170:
Ones mother's female relatives of the same generation are considered one's mothers, and one's father's male relatives of the same generation are considered one's fathers. Moreover, one cannot marry their fathers' or mothers' children (siblings and parallel cousins), but is allowed/encouraged to marry
1533:
In the vocative, relations through marriage are not distinguished from relations through birth/adoption. However, to avoid ambiguity, in the nominative there exist special terms for parents-in-law and children-in-law. It is worth noting that the terms for a female ego's parents-in-law literally mean
1233:
For the generation directly below that of the ego, the names one uses for the children of one's siblings, cross-cousins, and parallel cousins are simply determined by whether or not one has the same gender as the relative on the same generation, who is the child's parent. In particular, all children
144:– and this generation's parents (mother/father and aunts/uncles) and immediate offspring (children and nephews/nieces). These are the generations directly involved in cousin marriage, and the seemingly complicated terminology shows a certain symmetry when one considers the difference between
171:
every other relative of the same generation (cross-cousins). Additionally, the names of these relatives' spouses are dependent upon the names of the relatives, resulting in the seemingly nonsensical (to speakers of other Bantu languages) situation where the inherently gender-dependent terms
113:/traditional variety – is no different from birth. Marriage is not distinguished from birth, except for the names of sons- and daughters-in-law, and the terminology treats relatives through marriage to be no different from relatives through birth.
1856:
descent. That is, if the rules of cousin marriage are adhered to perfectly, and relatives do not marry across generational lines, then it is impossible for two people from the same family and with the same surname to enter into a sanctioned
186:
The
Sesotho system displays a slight bit more complexity than the standard Iroquois systems in that, when it comes to one's mothers and fathers, the terminology further classes them based on relative age to one's biological parents.
792:
The most complexity is displayed in the terms used by one to refer to male and female relatives in one's own generation. Immediate siblings and parallel cousins have similar terms, while cross-cousins all have a single name
1261:
If ego has married their motswala or even "sibling", then that relation's children – who are also ego's biological children – will simply be given the same name as ego's children without further complication.
51:
pronunciation key (excluding tones). Note that often when a section discusses formatives, affixes, or vowels it may be necessary to view the IPA to see the proper conjunctive word division and vowel qualities.
1217:
When speaking to the sibling directly, the names in the table above are used, but when directly speaking to a sibling younger than oneself it is more usual to use their name directly without a title prefix.
116:
The adoption of an
Iroquois kinship system is necessitate by the fact that traditionally large families lived together in compounds, and married children rarely lived far from their parents. Thus, the
1534:"my (parallel) cousin's mother" and "my (parallel) cousin's father", even if one did not marry their cousin; this a relic of the traditional encouragement of parallel cousin marriage.
1234:
who are related to the ego by a parent of the same gender as the ego are referred to as one's children, whereas everyone else from this generation is referred to by the generic term
163:
In
Iroquois kinship systems, the complexity stems from promotion and/or prohibition of certain forms of cousin marriage, resulting in a form of symmetry called
190:
In the chart below, vertical placement signifies relative age, with relatives above one's biological parents being older than one's parents, and vice versa.
155:
Above these three strata, all relatives are grandparents, and below all strata are grandchildren – even in the face of a lack of direct ancestry or descent.
1761:
A male calls simply calls his parents-in-law "mother " and "father", but in the nominative a woman may call her in-laws by the gender-neutral term
1482:. If the specific generation of one's grandchildren is important, then it can be marked by successively applying diminutive suffixes to the word
1126:
The words used by ego when referring to his/her siblings depend on ego's gender, the relative age of ego's sibling, and whether ego is talking
48:
2020:
1945:
rules, which applied most prominently to daughters-in-law. In modern times, the more stringent (gender-asymmetric)
167:
where the parents of one's cross-cousins have a set of names different from the parents of one's parallel cousins.
120:
is far larger and comprises far more categories than the father-mother-children pattern which is common in modern
78:
pattern. The complex terminology rules are necessitated in part by the traditional promotion of certain forms of
1848:
This automatically bars marriage to a relative from the same clan or with the same surname, when considering
2035:
2030:
2025:
1464:
Regardless of direct descent or ancestry, all relatives in generations above ego's parents are called
1456:. This bars marriage to parallel cousins as well as relatives in generations above and below oneself.
102:
1928:
This is in a theoretically "pure" setting where no taboos are broken. That is, not the real world.
87:
2005:
The treatment of kinship: Terminology in Sotho dictionaries, with special reference to
Setswana
35:
1820:
are used to refer to the son- and daughter-in-law respectively, when the more generic terms
149:
121:
75:
79:
1962:
117:
1476:
for females and males respectively, and all relatives below ego's children are called
2014:
145:
98:
83:
1957:
is often used by both daughters- and sons-in-law. Moreover, under the influence of
133:
97:
Due to the importance of family, the terms are limited to relatives through birth (
67:
27:
132:
Iroquois systems make the most terminology distinctions in the generation of the "
74:– has a complex system of kinship terms which may be classified to fall under the
2000:. Southern African Humanities Vol. 16 Pages 71–78 Pietermaritzburg December 2004
1853:
1849:
675:
91:
1450:
In summary, ego can marry a relative only if ego's parents call that relative
1131:
110:
1225:
may be used when speaking about/to a younger sibling of the opposite gender.
1903:
1867:
805:("give birth"), denoting the fact that cross-cousin marriage is encouraged.
1958:
1938:
1139:
137:
106:
141:
71:
63:
59:
34:. For a discussion of the differences between the two see the notes on
31:
1788:(generic terms for "man" and "woman", respectively). In the vocative,
26:
The orthography used in this and related articles is that of
770:("father") plus diminutive suffix; literally "small father"
715:("mother") plus diminutive suffix; literally "small mother"
1951:
rules have largely been abandoned and as a result the term
1874:
here to refer to the default form of the noun, whereas by
2007:. M.A. Lexicography thesis. Pretoria: Univ. of Pretoria.
752:
The same word as "grandfather", signifying "old father"
697:
The same word as "grandmother", signifying "old mother"
1998:
Southern Bantu origins: light from kinship terminology
1878:
we mean the form used to address the person directly.
1776:. More specifically, in the nominative a husband is
1516:
183:are unisex when used for one's relatives' spouses.
90:. Most of the terms used have common reconstructed
1508:
1220:
737:indicating femininity; literally "female father"
1500:
1471:
745:
682:indicating masculinity; literally "male mother"
1801:
1972:
1492:
1483:
1477:
42:
8:
1886:
1884:
1240:. Equivalently, if a child refers to ego as
1207:
794:
733:- prefix ("father") plus Proto-Bantu suffix
1983:for mother- and father-in-law respectively.
1978:
1966:
1952:
1914:
1913:(older brother) respectively. In the past,
1891:
1809:
1771:
1762:
1451:
1253:
1235:
1188:
1175:
705:
1815:
1800:are used or – less formerly – the generic
1789:
1536:
1264:
807:
800:
650:
192:
17:
1946:
1939:
1200:
760:
1897:
1821:
1783:
1777:
1465:
1442:
1247:
1241:
1182:
1144:
723:
690:
664:
604:
178:
172:
109:– the modern legal variety or the older
1841:
1971:has diverged into the gender-specific
1827:
1795:
1436:
1435:The names used for ego's children are
636:
622:
1937:This asymmetry is due to traditional
1737:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1722:
1720:
1686:
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7:
41:Hovering the mouse cursor over most
1447:, depending on the child's gender.
1528:
1252:, then ego refers to the child as
158:
14:
1770:The generic term for a spouse is
47:Sesotho text should reveal an
1:
1996:Hammond-Tooke, W. D., 2004.
1268:Ego's children's generation
1229:Ego's children's generation
2052:
1540:Family of Sesotho kinship
787:
2003:Molalapata, B. T., 2004.
1744:
1742:
1735:
1725:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1702:
1698:
1692:
1670:
1668:
1648:
1642:
1635:
1633:
1631:
1614:
1612:
1586:
1580:
1569:
1567:
1565:
1387:
1385:
1383:
1375:
1373:
1371:
1363:
1361:
1355:
1351:
1345:
1333:
1329:
1323:
1166:
1153:
1065:
1063:
1061:
1053:
1051:
1043:
1041:
1031:
1027:
1021:
1007:
1005:
997:
995:
983:
977:
958:
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954:
927:
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923:
917:
915:
913:
905:
903:
901:
895:
893:
891:
883:
879:
877:
875:
869:
867:
865:
849:
845:
843:
841:
835:
833:
831:
674:- prefix ("mother") plus
595:
593:
586:
572:
559:
557:
545:
543:
525:
523:
516:
502:
489:
487:
475:
473:
451:
449:
440:
438:
412:
410:
404:
402:
396:
394:
376:
370:
363:
361:
359:
338:
336:
324:
322:
304:
302:
295:
281:
268:
266:
254:
252:
234:
232:
225:
211:
1529:Ego's spouse and in-laws
1521:– great-great-grandchild
1518:setloho-tloho-tloholwana
1513:– great-great-grandchild
757:Father's younger brother
159:Ego's parents generation
1806:("my spouse") is used.
1219:Additionally, the name
799:derived from the verb -
702:Mother's younger sister
1866:Sesotho does not have
742:Father's older brother
62:– the language of the
1460:Remaining generations
687:Mother's older sister
1832:are not being used.
136:" (oneself) – one's
2021:Kinship terminology
1919:was gender-neutral.
1909:(older sister) and
1147:
1510:setloho-tloholwana
1505:– great-grandchild
1145:
88:sub-Saharan Africa
1759:
1758:
1748:
1747:
1433:
1432:
1422:
1421:
1215:
1214:
1154:Sibling's gender
1146:Nominative names
1124:
1123:
1113:
1112:
811:Ego's generation
785:
784:
774:
773:
599:
598:
165:bifurcate merging
57:
56:
36:Sotho orthography
2043:
1984:
1982:
1976:
1970:
1956:
1950:
1943:
1935:
1929:
1926:
1920:
1918:
1901:
1895:
1888:
1879:
1864:
1858:
1846:
1831:
1825:
1819:
1813:
1805:
1799:
1793:
1787:
1781:
1775:
1766:
1572:(father-in-law)♂
1563:(mother-in-law)♀
1546:
1545:
1537:
1520:
1512:
1504:
1496:
1487:
1481:
1475:
1469:
1455:
1446:
1440:
1307:(opposite gender
1274:
1273:
1265:
1257:
1251:
1245:
1239:
1224:
1211:
1204:
1192:
1186:
1179:
1148:
817:
816:
808:
804:
798:
788:Ego's generation
764:
749:
727:
709:
694:
668:
661:Mother's brother
654:
640:
626:
605:
202:
201:
193:
182:
176:
150:parallel cousins
122:European culture
101:) and marriage (
76:Iroquois kinship
66:ethnic group of
46:
18:
2051:
2050:
2046:
2045:
2044:
2042:
2041:
2040:
2011:
2010:
1993:
1988:
1987:
1936:
1932:
1927:
1923:
1889:
1882:
1865:
1861:
1847:
1843:
1838:
1531:
1462:
1308:
1297:
1231:
1218:
1168:
1138:their sibling (
1130:their sibling (
972:
941:
790:
720:Father's sister
161:
130:
80:cousin marriage
12:
11:
5:
2049:
2047:
2039:
2038:
2036:Sotho language
2033:
2028:
2023:
2013:
2012:
2009:
2008:
2001:
1992:
1989:
1986:
1985:
1963:Northern Sotho
1930:
1921:
1880:
1859:
1840:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1757:
1756:
1750:
1749:
1746:
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1578:
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1570:
1568:
1566:
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1559:
1557:
1555:
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1542:
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1530:
1527:
1526:
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1522:
1514:
1506:
1498:
1461:
1458:
1431:
1430:
1424:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1417:
1414:
1412:
1409:
1407:
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1402:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1391:
1390:
1388:
1386:
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1380:
1378:
1376:
1374:
1372:
1370:
1368:
1365:
1364:
1362:
1360:
1358:
1356:
1354:
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1350:
1348:
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1344:
1342:
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1338:
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1326:
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1230:
1227:
1213:
1212:
1205:
1198:
1194:
1193:
1180:
1173:
1170:
1164:
1163:
1160:
1156:
1155:
1152:
1122:
1121:
1115:
1114:
1111:
1109:
1108:
1105:
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1100:
1098:
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1038:
1036:
1034:
1032:
1030:
1028:
1026:
1024:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1016:
1014:
1012:
1010:
1008:
1006:
1004:
1002:
1000:
998:
996:
994:
992:
990:
988:
985:
984:
982:
980:
978:
975:
974:
969:
967:
964:
962:
959:
957:
955:
953:
950:
948:
945:
943:
938:
936:
934:
931:
930:
928:
926:
924:
922:
920:
918:
916:
914:
912:
910:
908:
906:
904:
902:
900:
898:
896:
894:
892:
890:
888:
885:
884:
882:
880:
878:
876:
874:
872:
870:
868:
866:
864:
862:
860:
858:
856:
854:
852:
850:
848:
846:
844:
842:
840:
838:
836:
834:
832:
830:
828:
826:
824:
822:
820:
813:
812:
789:
786:
783:
782:
776:
775:
772:
771:
765:
758:
754:
753:
750:
743:
739:
738:
728:
721:
717:
716:
710:
703:
699:
698:
695:
688:
684:
683:
669:
662:
658:
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648:
644:
643:
641:
634:
630:
629:
627:
620:
616:
615:
612:
609:
601:
600:
597:
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594:
591:
590:
587:
585:
582:
580:
578:
576:
573:
571:
568:
566:
563:
561:
560:
558:
556:
554:
552:
550:
548:
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544:
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540:
538:
536:
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530:
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521:
520:
517:
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512:
510:
508:
506:
503:
501:
498:
496:
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491:
490:
488:
486:
484:
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478:
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470:
468:
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455:
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452:
450:
448:
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431:
429:
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411:
409:
407:
405:
403:
401:
399:
397:
395:
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391:
389:
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383:
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378:
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368:
367:
364:
362:
360:
358:
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353:
351:
349:
347:
345:
342:
340:
339:
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335:
333:
331:
329:
327:
325:
323:
321:
319:
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224:
221:
219:
217:
215:
212:
210:
207:
205:
198:
197:
196:Kinship chart
160:
157:
129:
126:
118:nuclear family
55:
54:
53:
52:
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146:cross-cousins
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99:consanguinity
95:
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84:Bantu peoples
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61:
50:
45:
40:
37:
33:
29:
25:
24:
23:
20:
19:
16:
2026:Sotho people
2004:
1997:
1979:
1973:
1967:
1953:
1947:
1940:
1933:
1924:
1915:
1910:
1906:
1898:
1892:
1875:
1871:
1862:
1844:
1828:
1822:
1816:
1810:
1808:
1802:
1796:
1790:
1784:
1782:and wife is
1778:
1772:
1769:
1763:
1760:
1753:
1723:Mokgwenyana♂
1532:
1517:
1509:
1502:setloholwana
1501:
1497:– grandchild
1493:
1484:
1478:
1472:
1466:
1463:
1452:
1449:
1443:
1437:
1434:
1427:
1296:(same gender
1260:
1254:
1248:
1242:
1236:
1232:
1221:
1216:
1208:
1201:
1189:
1183:
1176:
1169:relative age
1135:
1127:
1125:
1118:
942:Ntatemoholo♂
801:
795:
791:
779:
767:
761:
746:
734:
730:
724:
712:
706:
691:
679:
671:
665:
651:
637:
623:
614:Explanation
608:Relationship
284:Ntatemoholo♂
228:Ntatemoholo♂
189:
185:
179:
173:
169:
164:
162:
154:
131:
115:
96:
68:South Africa
58:
43:
28:South Africa
21:
15:
1854:matrilineal
1850:patrilineal
1811:Mokgwenyana
1473:ntatemoholo
747:Ntatemoholo
676:Proto-Bantu
128:Generations
92:Proto-Bantu
2015:Categories
1991:References
1902:come from
1890:The terms
1872:nominative
1803:mohats'aka
1132:nominative
971:Mmangwane/
570:Mmangwane♀
514:Mmangwane♀
111:common-law
82:among the
1965:the term
1916:Moholwane
1904:Afrikaans
1870:. We use
1868:noun case
1857:marriage.
1494:setloholo
1488:, giving
1485:setloholo
1479:setloholo
1309:relative)
1298:relative)
1222:kgaitsedi
1190:Moholwane
1167:Sibling's
1107:(sibling)
1090:(sibling)
1078:(sibling)
940:Rangwane/
707:Mmangwane
575:Rangwane♂
519:Rangwane♂
1974:mmatsale
1959:Setswana
1948:hlonepha
1941:hlonepha
1876:vocative
1738:Ngwetsi♀
1638:(spouse)
1453:motjhana
1416:Motjhana
1255:motjhana
1237:motjhana
1197:Younger
1140:vocative
1102:Motswala
1083:Motswala
947:Rakgadi♀
796:motswala
762:Rangwane
505:Rakgadi♀
500:Rakgadi♂
214:Rakgadi♀
209:Rakgadi♂
138:siblings
107:Adoption
103:affinity
1980:ratsale
1968:matsale
1954:matsale
1911:ou boet
1817:ngwetsi
1773:mohatsa
1764:matsale
1728:Moradi♀
1406:Moradi♀
1396:Moradi♀
1243:rakgadi
973:Nkgono♀
966:Malome♂
735:*-kádî́
725:Rakgadi
678:suffix
589:Malome♀
584:Malome♂
298:Malome♀
293:Malome♂
279:Nkgono♀
223:Nkgono♀
174:rakgadi
142:cousins
94:roots.
72:Lesotho
64:Basotho
60:Sesotho
32:Lesotho
1907:ou sis
1823:moradi
1785:mosadi
1754:Notes:
1467:nkgono
1444:moradi
1428:Notes:
1249:malome
1172:Older
1159:Female
1151:
1119:Notes:
802:tswala
780:Notes:
692:Nkgono
680:*-dúme
666:Malome
647:Father
633:Mother
357:Ntate♂
180:malome
44:italic
30:, not
1899:abuti
1836:Notes
1791:ntate
1779:monna
1733:Mora♂
1411:Mora♂
1401:Mora♂
1209:Moena
1202:Nnake
1184:Abuti
1162:Male
1134:) or
1128:about
952:Ntate
652:Ntate
22:Note:
1977:and
1961:and
1896:and
1893:ausi
1829:mora
1826:and
1814:and
1794:and
1524:etc.
1470:and
1441:and
1438:mora
1177:Ausi
611:Name
366:Mme♀
177:and
148:and
140:and
70:and
1852:or
1797:mme
1629:Nna
1283:Nna
1246:or
1142:).
1095:Nna
961:Mme
768:Ra-
713:Mma
638:Mme
624:Nna
619:Ego
445:Nna
134:ego
105:).
86:of
49:IPA
2017::
1883:^
1767:.
1258:.
1136:to
731:Ra
672:Ma
152:.
124:.
1187:/
38:.
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