1555:
1338:
1954:— is stressed). Although it is true that in normal speech it is usually the penultimate syllable of the prosodic phrase that is stressed, the existence of words with irregular stress patterns suggests that, in Sesotho at least, it is not entirely incorrect to say that stress is a lexical property of the word itself, not just the phrase, and that the word's inherent stress pattern is most prominent when the word is phrase-final.
1738:— was specifically invented by Christian missionaries to aid in translating the Bible (which regularly speaks of "gods" — a concept foreign to Sesotho ATR). Additionally, the noun is traditionally in class 1, but is used in class 3 by Christians and the Bible. There is, and has never been, any confusion among Basotho that the class 2
252:). Entire words are built from roots by affixing other formatives around the root as appendages; every word (except contractions and compounds) contains exactly one root, from which it derives its most basic meaning (though, technically speaking, the root by itself does not really have any meaning). Roots are the basis of the
980:
Infix verbal auxiliaries may be further divided into simple infixes and verbal infixes. The main difference lies in the fact that, when forming the relative construction (participial sub-mood) of a verbal complex employing the infix, the verbal infixes may be detached from the main verb and carry the
533:
Note that although it is often true that the common root of a number of words may be defined as having some inherent meaning, very often the connection between words sharing common roots is tentative, and this is further evidence that prefix-less noun roots and stems are ultimately meaningless. Roots
1169:
The Sotho language is spoken conjunctively yet written disjunctively (that is, the spoken phonological words are not the same as the written orthographical words). In the following discussion, the natural conjunctive word division will be indicated by joining the disjunctive elements with the symbol
320:
There can be no doubt that words never emerged simply as roots. The root is a dead thing — the study of roots is primarily to aid the compilation of dictionaries, to further the study of comparative Bantu linguistics, and to help trace the evolution and connections of different languages. Many roots
830:
attached to the fronts of words (noun class prefixes are called such by convention, even though bare roots are not independent words). These are distinct from concords, since changing the prefix of a word may radically alter its meaning, while changing the concord attached to a stem does not change
890:
through the employment of several verbal suffixes. Diminutives, augmentatives, and locatives may all be derived from nouns through the use of several suffixes. Most suffixes, except the noun locative suffix and verb inflexional suffixes, are derivational and create new stems.
1873:
is written separated from the verb stem (contrary to how the other class prefixes are indicated) because this is how infinitives are indicated in their languages. IsiZulu and other Nguni languages are written conjunctively, primarily due to the efforts of
1330:
No matter how many prefixes, suffixes, enclitics, and proclitics are appended to the word stem the complete word only has one main stressed syllable. This stress is most prominent on the final word in the sentence or "prosodic phrase."
1724:
Including the root *-ntu whence the name "Bantu languages" comes. Current work on Proto-Bantu has it that no true roots began with prenasalized consonants, and that the form of this root was actually *-jîntu, as in *mu-jîntu and
232:") according to specific rules, and sentences are constructed by stringing together words according to somewhat less strict rules. Formatives alone cannot constitute words; formatives are the component parts of words.
591:
are not much different from roots, and the difference between them is fairly arbitrary. Though all roots are also stems, stems often include derivational suffixes, which roots never include. Additionally, the ending
1033:
They may be divided into two categories: those that draw forward the stress (as normal suffixes), and those that don't alter the word's stress. The second type may result in words that don't have the stress on the
1692:
The difference between the four types of qualificatives is merely in the concords used to associate them with the noun or pronoun they qualify. Since the simplest copulatives do not use any verbs whatsoever
1932:
When compared with other word division schemes, the orthographies used to write the non-Nguni South
African languages are extremely disjunctive, since many Bantu language orthographies at least write the
1946:
Some researchers completely reject the notion that those
Southern Bantu languages claimed to have word stress really do, and instead view it as phrasal stress (that is, the penultimate syllable in the
926:. They may appear as prefixes or as infixes. Basically, all formatives that may be affixed to the verb root, excluding suffixes and the objectival and subjectival concords, are verbal auxiliaries.
853:
are similar to prefixes in that they appear before the word stem. Verbs and qualificatives used to describe a noun are brought into agreement with that noun by using the appropriate concords.
1604:(class 1 negative subjectival concord followed by present definite positive indicative marker) is usually pronounced as a long with a high falling tone, or simply as a short high tone.
1225:
Each word has one part of speech, which can usually be determined from the root. Since
Sesotho is predominately prefixing, the root is usually the last morpheme of the word, unless
1774:." Bantu languages, being agglutinative, construct words by placing affixes around a stem, and if an affix is always placed after other affixes but before the stem (such as in
1078:— which is normally prefixed to nouns, pronouns, qualificatives, and adverbs as a conjunction, to convey the same meaning as English "and" when used between substantives. Some
2030:
1770:
The use of this term in Bantu linguistics means "formatives placed in the middle of a word" and not the more common "formatives placed in the middle of a
187:
marking on the noun. Nominal roles are indicated by a combination of word order and agreement markers on the verb, with no change to the nouns themselves.
1787:
This is exactly the same as the behaviour of deficient verbs, and it is very likely that these infixes are grammaticalized contractions using originally
169:. However, because the verb is marked with the subject and sometimes the object, this order may be changed to emphasise certain parts of the predicate.
104:
1355:
1734:
Although there has historically always been a general belief among
Westerners that African religions are polytheist, the plural of this word —
1572:
3149:
235:
These formatives may be classed generally into roots, stems, prefixes, concords, suffixes, verbal auxiliaries, enclitics, and proclitics.
1356:
948:
used to form the present indicative positive and the perfect indicative negative; and also used as a "focus marker") merges with the
1992:
1573:
1791:
deficient verbs. Additionally, in the negative (and sometimes in the positive) these infixes change to a form ending in the vowel
3233:
898:
in verb stems is a suffix, as it is often regularly replaced by other vowels in the derivation and inflexion of verbs and nouns.
205:
order, though it may be changed for emphasis. If an inflected qualificative is placed before the head, then it is technically a
2962:
2761:
2059:
2023:
985:
suffix with the main verb converted to an infinitive object, while a verb using a simple infix has to carry the suffix itself.
3195:
2084:
1937:(such as the example above) as a single orthographical word, but may write prefixes, concords, and clitics as separate words.
811:
Note how, in the above example, not only do many of the words have slightly unexpected or expanded meanings, but the form
2074:
2054:
1865:
This is a common situation in many (written) Bantu languages, as their orthographies were invented by
Europeans who spoke
1157:
This is similar to the use of the Latin "et" ('and') to mean "even" or "not", as in the supposed last words of Caesar – "
313:
Although in some cases various phonetic processes may ultimately change the root's form in predictable ways (such as the
2069:
1347:
1030:(leaning-on words) are usually suffixed to verbs and convey a definite meaning. They were probably once separate words.
596:
is included in the verb stem but not in the root (if it was truly part of the core root then it wouldn't be replaced in
166:
97:
2391:
2245:
1239:, infixes, and prefixes, followed by a stem, followed by zero or more suffixes (which extend the stem) and enclitics.
534:
from a common source help to connect nouns with certain meanings, and often the class prefixes are merely incidental.
3256:
2899:
2089:
2016:
1849:
1564:
2808:
216:. Verbs may be used without explicitly specifying the subject or the object with substantives (nouns or pronouns).
3131:
2937:
2771:
2250:
2783:
1220:
Certain observations about the
Sesotho word (and those of many other Bantu languages in general) may be made:
3296:
2972:
2308:
2303:
2235:
2106:
2094:
2079:
1079:
849:
90:
886:
appear at the ends of words. There are numerous suffixes in
Sesotho serving varied functions. For example,
3301:
3052:
2919:
2534:
2411:
2285:
1823:
1819:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1796:
1792:
1608:
Certain situations may make the word division complex. This can happen with contractions (especially with
362:
155:
2995:
1134:
There are also a number of curious utterances where the proclitic is used to express emphatic negatives.
3267:
3118:
2766:
2748:
2562:
2002:. In D. Nurse & G. Philippson (eds.), The Bantu languages, pp. 42–58. London: Routledge/Curzon.
1788:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1662:
1658:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1625:
1609:
1534:
923:
741:
253:
206:
67:
45:
3098:
2631:
2557:
2476:
2185:
2170:
860:. In addition, there are two immutable prefixes used with verbs that function similarly to concords.
822:
3251:
3246:
2853:
2695:
2567:
2143:
1980:
1875:
1689:) are complete words themselves, which may or may not be modified with affixes to form new words.
3042:
2985:
2828:
2733:
2499:
2426:
2386:
2371:
2353:
2315:
2165:
2115:
2043:
1866:
1074:
are clitics that appear at the fronts of words. There is only one regular proclitic in
Sesotho —
242:
191:
2909:
150:
The
Sesotho language may be described in several ways depending on the aspect being considered.
3241:
3205:
3157:
2932:
2904:
2886:
2866:
2723:
2606:
2552:
2441:
2431:
2376:
2275:
2223:
2175:
2160:
2123:
1988:
344:
213:
78:
2008:
1616:. In all these situations, however, each proper word has exactly one main stressed syllable.
3218:
3065:
3003:
2947:
2942:
2894:
2798:
2793:
2718:
2641:
2621:
2596:
2588:
2529:
2504:
2494:
2489:
2406:
2363:
2340:
2330:
2320:
2262:
2200:
184:
3213:
3167:
3090:
3080:
3070:
3060:
2952:
2927:
2861:
2838:
2703:
2669:
2664:
2654:
2649:
2611:
2601:
2574:
2524:
2509:
2484:
2459:
2449:
2421:
2416:
2401:
2348:
2325:
2290:
2270:
2213:
2190:
2180:
2150:
2138:
1545:
1321:
1312:
314:
248:
225:
28:
1815:
in the negative). A possible (pre-contraction and grammaticalization) example would be:
1158:
3275:
3223:
3172:
3108:
3103:
3037:
3032:
2876:
2788:
2778:
2756:
2713:
2708:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2659:
2626:
2514:
2454:
2396:
2381:
2280:
2208:
2155:
2128:
1914:
1264:
1253:
949:
857:
177:
173:
55:
33:
19:
3290:
3187:
3177:
3162:
3138:
3075:
3013:
2980:
2871:
2821:
2816:
2738:
2464:
2295:
2240:
2218:
2133:
1897:
40:
228:
are agglutinative — words are constructed by combining discrete formatives (a.k.a. "
2957:
2843:
2616:
2519:
2230:
1900:
may usually be moved around to make valid statements, with some change in meaning:
1697:), entire predicative sentences in Sesotho may be formed without the use of verbs.
1571:
1354:
246:
are the most basic irreducible elements of words and are immutable (except under
3008:
2728:
1970:. Typology of African prosodic systems workshop. Bielefeld University. May 2001.
1934:
1775:
1694:
1666:
1665:) are formed from full words by the employment of certain formatives; the rest (
1654:
1633:
1629:
1613:
1275:
1259:(first person singular), the present definite positive indicative infix marker
887:
787:
773:
724:
705:
688:
658:
641:
597:
332:
195:
62:
50:
317:
in the last two examples above) the root itself is considered to be unchanged.
1588:
1371:
202:
3024:
1236:
1070:
587:
159:
1235:
Not counting compounds and contractions, the word begins with zero or more
1657:) are radical stems, which need affixes to form meaningful words; others (
1771:
1754:
is never used in the singular (an ancestor is referred to as "one of the
1226:
1090:
1026:
805:
229:
3126:
2039:
1100:
It may also be used to express the idea of "together with" and "even."
383:
162:
with specific meanings, and may also modify words by similar processes.
137:
1975:
Reconstructions lexicales bantoues 2 / Bantu lexical reconstructions 2
1548:, Sesotho does not have rules against juxtaposing strings of vowels:
1035:
944:
used to form the past subjunctive (not to be confused with the infix
882:
1083:
827:
566:
1062:('please keep quiet!') (stress on the antepenultimate syllable)
607:
one may derive several words, including the following (stems in
2012:
1278:, but in this case it gives the idiomatic meaning of "greet").
1480:
we•failed to•advise•him because he•PAST he•COPULATIVE stubborn
469:
176:; more specifically, a complex grammatical tone language. See
1795:, which obviously comes from some coalescence with the vowel
1553:
1336:
1638:
Each complete
Sesotho word belongs to some part of speech.
952:
resulting in what is often termed the "auxiliary concord."
158:. It constructs whole words by joining discrete roots and
1913:
But this is absolutely impossible to do with the Sesotho
1987:. Cape Town: Longman Southern Africa, 3rd. impression.
1082:
have a post-clitic with a similar meaning (for example
1311:
Here the formatives are distorted by two instances of
194:
system, but this does not include natural gender. See
1281:
The phonological interactions can be quite complex:
3265:
3232:
3204:
3186:
3147:
3117:
3089:
3051:
3022:
2994:
2971:
2918:
2885:
2852:
2807:
2747:
2693:
2640:
2587:
2545:
2475:
2440:
2362:
2339:
2261:
2199:
2114:
2105:
1968:
On the manifestation of stress in African languages
1052:('he is no longer there') (stress on the penult)
476:('ancestors') (does not exist in the singular),
1803:) and the vowel of the original deficient verb (
357:('water') (note the vowel coalescence: class 6
1270:(third person plural), and the verb extension
922:are not to be confused with auxiliary verbs or
321:are shared by a wide range of Bantu languages.
1977:. Tervuren: Musée royal de l'Afrique centrale.
1170:• in the Sesotho and the English translation.
472:') (traditionally never used in the plural),
142:and provides links to more detailed articles.
2024:
1600:('he•is•not•dressed') although the sequence
519:
98:
8:
1973:Coupez, A., Bastin, Y., and Mumba, E. 1998.
1878:and others. Consider the following example:
1247:
1246:('I•greet•you') the stem is the verb stem
780:
766:
753:
734:
717:
698:
681:
668:
651:
634:
621:
2111:
2031:
2017:
2009:
996:('they might see') (simple infix used) ⇒
933:used to negate verbs, and infixes such as
613:
134:This article presents a brief overview of
116:
105:
91:
15:
1715:Bantuists do it with multiple appendages.
1014:('hey shall see') (verbal infix used) ⇒
912:('she did not speak at the court trial')
858:seven basic types of concords in Sesotho
1778:) then it is usually called an "infix."
1766:
1764:
1708:
1161:" meaning "Not (or even) you Brutus?".
804:These may all be listed under the same
18:
1586:
1369:
1292:+ present indicative positive marker
1212:people of•family of•his they•judge•him
815:uses an irregular derivation pattern.
1209:Batho ba•lelapa la•hae ba•a•mo•ahlola
1039:
888:verbs may be derived from other verbs
7:
1612:constructions), and in some complex
1826:('I do not come to/shall not eat'),
1705:Sotho words translation in Isizulu
691:vb.) ('to be entangled together')
480:('African Traditional Religion'),
284:('they do not teach you properly')
1985:Textbook of Southern Sotho Grammar
1829:which in modern Sesotho appear as
1742:may be the plural of the class 1
894:Strictly speaking the final vowel
14:
1869:. Notice how the class 10 prefix
1288:('he•shows•me') subject concord
1147:('Nothing', lit. 'And something')
1141:('Never', lit. 'And a long time')
727:vb.) ('to entangle each other')
603:For example, from the verb root
1587:Problems playing this file? See
1569:
1370:Problems playing this file? See
1352:
1153:('Never', lit. 'And to be able')
324:Some further examples of roots:
1750:was never used in the plural,
1641:In form, some parts of speech (
937:used to form potential tenses.
929:These include prefixes such as
488:(the name of an ogre character)
1215:'His family members judge him'
551:('family/lineage/clan'), and
306:are all formed from the root
1:
1746:since, in the same way that
1304:(see) + causative extension
1983:, and Mofokeng, S. M. 1974.
1362:Audio sample of the examples
1252:('agree') surrounded by the
1130:('Even they do not believe')
339:('Bantu-speaking person'),
1579:Audio sample of the example
3318:
1822:('I come to/shall eat'), *
1818:(pre-)Proto-Sotho–Tswana *
1799:(in the infinitive prefix
1623:
1565:A string of similar vowels
1242:For example, in the word
2050:
1529:we•shall•go if you•say.so
1896:in isiZulu. The English
1886:I•FUT.+VE.INDIC•you•help
1111:('my father and mother')
1018:('those who shall see')
1004:('those who might see')
874:('they shall design it')
759:(app. vb.) ('to twist')
708:ass. vb.) ('to spiral')
494:(Proto-Bantu *-jedî) ⇒
464:(Proto-Bantu *-dîmu) ⇒
414:(Proto-Bantu *-kudu) ⇒
353:(Proto-Bantu *-jîgî) ⇒
278:('we teach one another')
165:Its basic word order is
2762:Central Atlas Tamazight
1320:Each word has one main
1080:Indo-European languages
575:('brain matter'), and
521:
508:(Proto-Bantu *-bua) ⇒
396:(Proto-Bantu *-di-) ⇒
378:(Proto-Bantu *-tua) ⇒
249:purely phonetic changes
1558:
1544:Note that, unlike the
1533:Note the monosyllabic
1341:
1248:
781:
776:vb.) ('to untangle')
767:
754:
735:
718:
699:
682:
669:
652:
635:
622:
454:(Proto-Bantu *-ti) ⇒
430:('an older person'),
156:agglutinative language
1966:Anyanwu, R. J. 2001.
1811:in the positive, and
1626:Sotho parts of speech
1557:
1340:
1296:+ objectival concord
841:('it is a programme')
831:that stem's meaning.
661:) ('a single grape')
259:The following words:
254:Sotho parts of speech
207:qualificative pronoun
976:('I shall not come')
408:('a magical poison')
272:('they taught you ')
2392:Old Church Slavonic
2000:Segmental phonology
1998:Hyman, L. M. 2003.
1867:isolating languages
1254:subjectival concord
950:subjectival concord
600:and conjugations).
3257:Lingua Franca Nova
2900:Classical Japanese
1909:Will I help you(?)
1776:the verbal complex
1559:
1342:
1265:objectival concord
1121:('I met with her')
1038:(as is usual with
920:Verbal auxiliaries
426:('one hundred'),
192:grammatical gender
127:Lesotho Moshoeshoe
3284:
3283:
2938:Classical Chinese
2583:
2582:
2044:world's languages
1889:'I will help you'
1614:verb conjugations
1574:
1483:'he was stubborn'
1357:
1128:bona ha ba kgolwe
808:in a dictionary.
802:
801:
434:('elder brother')
282:ha ba le rutisise
214:pro-drop language
190:It has a complex
132:
131:
115:
114:
3309:
2953:Mandarin Chinese
2784:Levantine Arabic
2112:
2033:
2026:
2019:
2010:
1955:
1944:
1938:
1863:
1857:
1847:
1841:
1825:
1821:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1798:
1794:
1785:
1779:
1768:
1759:
1732:
1726:
1722:
1716:
1713:
1576:
1575:
1556:
1359:
1358:
1339:
1251:
1244:Ke•a•le•dumedisa
1165:The Sesotho word
1016:Ba tlang ho bona
784:
770:
757:
744:) ('entangled')
738:
721:
702:
685:
672:
655:
638:
627:('to entangle')
625:
614:
598:verb derivations
561:('sleep'), and
541:('night'), and
524:
448:('human spirit')
364:
185:grammatical case
117:
107:
100:
93:
16:
3317:
3316:
3312:
3311:
3310:
3308:
3307:
3306:
3287:
3286:
3285:
3280:
3261:
3228:
3200:
3182:
3150:Native American
3143:
3113:
3085:
3047:
3018:
2990:
2967:
2914:
2881:
2848:
2803:
2743:
2689:
2636:
2579:
2541:
2471:
2436:
2358:
2335:
2257:
2236:Scottish Gaelic
2195:
2101:
2046:
2037:
2006:
1963:
1958:
1948:prosodic phrase
1945:
1941:
1915:bound morphemes
1904:Help you I will
1864:
1860:
1850:Senatus Populus
1848:
1844:
1786:
1782:
1769:
1762:
1733:
1729:
1723:
1719:
1714:
1710:
1703:
1636:
1624:Main articles:
1622:
1620:Parts of speech
1594:
1593:
1585:
1583:
1582:
1581:
1580:
1577:
1570:
1567:
1560:
1554:
1546:Nguni languages
1542:
1531:
1513:
1505:
1498:
1489:
1485:
1451:
1439:
1428:
1417:
1405:
1393:
1381:
1377:
1376:
1368:
1366:
1365:
1364:
1363:
1360:
1353:
1350:
1343:
1337:
1218:
1217:
1207:
1199:
1191:
1183:
1175:
1167:
1067:
1023:
963:('I am coming')
924:deficient verbs
917:
879:
846:
819:
794:) ('solution')
584:
579:('bone marrow')
545:('24-hour day')
484:('cannibal'),
290:('an academic')
239:
226:Bantu languages
223:
148:
128:
111:
68:Deficient verbs
46:Parts of speech
12:
11:
5:
3315:
3313:
3305:
3304:
3299:
3297:Sotho language
3289:
3288:
3282:
3281:
3279:
3278:
3272:
3270:
3263:
3262:
3260:
3259:
3254:
3249:
3244:
3238:
3236:
3230:
3229:
3227:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3210:
3208:
3202:
3201:
3199:
3198:
3192:
3190:
3184:
3183:
3181:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3154:
3152:
3145:
3144:
3142:
3141:
3136:
3135:
3134:
3123:
3121:
3115:
3114:
3112:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3095:
3093:
3087:
3086:
3084:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3057:
3055:
3049:
3048:
3046:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3029:
3027:
3020:
3019:
3017:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3000:
2998:
2992:
2991:
2989:
2988:
2983:
2977:
2975:
2969:
2968:
2966:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2924:
2922:
2916:
2915:
2913:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2891:
2889:
2883:
2882:
2880:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2858:
2856:
2850:
2849:
2847:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2825:
2824:
2813:
2811:
2805:
2804:
2802:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2775:
2774:
2764:
2759:
2753:
2751:
2745:
2744:
2742:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2700:
2698:
2691:
2690:
2688:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2646:
2644:
2638:
2637:
2635:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2593:
2591:
2585:
2584:
2581:
2580:
2578:
2577:
2572:
2571:
2570:
2565:
2555:
2549:
2547:
2543:
2542:
2540:
2539:
2538:
2537:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2481:
2479:
2473:
2472:
2470:
2469:
2468:
2467:
2457:
2452:
2446:
2444:
2438:
2437:
2435:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2412:Serbo-Croatian
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2368:
2366:
2360:
2359:
2357:
2356:
2351:
2345:
2343:
2337:
2336:
2334:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2312:
2311:
2306:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2286:Istro-Romanian
2283:
2278:
2273:
2267:
2265:
2259:
2258:
2256:
2255:
2254:
2253:
2248:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2227:
2226:
2216:
2211:
2205:
2203:
2197:
2196:
2194:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2147:
2146:
2136:
2131:
2126:
2120:
2118:
2109:
2103:
2102:
2100:
2099:
2098:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2077:
2072:
2062:
2057:
2051:
2048:
2047:
2038:
2036:
2035:
2028:
2021:
2013:
2004:
2003:
1996:
1978:
1971:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1956:
1939:
1935:verbal complex
1931:
1930:
1928:Tla ke o thusa
1924:
1922:Thusa o ke tla
1912:
1911:
1906:
1898:free morphemes
1892:This would be
1891:
1890:
1887:
1884:
1882:Ke tla o thusa
1858:
1842:
1840:
1839:
1828:
1827:
1780:
1760:
1727:
1717:
1707:
1702:
1699:
1621:
1618:
1610:deficient verb
1606:
1605:
1584:
1578:
1568:
1563:
1562:
1561:
1552:
1551:
1550:
1506:
1499:
1490:
1487:
1486:
1440:
1429:
1418:
1406:
1394:
1382:
1379:
1378:
1367:
1361:
1351:
1346:
1345:
1344:
1335:
1334:
1333:
1328:
1327:
1309:
1308:
1233:
1232:
1205:they•judge•him
1202:ba•a•mo•ahlola
1200:
1192:
1184:
1176:
1173:
1172:
1166:
1163:
1155:
1154:
1148:
1142:
1132:
1131:
1122:
1112:
1064:
1063:
1053:
1020:
1019:
1005:
978:
977:
964:
914:
913:
876:
875:
843:
842:
800:
799:
798:
797:
796:
795:
760:
747:
746:
745:
711:
710:
709:
675:
662:
645:
581:
580:
570:
556:
555:('generation')
546:
531:
530:
513:
503:
489:
459:
449:
435:
409:
391:
373:
348:
304:
303:
297:
291:
285:
279:
273:
267:
222:
219:
218:
217:
210:
199:
188:
181:
178:Sotho tonology
174:tonal language
170:
163:
147:
144:
140:of the Sesotho
130:
129:
126:
113:
112:
110:
109:
102:
95:
87:
84:
83:
82:
81:
76:
75:
74:
73:
72:
71:
70:
60:
59:
58:
38:
37:
36:
23:
22:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3314:
3303:
3302:Sotho grammar
3300:
3298:
3295:
3294:
3292:
3277:
3274:
3273:
3271:
3269:
3264:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3239:
3237:
3235:
3231:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3211:
3209:
3207:
3203:
3197:
3194:
3193:
3191:
3189:
3185:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3155:
3153:
3151:
3146:
3140:
3137:
3133:
3130:
3129:
3128:
3125:
3124:
3122:
3120:
3116:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3096:
3094:
3092:
3088:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3058:
3056:
3054:
3050:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3030:
3028:
3026:
3021:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3001:
2999:
2997:
2993:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2978:
2976:
2974:
2973:Austroasiatic
2970:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2925:
2923:
2921:
2917:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2892:
2890:
2888:
2884:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2859:
2857:
2855:
2851:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2823:
2820:
2819:
2818:
2815:
2814:
2812:
2810:
2806:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2773:
2770:
2769:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2754:
2752:
2750:
2746:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2701:
2699:
2697:
2692:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2647:
2645:
2643:
2639:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2594:
2592:
2590:
2586:
2576:
2573:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2560:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2550:
2548:
2544:
2536:
2533:
2532:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2483:
2482:
2480:
2478:
2474:
2466:
2463:
2462:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2447:
2445:
2443:
2439:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2369:
2367:
2365:
2361:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2346:
2344:
2342:
2338:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2301:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2268:
2266:
2264:
2260:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2243:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2225:
2222:
2221:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2206:
2204:
2202:
2198:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2145:
2142:
2141:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2121:
2119:
2117:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2107:Indo-European
2104:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2067:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2060:Orthographies
2058:
2056:
2053:
2052:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2034:
2029:
2027:
2022:
2020:
2015:
2014:
2011:
2007:
2001:
1997:
1994:
1993:0-582-61700-6
1990:
1986:
1982:
1979:
1976:
1972:
1969:
1965:
1964:
1960:
1953:
1949:
1943:
1940:
1936:
1929:
1925:
1923:
1919:
1918:
1916:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1901:
1899:
1895:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1879:
1877:
1872:
1868:
1862:
1859:
1855:
1853:
1846:
1843:
1838:
1834:
1831:
1830:
1824:xɑkɪt͡ɬɪxʊdʒɑ
1817:
1816:
1802:
1790:
1784:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1767:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1731:
1728:
1721:
1718:
1712:
1709:
1706:
1700:
1698:
1696:
1690:
1688:
1687:interjectives
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1619:
1617:
1615:
1611:
1603:
1599:
1596:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1566:
1549:
1547:
1541:
1539:
1536:
1530:
1527:
1525:
1522:
1518:
1512:
1510:
1504:
1503:
1497:
1495:
1484:
1481:
1478:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1438:
1437:he•COPULATIVE
1435:
1433:
1427:
1424:
1422:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1404:
1403:to•advise•him
1401:
1399:
1392:
1389:
1387:
1375:
1373:
1349:
1332:
1325:
1323:
1318:
1317:
1316:
1314:
1307:
1303:
1300:+ verb stem
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1284:
1283:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1255:
1250:
1245:
1240:
1238:
1230:
1228:
1223:
1222:
1221:
1216:
1213:
1210:
1206:
1203:
1198:
1195:
1190:
1187:
1182:
1179:
1171:
1164:
1162:
1160:
1159:Et tu, Brute?
1152:
1149:
1146:
1143:
1140:
1137:
1136:
1135:
1129:
1127:
1123:
1120:
1118:
1113:
1110:
1108:
1103:
1102:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1072:
1066:
1061:
1059:
1054:
1051:
1050:
1045:
1044:
1043:
1041:
1040:Sesotho words
1037:
1031:
1029:
1028:
1022:
1017:
1013:
1011:
1006:
1003:
1001:
995:
993:
988:
987:
986:
984:
975:
973:
969:
965:
962:
960:
955:
954:
953:
951:
947:
943:
938:
936:
932:
927:
925:
921:
916:
911:
910:
906:
901:
900:
899:
897:
892:
889:
885:
884:
878:
873:
871:
867:
863:
862:
861:
859:
854:
852:
851:
845:
840:
838:
834:
833:
832:
829:
825:
824:
818:
816:
814:
809:
807:
793:
789:
785:
783:
778:
777:
775:
771:
769:
764:
761:
758:
756:
751:
748:
743:
739:
737:
732:
729:
728:
726:
722:
720:
715:
712:
707:
703:
701:
696:
693:
692:
690:
686:
684:
679:
676:
673:
671:
666:
663:
660:
656:
654:
649:
646:
644:) ('grapes')
643:
639:
637:
632:
629:
628:
626:
624:
619:
616:
615:
612:
610:
606:
601:
599:
595:
590:
589:
583:
578:
574:
571:
568:
564:
560:
557:
554:
550:
547:
544:
540:
537:
536:
535:
528:
523:
518:(Proto-Bantu
517:
514:
511:
507:
504:
501:
497:
493:
490:
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
460:
457:
453:
450:
447:
443:
439:
436:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
410:
407:
403:
400:('to eat'),
399:
395:
392:
389:
385:
381:
377:
374:
371:
367:
360:
356:
352:
349:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
327:
326:
325:
322:
318:
316:
311:
309:
301:
298:
296:('education')
295:
292:
289:
286:
283:
280:
277:
274:
271:
268:
265:
262:
261:
260:
257:
255:
251:
250:
245:
244:
238:
236:
233:
231:
227:
220:
215:
211:
208:
204:
200:
197:
193:
189:
186:
182:
179:
175:
171:
168:
164:
161:
157:
153:
152:
151:
145:
143:
141:
139:
125:
122:
119:
118:
108:
103:
101:
96:
94:
89:
88:
86:
85:
80:
77:
69:
66:
65:
64:
61:
57:
54:
53:
52:
49:
48:
47:
44:
43:
42:
39:
35:
32:
31:
30:
27:
26:
25:
24:
21:
17:
3099:Massachusett
3053:Austronesian
2920:Sino-Tibetan
2833:
2186:West Frisian
2085:Prepositions
2064:
2005:
1999:
1984:
1974:
1967:
1951:
1947:
1942:
1927:
1921:
1908:
1903:
1893:
1881:
1870:
1861:
1851:
1845:
1837:Ha ke tlo ja
1836:
1832:
1800:
1783:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1730:
1720:
1711:
1704:
1691:
1683:conjunctives
1647:enumeratives
1640:
1637:
1607:
1601:
1598:Ha•a•a•apara
1597:
1543:
1537:
1532:
1528:
1523:
1520:
1516:
1514:
1508:
1507:
1501:
1500:
1493:
1491:
1482:
1479:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1452:
1448:
1443:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1430:
1425:
1420:
1419:
1414:
1409:
1407:
1402:
1397:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1383:
1329:
1319:
1313:nasalization
1310:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1286:O•a•mpontsha
1285:
1280:
1271:
1267:
1260:
1256:
1243:
1241:
1234:
1224:
1219:
1214:
1211:
1208:
1204:
1201:
1196:
1193:
1188:
1185:
1180:
1177:
1168:
1156:
1150:
1144:
1138:
1133:
1125:
1124:
1116:
1114:
1106:
1104:
1099:
1094:
1086:
1075:
1069:
1068:
1065:
1057:
1055:
1048:
1046:
1032:
1025:
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1021:
1015:
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989:
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945:
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895:
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881:
880:
877:
869:
865:
864:
855:
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847:
844:
836:
835:
821:
820:
817:
813:ho rarabolla
812:
810:
803:
791:
779:
765:
762:
752:
749:
733:
730:
716:
713:
697:
694:
680:
677:
674:('to solve')
667:
664:
650:
647:
633:
630:
620:
617:
608:
604:
602:
593:
586:
585:
582:
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542:
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515:
509:
505:
499:
495:
491:
485:
481:
477:
473:
465:
461:
455:
451:
445:
444:('shade'),
441:
437:
431:
427:
423:
419:
418:('large'),
415:
411:
405:
401:
397:
393:
387:
379:
375:
369:
365:
358:
354:
350:
340:
336:
335:*-jîntu) ⇒
328:
323:
319:
315:nasalization
312:
307:
305:
299:
293:
287:
281:
275:
270:ba le rutile
269:
266:('to teach')
263:
258:
247:
241:
240:
237:
234:
224:
149:
135:
133:
123:
120:
3268:constructed
3252:Interlingue
3247:Interlingua
3119:Uto-Aztecan
2809:Niger–Congo
2749:Afroasiatic
2075:Determiners
2055:Phonologies
1981:Doke, C. M.
1894:Ngizakusiza
1820:kɪt͡ɬɑxʊdʒɑ
1695:zero copula
1663:copulatives
1659:possessives
1634:Sotho verbs
1630:Sotho nouns
1535:conjunctive
1348:Word stress
1047:Ha a sa le
498:('moon'),
422:('size'),
404:('food'),
386:person'),
333:Proto-Bantu
302:('learner')
276:re a rutana
196:Sotho nouns
79:Orthography
3291:Categories
3025:East Asian
2986:Vietnamese
2772:Historical
2734:Mingrelian
2500:Hindustani
2477:Indo-Aryan
2427:Slovincian
2387:Macedonian
2372:Belarusian
2354:Lithuanian
2316:Portuguese
2246:colloquial
2070:Adjectives
1961:References
1950:— not the
1725:*ba-jîntu.
1679:ideophones
1653:, and all
1643:adjectives
1589:media help
1457:na ho•mo•e
1372:media help
1237:proclitics
1115:Ke kopane
1071:Proclitics
940:The infix
856:There are
790:; pl. 10
700:rarahanela
458:('to say')
221:Formatives
203:head-first
183:It has no
3242:Esperanto
3234:auxiliary
3132:Classical
3043:Mongolian
2933:Cantonese
2867:Malayalam
2854:Dravidian
2724:Kabardian
2632:Meänkieli
2607:Hungarian
2432:Ukrainian
2377:Bulgarian
2276:Dalmatian
2176:Ripuarian
2171:Old Norse
2166:Norwegian
2161:Icelandic
2124:Afrikaans
1833:Ke tla ja
1756:ancestors
1651:relatives
1391:we•failed
1276:causative
1249:-dumel(a)
1227:enclitics
1189:of•family
1186:ba•lelapa
1027:Enclitics
903:Ha a a bu
742:nom. rel.
670:rarabolla
502:('month')
432:moholwane
390:('South')
230:morphemes
160:morphemes
154:It is an
29:Phonology
3206:artistic
3196:American
3158:Cherokee
3066:Hawaiian
3004:Has Hlai
2948:Kokborok
2943:Dzongkha
2905:Okinawan
2895:Japanese
2799:Ugaritic
2794:Tigrinya
2719:Georgian
2696:European
2622:Livonian
2597:Estonian
2553:Albanian
2530:Sanskrit
2505:Maithili
2495:Gujarati
2490:Bhojpuri
2407:Silesian
2331:Venetian
2321:Romanian
2300:Lombard
2251:literary
2116:Germanic
2090:Pronouns
2065:Grammars
2040:Grammars
1789:Group VI
1772:morpheme
1671:pronouns
1453:Ha•re•a•
1449:stubborn
1384:Ha•re•a•
1324:syllable
1322:stressed
1151:Le ho ka
1145:Le letho
1139:Le kgale
1091:Sanskrit
883:Suffixes
850:Concords
823:Prefixes
806:headword
782:tharollo
683:rarahana
529:('five')
300:moithuti
288:morutehi
212:It is a
172:It is a
146:Typology
124:Sesotho
56:Concords
34:Tonology
3214:Klingon
3168:Miskito
3127:Nahuatl
3081:Tagalog
3071:Ilocano
3061:Cebuano
2996:Kra–Dai
2963:Tibetan
2928:Burmese
2910:HachijĹŤ
2887:Japonic
2862:Kannada
2839:Swahili
2670:Turkmen
2665:Turkish
2612:Ingrian
2602:Finnish
2575:Hittite
2563:Ancient
2525:Punjabi
2510:Marathi
2485:Bengali
2460:Persian
2450:Kurdish
2442:Iranian
2422:Slovene
2402:Russian
2349:Latvian
2326:Spanish
2309:Western
2304:Eastern
2291:Italian
2271:Catalan
2214:Cornish
2191:Yiddish
2181:Swedish
2151:Faroese
2139:English
2042:of the
1854:Romanus
1835:, and
1675:adverbs
1649:, some
1426:he•PAST
1415:because
1396:ho•mo•e
1302:-bon(a)
839:lenaneo
828:affixes
768:rarolla
563:dithoko
512:('dog')
446:serithi
442:morithi
424:lekgolo
384:Khoisan
264:ho ruta
201:It has
138:grammar
41:Grammar
20:Sesotho
3276:Lojban
3266:Other
3224:Quenya
3173:Navajo
3148:Other
3109:Ojibwe
3104:Munsee
3038:Korean
3033:Evenki
3023:Other
2877:Telugu
2829:Herero
2789:Somali
2779:Kabyle
2767:Hebrew
2757:Arabic
2714:Basque
2709:Adyghe
2704:Abkhaz
2694:Other
2675:Uyghur
2655:Kyrgyz
2650:Kazakh
2642:Turkic
2627:Udmurt
2589:Uralic
2515:Nepali
2455:Pashto
2417:Slovak
2397:Polish
2364:Slavic
2341:Baltic
2281:French
2263:Italic
2209:Breton
2201:Celtic
2156:German
2129:Danish
1991:
1752:Badimo
1748:Modimo
1744:Modimo
1740:Badimo
1736:medimo
1685:, and
1632:, and
1473:•le ma
1461:tsa ho
1263:, the
1229:follow
1197:of•his
1194:la•hae
1181:people
1105:Ntate
1056:Thola
1036:penult
1002:bonang
788:nom. 9
755:rarela
736:rarane
725:recip.
719:rarana
659:nom. 5
642:nom. 3
559:boroko
553:moloko
549:leloko
527:-hlano
522:-caanu
516:-hlano
500:kgwedi
496:ngwedi
482:ledimo
478:Bodimo
474:Badimo
466:Modimo
438:-rithi
428:moholo
420:boholo
406:sejeso
345:Ubuntu
3219:NaĘĽvi
3178:Otomi
3163:Inuit
3139:Nawat
3091:Algic
3076:Malay
2981:Khmer
2872:Tamil
2834:Sotho
2822:Pular
2739:Ubykh
2685:Yakut
2680:Uzbek
2660:Tatar
2568:Koine
2558:Greek
2546:Other
2535:Vedic
2465:Tajik
2382:Czech
2296:Latin
2241:Welsh
2219:Irish
2134:Dutch
2095:Verbs
2080:Nouns
1701:Notes
1667:nouns
1655:verbs
1602:-a•a-
1526:•tjho
1511:•tjho
1178:Batho
1084:Latin
907:nyewe
605:-rar-
588:Stems
567:rheum
543:tshiu
539:bosiu
525:) ⇒
520:*
462:-dimo
456:ho re
416:-holo
412:-holo
398:ho ja
388:Borwa
380:morwa
355:metsi
351:-itsi
341:botho
337:motho
308:-rut-
294:thuto
243:Roots
121:Note:
63:Verbs
51:Nouns
3188:sign
3014:Thai
2958:Mizo
2844:Zulu
2817:Fula
2617:Komi
2520:Odia
2231:Manx
1989:ISBN
1952:word
1876:Doke
1661:and
1519:•ya
1469:•ne
1306:-isa
1272:-isa
1268:-le-
1119:yena
1089:and
1087:-que
1012:bona
994:bona
935:-ka-
872:rala
868:tla
826:are
774:rev.
706:app.
689:ass.
653:rara
636:rara
623:rara
609:bold
577:moko
573:boko
510:ntja
492:-edi
486:Dimo
402:dijo
382:('a
376:-rwa
329:-tho
136:the
3009:Lao
2729:Laz
2224:Old
2144:Old
1871:ho-
1852:que
1813:/ÉŞ/
1809:/É‘/
1807:or
1805:/É›/
1801:ho-
1797:/ĘŠ/
1793:/o/
1758:").
1517:tla
1515:Re•
1496:•ya
1494:tla
1492:Re•
1488:ex:
1477:nga
1475:nga
1465:ne
1455:kgo
1446:nga
1444:nga
1434:•le
1423:•ne
1400:tsa
1386:kgo
1380:ex:
1298:-N-
1294:-a-
1261:-a-
1257:ke-
1174:ex:
1109:mme
1097:).
1095:-ca
1076:le-
1042:).
1010:tla
1008:Ba
998:Ba
990:Ba
983:-ng
974:tla
970:ke
961:tla
957:Ke
946:-a-
942:-a-
931:ha-
792:di-
611:):
506:-ja
470:God
452:-re
440:⇒
394:-j-
370:me-
368:⇒
363:/i/
359:ma-
167:SVO
3293::
1917:.
1763:^
1681:,
1677:,
1673:,
1669:,
1645:,
1628:,
1540:.
1538:ha
1521:ha
1502:ha
1463:ba
1459:le
1442:ma
1412:ne
1410:ba
1408:ho
1398:le
1388:na
1315:.
1290:o-
1126:Le
1117:le
1107:le
1093:च
1058:bo
1049:yo
1000:ka
992:ka
972:no
968:Ha
909:ng
896:-a
866:Ba
837:Ke
763:ho
750:ho
731:ma
714:ho
695:ho
678:ho
665:ho
648:le
631:mo
618:ho
594:-a
569:')
565:('
468:('
361:+
347:')
343:('
310:.
256:.
2032:e
2025:t
2018:v
1995:.
1926:*
1920:*
1856:.
1693:(
1591:.
1524:o
1509:o
1471:a
1467:o
1432:a
1421:o
1374:.
1326:.
1274:(
1231:.
1060:!
959:a
905:a
870:e
786:(
772:(
740:(
723:(
704:(
687:(
657:(
640:(
372:)
366:i
331:(
209:.
198:.
180:.
106:e
99:t
92:v
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