3334: 3327: 3320: 3313: 3306: 3289: 3282: 3275: 3268: 3261: 3254: 3247: 3240: 3237: 3234: 3228: 3219: 3216: 3215: 3214: 3207: 3200: 3193: 3186: 3179: 3172: 3164: 3161: 3160: 3158: 3155: 3152: 3151: 3125: 3116: 3107: 3078: 3059: 3025: 3014:(4): 60, 65–69 2991: 2972: 2943: 2939:New York Times 2920: 2911: 2904:Gerald Horne, 2896: 2875: 2861: 2828: 2816: 2798: 2794:Wired Magazine 2782: 2773: 2764: 2750: 2725: 2711: 2681: 2663: 2649: 2626: 2617: 2592: 2576:St. Pete Times 2563: 2556: 2536: 2529: 2509: 2488: 2477:United States 2470: 2452: 2433: 2402: 2371: 2362: 2355: 2329: 2312: 2305: 2285: 2278: 2258: 2251: 2231: 2224: 2204: 2173: 2166: 2146: 2139: 2119: 2085: 2059: 2046: 2003: 1996: 1976: 1948: 1935: 1922: 1893: 1853:10.2307/408879 1831: 1813: 1798: 1778: 1753: 1739: 1694: 1692:, 4 March 2022 1673: 1642: 1633: 1602: 1572: 1565: 1539: 1513: 1486: 1455: 1446: 1436: 1435: 1433: 1430: 1429: 1428: 1423: 1418: 1413: 1408: 1403: 1398: 1392: 1391: 1375: 1372: 1371: 1370: 1356: 1346: 1341: 1340:, horsebreaker 1335: 1329: 1326:Eugene Bullard 1323: 1317: 1309: 1306: 1305: 1304: 1301: 1298: 1287: 1267: 1264: 1150: 1147: 1103: 1100: 1081:Medal of Honor 1029: 1026: 961: 958: 898: 895: 879: 876: 821:Indian removal 763:Andrew Jackson 742: 739: 629: 626: 532:Seminole music 495: 492: 458:, such as the 445:Andrew Jackson 355:Following the 296:fled from the 261: 258: 170:Afro-Seminoles 160: 159: 157:Creek Freedmen 141: 140: 136: 135: 131:and syncretic 121: 120: 116: 115: 101: 100: 96: 95: 70: 69: 65: 64: 60: 59: 55: 54: 51: 41:Black Seminole 36: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7453: 7442: 7439: 7437: 7436:Seminole Wars 7434: 7432: 7429: 7427: 7424: 7422: 7419: 7418: 7416: 7399: 7396: 7395: 7394: 7391: 7389: 7386: 7382: 7381:United States 7379: 7378: 7377: 7374: 7368: 7365: 7363: 7360: 7359: 7358: 7357:United States 7355: 7353: 7350: 7348: 7345: 7343: 7340: 7339: 7337: 7336: 7334: 7330: 7324: 7321: 7315: 7312: 7311: 7310: 7307: 7305: 7302: 7300: 7297: 7296: 7294: 7290: 7287: 7285: 7282: 7280: 7277: 7275: 7272: 7270: 7267: 7265: 7262: 7260: 7257: 7256: 7254: 7252: 7249: 7245: 7242: 7241: 7239: 7237: 7234: 7230: 7227: 7223: 7220: 7219: 7218: 7215: 7214: 7212: 7211: 7209: 7207:Ethnic groups 7205: 7201: 7194: 7189: 7187: 7182: 7180: 7175: 7174: 7171: 7159: 7149: 7147: 7144: 7143: 7140: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7128:Neighborhoods 7126: 7124: 7121: 7119: 7116: 7114: 7111: 7109: 7106: 7104: 7101: 7097: 7094: 7092: 7091:Sports firsts 7089: 7087: 7084: 7083: 7082: 7079: 7075: 7072: 7070: 7067: 7065: 7062: 7060: 7057: 7055: 7052: 7050: 7047: 7045: 7042: 7040: 7037: 7035: 7032: 7030: 7027: 7025: 7022: 7020: 7017: 7015: 7012: 7010: 7007: 7005: 7002: 7000: 6997: 6996: 6995: 6992: 6991: 6989: 6985: 6977: 6974: 6973: 6971: 6969: 6966: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6954: 6952: 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6938: 6936: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6913: 6912: 6909: 6908: 6906: 6904: 6900: 6894: 6893:West Virginia 6891: 6889: 6886: 6884: 6881: 6877: 6874: 6872: 6869: 6867: 6864: 6862: 6859: 6858: 6857: 6854: 6852: 6849: 6847: 6844: 6842: 6839: 6835: 6832: 6831: 6830:Pennsylvania 6829: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6817: 6814: 6810: 6809:New York City 6807: 6806: 6805: 6802: 6800: 6797: 6793: 6790: 6789: 6788: 6785: 6783: 6780: 6776: 6773: 6772: 6770: 6766: 6763: 6762: 6760: 6756: 6753: 6752: 6751: 6748: 6746: 6743: 6739: 6736: 6735: 6734: 6731: 6729: 6726: 6722: 6719: 6718: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6709: 6705: 6702: 6701: 6700: 6697: 6695: 6692: 6688: 6685: 6684: 6683: 6680: 6676: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6667: 6666: 6663: 6661: 6658: 6654: 6653:San Francisco 6651: 6649: 6646: 6645: 6644: 6641: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6631: 6630: 6628: 6626:By state/city 6624: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6610: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6595: 6594: 6591: 6589: 6586: 6585: 6584: 6581: 6577: 6574: 6573: 6572: 6571:American Sign 6569: 6567: 6564: 6563: 6561: 6557: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6541: 6540: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6527: 6524: 6522: 6519: 6518: 6517: 6514: 6510: 6507: 6506: 6505: 6504:Neighborhoods 6502: 6501: 6499: 6495: 6489: 6486: 6482: 6479: 6478: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6459: 6455: 6452: 6450: 6447: 6445: 6442: 6440: 6437: 6436: 6435: 6434:Black Indians 6432: 6430: 6427: 6423: 6420: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6405: 6404: 6402: 6401: 6399: 6395: 6385: 6382: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6372: 6370: 6367: 6366: 6364: 6356: 6350: 6347: 6345: 6342: 6340: 6337: 6335: 6332: 6330: 6327: 6325: 6322: 6320: 6317: 6315: 6312: 6310: 6307: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6297: 6295: 6292: 6291: 6288: 6285: 6281: 6275: 6272: 6270: 6267: 6265: 6262: 6260: 6257: 6255: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6245: 6242: 6240: 6237: 6235: 6232: 6230: 6227: 6225: 6222: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6212: 6210: 6207: 6206: 6204: 6196: 6190: 6187: 6183: 6180: 6179: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6160: 6158: 6155: 6153: 6150: 6148: 6145: 6141: 6138: 6137: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6122: 6120: 6116: 6110: 6107: 6105: 6102: 6100: 6097: 6093: 6090: 6089: 6088: 6085: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6072: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6063: 6062: 6060: 6058: 6054: 6046: 6043: 6041: 6038: 6036: 6033: 6032: 6030: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6013: 6012:Black schools 6010: 6008: 6007:Black studies 6005: 6004: 6002: 5996: 5990: 5989:Whitney Young 5987: 5985: 5982: 5980: 5979:Oprah Winfrey 5977: 5975: 5972: 5970: 5967: 5965: 5962: 5960: 5957: 5955: 5952: 5950: 5949:Denmark Vesey 5947: 5945: 5942: 5940: 5937: 5935: 5932: 5930: 5927: 5925: 5922: 5920: 5917: 5915: 5912: 5910: 5907: 5905: 5902: 5900: 5897: 5895: 5894:Joseph Rainey 5892: 5890: 5887: 5885: 5882: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5849:Toni Morrison 5847: 5845: 5842: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5834:Joseph Lowery 5832: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5822: 5820: 5817: 5815: 5812: 5810: 5807: 5805: 5802: 5800: 5797: 5795: 5792: 5790: 5787: 5785: 5782: 5780: 5779:Jesse Jackson 5777: 5775: 5772: 5770: 5769:Kamala Harris 5767: 5765: 5762: 5760: 5757: 5755: 5754:Marcus Garvey 5752: 5750: 5747: 5745: 5742: 5740: 5737: 5735: 5732: 5730: 5727: 5725: 5722: 5720: 5717: 5715: 5712: 5710: 5707: 5705: 5704:Blanche Bruce 5702: 5700: 5699:Edward Brooke 5697: 5695: 5692: 5690: 5689:James Bradley 5687: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5669:James Baldwin 5667: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5651: 5649: 5645: 5639: 5636: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5624: 5621: 5619: 5616: 5614: 5613:Neighborhoods 5611: 5609: 5606: 5604: 5601: 5599: 5596: 5594: 5591: 5589: 5586: 5584: 5581: 5579: 5576: 5574: 5571: 5569: 5566: 5562: 5559: 5558: 5557: 5554: 5552: 5549: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5539: 5537: 5534: 5532: 5529: 5527: 5524: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5508: 5506: 5504: 5500: 5494: 5491: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5477: 5474: 5473: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5466:Silent Parade 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5441: 5440: 5436: 5434: 5431: 5429: 5428: 5424: 5422: 5421: 5417: 5415: 5412: 5410: 5407: 5405: 5402: 5400: 5397: 5395: 5394:Jim Crow laws 5392: 5390: 5386: 5383: 5381: 5378: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5365: 5364: 5361: 5359: 5356: 5354: 5351: 5349: 5346: 5343: 5342: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5324: 5321: 5319: 5316: 5314: 5311: 5309: 5306: 5304: 5301: 5299: 5296: 5294: 5291: 5288: 5287: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5277: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5259: 5256: 5254: 5251: 5249: 5246: 5245: 5243: 5241: 5238: 5235: 5234: 5230: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5217:Black cowboys 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5195: 5193: 5190: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5179: 5177: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5160: 5155: 5153: 5148: 5146: 5141: 5140: 5137: 5125: 5122: 5120: 5117: 5116: 5113: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5097: 5094: 5090: 5087: 5086: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5073: 5070: 5068: 5065: 5063: 5060: 5058: 5055: 5053: 5050: 5048: 5045: 5044: 5043: 5040: 5039: 5037: 5033: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5014: 5012: 5009: 5007: 5004: 5002: 4999: 4997: 4994: 4990: 4987: 4986: 4985: 4982: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4941: 4939: 4937:By state/city 4935: 4929: 4926: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4912: 4909: 4908: 4907: 4904: 4903: 4901: 4897: 4891: 4888: 4886: 4883: 4879: 4876: 4875: 4874: 4871: 4870: 4868: 4864: 4858: 4855: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4840: 4839: 4837: 4833: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4809: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4798: 4796: 4788: 4782: 4779: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4764: 4761: 4760:Red handprint 4757: 4754: 4752: 4749: 4747: 4744: 4742: 4739: 4737: 4734: 4732: 4729: 4727: 4724: 4720: 4717: 4716: 4715: 4712: 4711: 4709: 4705: 4699: 4696: 4694: 4691: 4689: 4686: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4676: 4674: 4671: 4669: 4666: 4664: 4661: 4659: 4656: 4655: 4653: 4649: 4643: 4640: 4639: 4637: 4631: 4625: 4622: 4620: 4617: 4615: 4612: 4610: 4607: 4605: 4602: 4600: 4597: 4595: 4592: 4590: 4587: 4585: 4582: 4580: 4577: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4567: 4565: 4562: 4560: 4557: 4555: 4552: 4550: 4547: 4545: 4542: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4529: 4527: 4524: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4487: 4485: 4482: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4445: 4443: 4440: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4411: 4409: 4406: 4404: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4381: 4379: 4376: 4374: 4371: 4369: 4365: 4364:Seminole Wars 4362: 4360: 4357: 4355: 4352: 4350: 4347: 4345: 4342: 4340: 4337: 4335: 4332: 4330: 4327: 4325: 4324:Pontiac's War 4322: 4320: 4317: 4315: 4312: 4310: 4309:Tuscarora War 4307: 4305: 4302: 4300: 4297: 4295: 4292: 4290: 4287: 4285: 4282: 4280: 4277: 4275: 4272: 4271: 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