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using task switching paradigms have demonstrated the complexities of the network involved in cognitive flexibility. Activation of the dorsolateral PFC has been shown during resolution of interference of irrelevant task sets. Another study further extended these results by demonstrating that the level of abstractness of the switch type influenced recruitment of differing regions in the PFC depending on whether the participant was asked to make a cognitive set switch, a response switch, or a stimulus or perceptual switch. A set switch would require switching between task rules, as with the WCST, and is considered to be the most abstract. A response switch would require different response mapping, such as circle right button and square left button and vice versa. Lastly, a stimulus or perceptual set switch would require a simple switch between a circle and a square. Activation is mediated by the level of abstractness of the set switch in an anterior to posterior fashion within the PFC, with the most anterior activations elicited by set switches and the most posterior activations resulting from stimulus or perceptual switches. The basal ganglia is active during response selection and the PPC, along with the inferior frontal junction are active during representation and updating of task sets called domain general switching.
1037:, which is frequently computer-supported instruction. Computers allow for complex data to be presented in a multidimensional and coherent format, allowing users to access that data as needed. The most widely used example of hypertext is the Internet, which dynamically presents information in terms of interconnection (e.g. hyperlinks). Hypertext documents, therefore, include nodes – bits of information – and links, the pathways between these nodes. Applications for teacher education have involved teacher-training sessions based on video instruction, whereby novice teachers viewed footage of master teachers conducting a literacy workshop. In this example, the novice teachers received a laserdisc of the course content, a hypertext document that allowed the learners to access content in a self-directed manner. These
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ink, which participants are again asked name as quickly as possible. The final card type is the "color-word card", which displays the names of the colors printed in an ink of a conflicting color (e.g. the word RED would be printed in yellow), and requires participants to name the ink colors while ignoring the conflicting color names. The basic score on each card is the total time (in seconds) that the participant takes to respond verbally. Typically, naming the color of the word takes longer and results in more errors when the color of the ink does not match the name of the color. In this situation, adults tend to take longer to respond than children because adults are more sensitive to the actual color of the word and thus are more likely to be influenced by it when naming the conflicting color word printed.
762:. In multiple classification tasks, participants (primarily children, who have already developed or are in the process of developing this skill) must classify objects in several different ways at once - thereby thinking flexibly about them. Similarly, in order to be cognitively flexible they must overcome centration, which is the tendency for young children to solely focus on one aspect of an object or situation. For example, when children are young they may be solely able to focus on one aspect of an object (i.e. color of object), and be unable to focus on both aspects (i.e. both color and kind of object). Thus, research suggests if an individual is centrated in their thinking, then they will be more cognitively inflexible.
777:. Fluid intelligence, described as the ability to solve problems in new situations, enables fluid reasoning ability. When one is able to reason fluidly, they are in turn more likely to be cognitively flexible. Furthermore, those who are able to be cognitively flexible have been shown to have the ability to switch between and/or simultaneously think about sounds and meanings, which increases their reading fluency and comprehension. Cognitive flexibility has also been shown to be related to one's ability to cope in particular situations. For example, when individuals are better able to shift their thinking from situation to situation they will focus less on stressors within these situations.
1025:, a standards-based education reform developed to increase high school graduation rates, educators are expected to present within the classroom "high level cognitive demands by asking students to demonstrate deep conceptual understanding through the application of content knowledge and skills to new situations." This guideline is the essence of cognitive flexibility, and a teaching style focused on promoting it has been seen to foster understanding especially in disciplines where information is complex and nonlinear. A counterexample is evident in cases where such material is presented in an oversimplified manner and learners fail to transfer their knowledge to a new domain.
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beliefs or habits (when it is required for new situations) then they would be considered cognitively flexible. Lastly, the ability to simultaneously consider two aspects of an object, idea, or situation at one point in time refers to cognitive flexibility. According to this definition, when sorting cards based on specific rules, children are considered cognitively flexible if they can sort cards based on the color of the objects and type of objects on the card simultaneously. Similarly, cognitive flexibility has been defined as having the understanding and awareness of all possible options and alternatives simultaneously within any given situation.
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802:, children are shown an object hidden at Location A within their reach, and are then prompted to search for the object at Location A, where they find it. This activity is repeated several times, with the hidden object at Location A. Then, in the critical trial and while the child is watching, the object is hidden in Location B, a second location within easy reach of child. Researchers have agreed that the A-not-B task is a simple task that effectively measures cognitive flexibility during infancy.
973:. Each of these disorders exhibit varying aspects of cognitive inflexibility. For example, those with obsessive–compulsive disorder experience difficulty shifting their attentional focus as well as inhibiting motor responses. Children with autism show a slightly different profile with deficits in adjusting to changing task contingencies, while often maintaining the ability to respond in the face of competing responses. Potential treatments may lie in neurochemical modulation. Juveniles with
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blue animals and blue foods). This task appears to be more difficult as research has shown that seven-year-old children were incapable of sorting cards based on the two dimensions simultaneously. These children focused on the two dimensions separately, whereas at the age of eleven, children were capable of sorting cards based on these two dimensions simultaneously. This demonstrates an increase in cognitive flexibility between the ages of seven and eleven.
1041:(CFH) provide a "three-dimensional" and "open-ended" representation of material for learners, enabling them to incorporate new information and form connections with preexisting knowledge. While further research is needed to determine the efficacy of CFH as an instructional tool, classrooms where cognitive flexibility theory is applied in this manner are hypothesized to result in students more capable of transferring knowledge across domains.
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1069:) exhibited greater "mental flexibility" on a series of measures than did non-gamers. The researchers posit that, while video game play may be controversial due to frequently graphic content, harnessing the effect of such games could lead to similar gains in various populations (e.g. the elderly, who face cognitive decline) and is therefore socially relevant.
650:. In this sense, it can be seen as neural underpinnings of adaptive and flexible behavior. Most flexibility tests were developed under this assumption several decades ago. Nowadays, cognitive flexibility can also be referred to as a set of properties of the brain that facilitate flexible yet relevant switching between functional brain states.
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755:. Thus, when an individual is better able to suppress aspects of a stimulus to focus on more important aspects (i.e. inhibit color of object to focus on kind of object), they are also more cognitively flexible. In this sense, they are better at planning, organizing, and at employing particular memory strategies.
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themselves, asking questions. In forming these questions, students are actively brainstorming and recalling prior knowledge. At this point, the teacher provides specific conditions of the issue discussed, and students must adapt their prior knowledge, along with that of their peers, to generate a solution.
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Further indicative of the role cognitive flexibility plays in education is the argument that how students are taught greatly impacts the nature and formation of their cognitive structures, which in turn affect students' ability to store and readily access information. A crucial aim of education is to
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The regions active during engagement of cognitive flexibility depend on the task and various factors involved in flexibility that are used to assess the behavior, as flexible thinking requires aspects of inhibition, attention, working memory, response selection, and goal maintenance. Several studies
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In general, researchers in the field focus on development of cognitive flexibility between the ages of three and five. However, cognitive flexibility has been shown to be a broad concept that can be studied with all different ages and situations. Thus, with tasks ranging from simple to more complex,
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skills are crucial to success both in classroom settings and life. A study examining the impact of cognitive intervention for at-risk children in preschool classrooms found that children who received such intervention for one to two years significantly outperformed their peers. Compared to same-age
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integrity, and brain volume. Regions associated with cognitive flexibility such as the PFC and PC atrophy, or shrink, with age, but also show greater task-related activation in older individuals when compared to younger individuals. This increase in blood flow is potentially related to the evidence
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have marked decreases in set-shifting abilities, possibly associated with incomplete maturation of prefrontal cortices associated with malnutrition. One can also consider people with addictions to be limited in cognitive flexibility, in that they are unable to flexibly respond to stimuli previously
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In this test, a number of cards are presented to the participants. The figures on the cards differ with respect to color, quantity, and shape. The participants are then told to match the cards, but not how to match; however, they are told whether a particular match is right or wrong. The ability to
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is also known as the Color-word Naming Test. In this measure, there are three types of cards in the deck. The "color card" displays patches of different colors, which participants are asked to identify as quickly as possible. The "word card," displays the names of colors printed in black and white
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In the
Multiple Classification Card Sorting Task, children are shown cards and asked to sort them based on two different dimensions (e.g. by color, such as yellow and blue, and object type, such as animals and food) simultaneously into four piles within a matrix (e.g. yellow animals, yellow foods,
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In the
Dimensional Change Card Sorting Task (DCCS), children are initially asked to sort cards by a single dimension (such as color), and are subsequently required to alter their strategy to sort cards based on a second dimension (such as shape). Typically, three-year-old children are able to sort
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Children can be strikingly inflexible when assessed using traditional tests of cognitive flexibility, but this does not come as a surprise considering the many cognitive processes involved in the mental flexibility, and the various developmental trajectories of such abilities. With age, children
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Cognitive flexibility has been more broadly described as the ability to adjust one's thinking from old situations to new situations as well as the ability to overcome responses or thinking that have become habitual and adapt to new situations. As such, if one is able to overcome previously held
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Cognitive flexibility varies during the lifespan of an individual. Researchers have more specifically described cognitive flexibility as the capacity to shift or switch one's thinking and attention between different tasks or operations typically in response to a change in rules or demands. For
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is an intrinsic property of a cognitive system often associated with the mental ability to adjust its activity and content, switch between different task rules and corresponding behavioral responses, maintain multiple concepts simultaneously and shift internal attention between them. The term
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Researchers in the field advocate a teaching style that incorporates group problem-solving activities and demands higher-level thought. According to this process, a teacher initially poses a single question in a number of ways. Next, students discuss the problem with the teacher and amongst
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Regardless of the specificity of the definition, researchers have generally agreed that cognitive flexibility is a component of executive functioning, higher-order cognition involving the ability to control one's thinking. Executive functioning includes other aspects of cognition, including
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help students learn as well as appropriately apply and adapt what they have learned to novel situations. This is reflected in the integration of cognitive flexibility into educational policy regarding academic guidelines and expectations. For example, as outlined in the
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children who were randomly assigned to the control condition (a literacy unit developed by the school district), preschoolers who received intervention achieved accuracy scores of 85% on tests of inhibitory control (self-discipline), cognitive flexibility, and
1017:. Their peers in the control (no intervention) condition, on the other hand, demonstrated only 65% accuracy. Educators involved in this study ultimately opted to implement the cognitive skills training techniques instead of the district-developed curriculum.
715:, which is the ability to adapt to situational demands, to balance life demands and to commit to behaviors by thinking about problems and tasks in novel, creative ways (for example by changing a stance or commitment when unexpected events occur).
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A variety of assessments are appropriate for distinguishing between different levels of cognitive flexibility at different ages. Below are the common tests used to assess cognitive flexibility in the order of the developmentally appropriate age.
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Chamberlain, S R; Blackwell A D; Fineberg N A; Robbins T W; Sahakian B J (May 2005). "The neuropsychology of obsessive compulsive disorder: the importance of failures in cognitive and behavioural inhibition as candidate endophenotypic markers".
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cards based on a single dimension, but are unable to switch to sort the cards based on a second dimension. However, five-year-old children are able to sort cards based on one dimension and can then switch to sorting cards on a second dimension.
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example, when sorting cards based on specific rules, children are considered cognitively flexible if they are able to successfully switch from sorting cards based on the color of the object to sorting based on the type of object on the card.
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Miyake, A; Friedman, N.P.; Emerson, M.J.; Witzki, A.H.; Howerter, A.; Wagner, T. (2000). "The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "frontal lobe" tasks: A latent variable analysis".
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Miyake, A; Friedman, N P; Emerson, M J.; Witzki, A H; Howerter, A; Wagner, T (2000). "The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "frontal lobe" tasks: A latent variable analysis".
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Understanding of the mechanisms underlying cognitive flexibility is a subject of current research. It remains an elusive property of distributed brain function that instantiates itself in many ways. Human studies using
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GarcĂa-Betances, Rebeca Isabel; Cabrera-UmpiĂ©rrez, MarĂa
Fernanda; Arredondo, MarĂa T. (January 2018). "Computerized neurocognitive interventions in the context of the brain training controversy".
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Bühren, K; Mainz V; Herpertz-Dahlmann B; Schäfer K; Kahraman-Lanzerath B; Lente C; Konrad K (2012). "Cognitive flexibility in juvenile anorexia nervosa patients before and after weight recovery".
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that atrophy heightens blood flow and metabolism, which is measured as the BOLD response, or blood-oxygen-level dependence, with fMRI. Studies suggest that aerobic exercise and training can have
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The elderly often experience deficits in cognitive flexibility. The aging brain undergoes physical and functional changes including a decline in processing speed, central sensory functioning,
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Yehene, E; Meiran N; Soroker N (June 2008). "Basal ganglia play a unique role in task switching within the frontal-subcortical circuits: evidence from patients with focal lesions".
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Tetlow, Amber M.; Edwards, Jerri D. (December 2017). "Systematic literature review and meta-analysis of commercially available computerized cognitive training among older adults".
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Cartwright, K B (2002). "Cognitive development and reading: The relation of reading-specific multiple classification skill to reading comprehension in elementary school children".
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inhibition, memory, emotional stability, planning, and organization. Cognitive flexibility is highly related with a number of these abilities, including inhibition, planning and
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The design, development, and evaluation of
Literacy education: application and practice (LEAP): an interactive hypermedia program for English/language arts teacher education
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Biederam J, Faraone S, Monutaeux M, et al. (2000). "Neuropsychological functioning in nonreferred siblings of children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder".
708:(PPC). Studies conducted with people of various ages and with particular deficits have further informed how cognitive flexibility develops and changes within the brain.
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Bigler, R S; Liben, L S (1992). "Cognitive mechanisms in children's gender stereotyping: Theoretical and educational implications of a cognitive-based intervention".
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are associated with reduced cognitive flexibility. Since cognitive flexibility is a vital component of learning, deficits in this area might have other implications.
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Kriete, T; Noelle D C (2005). "Impaired cognitive flexibility and intact cognitive control in autism: A computational cognitive neuroscience approach".
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692:(fMRI) research has shown that specific brain regions are activated when a person engages in cognitive flexibility tasks. These regions include the
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Klimova, Blanka (September 2017). "Online brain training programs for healthy older individuals". In
Frasson, Claude; Kostopoulos, George (eds.).
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Morton, JB; Bosma R; Ansari D (2009). "Age-related changes in brain activation associated with dimensional shifts of attention: An fMRI study".
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switch matching rules is measured. Typically, children between ages nine and eleven demonstrate the cognitive flexibility needed for this test.
856:(WCST) is used to determine an individual's competence in abstract reasoning, and the ability to change problem-solving strategies when needed.
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The capacity for objective appraisal and appropriately flexible action. Cognitive flexibility also implies adaptability and fair-mindedness.
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Researchers have argued that cognitive flexibility is also a component of multiple classification, as originally described by psychologist
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Kirkham, N Z; Cruess, L; Diamond, A (2003). "Helping children apply their knowledge to their behavior on a dimension-switching task".
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1974:"Automatic shifts of attention in the Dimensional Change Card Sort Task: Subtle changes in task materials lead to flexible switching"
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Brain function assessment in learning: first international conference, BFAL 2017, Patras, Greece, September 24–25, 2017: proceedings
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have shown that cognitive flexibility relies on a variety of distinct regions of the brain that work in concert, including the
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inducing effects that could potentially serve as an intervention in old age that combat the decline in executive function.
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Zelazo, P D; Frye, D (1998). "Cognitive complexity and control: II. The development of executive function in childhood".
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generally show increases in cognitive flexibility which is likely a product of the protracted development of the
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Several online programs marketed to those seeking to increase cognitive ability have been created to enhance "
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Zelazo, P D; Frye, D; Rapus, T (1996). "An age-related dissociation between knowing rules and using them".
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Cognitive flexibility varies during the lifespan of an individual. In addition, certain conditions such as
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1057:. Examining the trait under the guise of "mental flexibility", Dutch researchers observed that players of
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Other terms for and components of cognitive flexibility include mental flexibility, mental set shifting,
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Chelune, Gordon J.; Baer, Ruth A. (1986). "Developmental norms for the
Wisconsin Card Sorting Test".
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Greenwood, P M (November 2007). "Functional plasticity in cognitive aging: review and hypothesis".
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Diminished cognitive flexibility has been noted in a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders such as
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Research has suggested that cognitive flexibility is related to other cognitive abilities, such as
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Two common approaches to studying of cognitive flexibility focus on the unconscious capacity for
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research suggests that there is a developmental continuum that spans from infancy to adulthood.
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Masley, S; Roetzheim R; Gualtieri T (2009). "Aerobic exercise enhances cognitive flexibility".
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Moore, Adam; Malinowski, Peter (2009). "Mediation, mindfulness, and cognitive flexibility".
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Piaget, J (1972). "The mental development of the child". In Weiner, I B; Elkind, D (eds.).
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1851:"Performance enhancement with low stress and anxiety modulated by cognitive flexibility"
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Deak, G O (2003). "The development of cognitive flexibility and language abilities".
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Scott, William A. (December 1962). "Cognitive complexity and cognitive flexibility".
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A vastly different application can be seen in the study of cognitive flexibility and
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Neurobiological effects of physical exercise § Cognitive control and memory
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1269:. Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education. pp. 991–993.
1263:"Cognitive flexibility theory: implications for teaching and teacher education"
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The
American Psychological Association (APA) defines cognitive flexibility as:
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2137:"Common and distinct mechanisms of cognitive flexibility in prefrontal cortex"
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2572:"Neural substrates of cognitive inflexibility after chronic cocaine exposure"
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1297:"Neural predictors of moment-to-moment fluctuations in cognitive flexibility"
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Proceedings of the 27th annual conference of the cognitive science society
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Martin, M M; Rubin, R B (1995). "A new measure of cognitive flexibility".
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An alternative educational approach informed by cognitive flexibility is
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Colzato, L S; van
Leeuwen, P; van den Wildenberg, W; Hommel, B (2010).
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Han, H D; Park, H W; Kee, B S; Na, C; Na, D E; Zaichkowsky, L (1998).
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Colzanto, L S; van Wouwe, N C; Lavender, T J; & Hommel, B (2006).
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2763:"Common Core State Standards Initiative Standards-Setting Criteria"
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Constructivism and the
Technology of Instruction: A Conversation
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Stalnaker, T A; Takahashi Y; Roesch MR; Schoenbaum G (2009).
2249:"Two mechanisms for task switching in the prefrontal cortex"
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Kim, C; Johnson N F; Cilles S E; Gold B T (March 30, 2011).
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Leber, A B; Turk-Browne N B; Chun M M (September 9, 2008).
668:. Methods of measuring cognitive flexibility include the
2394:(May 2006). "Set shifting deficit in anorexia nervosa".
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Diamond, A.; Barnett, W S; Thomas, J; Munro, S (2007).
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APA Dictionary of Psychology, "Cognitive Flexibility"
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Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology
2186:Rikhye, R; Gilra A; Halassa M (November 19, 2018).
2670:Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings
2439:Etchepareborda, M C; Mulas F (February 2004). "".
711:Cognitive flexibility should not be confused with
2924:"Shooter video games improve mental flexibility"
1785:. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 271–279.
1681:. National Center for Learning Disabilities and
1199:. National Center for Learning Disabilities and
2095:Jensen, A R (1965). "Scoring the Stroop test".
1708:Nack, Corey; Yu-Chin, Chiu (December 8, 2023).
1302:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
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1191:Cooper-Kahn, Joyce; Dietzel, Laurie C. (2008).
999:Implications for education and general learning
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2713:"Preschool Program Improves Cognitive Control"
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2247:Hyafil, A; Summerfield C; Koechlin E (2009).
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945:volume occurring from birth to mid-twenties.
646:is traditionally used to refer to one of the
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27:Ability to switch thinking about two concepts
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2829:(1st ed.). Routledge. pp. 57–75.
1904:Current Directions in Psychological Science
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1049:Learning applications beyond the classroom
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678:Multiple Classification Card Sorting Task
2470:Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews
1982:Journal of Experimental Child Psychology
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1207:from the original on September 20, 2014.
1029:Impact on teaching and curriculum design
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2821:Duffy, Thomas M.; Spiro, Rand (1992).
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1023:Common Core State Standards Initiative
2850:Stephens, Elizabeth Campbell (1995).
884:functional magnetic resonance imaging
690:Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
7:
3080:What is Cognitive Flexibility Theory
1689:from the original on January 2, 2013
1076:", including cognitive flexibility.
814:Dimensional Change Card Sorting Task
809:Dimensional Change Card Sorting Task
674:Dimensional Change Card Sorting Task
2790:Chikatla, S; Rebecca Reese (2007).
2779:from the original on June 13, 2010.
1261:Boger-Mehall, Stephanie R. (1996).
1620:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1992.tb01700.x
1564:. Vol. 31. pp. 271–327.
1419:American Psychological Association
1273:from the original on March 9, 2018
25:
2955:Lecture Notes in Computer Science
2303:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
1813:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
1755:Journal of Educational Psychology
969:, and in a subset of people with
933:evident in adults, with maturing
3000:Journal of Cognitive Enhancement
2934:. April 29, 2010. Archived from
2590:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2008.07.019
2361:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.01.037
1193:"What is executive functioning?"
1039:cognitive flexibility hypertexts
1008:Cognitive flexibility and other
886:(fMRI) and animal studies using
591:
47:
2483:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.11.006
1679:"Executive Function Fact Sheet"
2792:"Cognitive Flexibility Theory"
2529:Journal of Neural Transmission
2268:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2828-08.2009
2155:10.1016/j.brainres.2012.06.013
2061:Journal of Abnormal Psychology
1:
2854:(Ph.D. thesis). Houston, TX:
2045:10.1016/S0885-2014(96)90027-1
1783:Readings in Child Development
1570:10.1016/s0065-2407(03)31007-9
959:obsessive–compulsive disorder
655:obsessive–compulsive disorder
334:Industrial and organizational
3082:by Michigan State University
3035:Reviews in the Neurosciences
2390:Steinglass, J E; Walsh B T;
2111:10.1016/0001-6918(65)90024-7
1917:10.1111/1467-8721.ep10774761
1531:10.1016/j.concog.2008.12.008
1415:APA Dictionary of Psychology
489:Human factors and ergonomics
2967:10.1007/978-3-319-67615-9_4
2825:. In David Jonassen (ed.).
2796:University of South Alabama
2074:10.1037/0021-843X.109.2.252
1518:Consciousness and Cognition
854:Wisconsin Card Sorting Test
848:Wisconsin Card Sorting Test
843:Wisconsin Card Sorting Test
682:Wisconsin Card Sorting Task
3117:
3047:10.1515/revneuro-2017-0031
2647:10.1037/0894-4105.21.6.657
1995:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.07.001
978:associated with the drug.
921:
3012:10.1007/s41465-017-0051-2
2957:. Vol. 10512. Cham:
2682:10.1007/s10880-009-9159-6
2541:10.1007/s00702-012-0821-z
2410:10.1017/s1355617706060528
2206:10.1038/s41593-018-0269-z
1768:10.1037/0022-0663.94.1.56
1657:10.2466/pr0.1995.76.2.623
1237:10.1080/01688638608401314
1086:Flexibility (personality)
900:posterior parietal cortex
896:anterior cingulate cortex
713:psychological flexibility
706:posterior parietal cortex
702:anterior cingulate cortex
664:and conscious ability of
264:Applied behavior analysis
2898:10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00008
1855:Psychiatry Investigation
1004:Educational applications
2884:Frontiers in Psychology
2731:10.1126/science.1151148
2316:10.1162/jocn.2008.20077
2254:Journal of Neuroscience
2142:Journal of Neuroscience
1959:10.1111/1467-7687.00300
1867:10.4306/pi.2011.8.3.221
1411:"Cognitive flexibility"
1324:10.1073/pnas.0805423105
1120:task switching/shifting
454:Behavioral neuroscience
109:Behavioral neuroscience
1714:advances.in/psychology
1486:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
1381:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
1122:, attention switching/
931:frontoparietal network
844:
827:
810:
735:
504:Psychology of religion
444:Behavioral engineering
128:Cognitive neuroscience
94:Affective neuroscience
2856:University of Houston
2516:. pp. 1190–1195.
2441:Revista de NeurologĂa
2033:Cognitive Development
1946:Developmental Science
1644:Psychological Reports
922:Further information:
842:
825:
808:
775:reading comprehension
644:cognitive flexibility
639:Cognitive flexibility
598:Psychology portal
3096:Cognitive psychology
2447:(Suppl 1): S97–102.
1463:Cognitive Psychology
1439:: CS1 maint: year (
1359:Cognitive Psychology
1124:attentional shifting
1059:first-person shooter
935:synaptic connections
877:Neural underpinnings
785:Measures/assessments
746:Contributing factors
2725:(5855): 1387–1388.
2193:Nature Neuroscience
1315:2008PNAS..10513592L
1128:attentional control
648:executive functions
449:Behavioral genetics
364:Occupational health
104:Behavioral genetics
35:Part of a series on
2961:. pp. 48–56.
2584:(Suppl 1): 63–72.
1972:Fisher, A (2011).
1827:10.3758/BF03213923
1417:. Washington, DC:
1116:cognitive shifting
1096:Need for cognition
1091:Human multitasking
1010:executive function
845:
828:
811:
767:fluid intelligence
666:cognitive shifting
566:Schools of thought
404:Sport and exercise
250:Applied psychology
2932:Leiden University
2770:corestandards.org
2577:Neuropharmacology
2261:(16): 5135–5142.
2200:(12): 1753–1763.
2098:Acta Psychologica
1792:978-0-471-92573-6
1726:10.56296/aip00007
1607:Child Development
1435:cite encyclopedia
892:prefrontal cortex
694:prefrontal cortex
634:
633:
531:Counseling topics
474:Consumer behavior
215:Psycholinguistics
99:Affective science
16:(Redirected from
3108:
3067:
3066:
3030:
3024:
3023:
2995:
2989:
2988:
2946:
2940:
2939:
2938:on June 4, 2010.
2920:
2910:
2900:
2874:
2868:
2867:
2847:
2841:
2840:
2818:
2812:
2811:
2809:
2807:
2802:on July 15, 2012
2798:. Archived from
2787:
2781:
2780:
2778:
2767:
2759:
2753:
2752:
2742:
2708:
2702:
2701:
2665:
2659:
2658:
2640:
2618:
2612:
2611:
2601:
2567:
2561:
2560:
2535:(9): 1047–1057.
2524:
2518:
2517:
2509:
2503:
2502:
2463:
2457:
2456:
2436:
2430:
2429:
2387:
2381:
2380:
2342:
2336:
2335:
2297:
2291:
2290:
2280:
2270:
2244:
2238:
2237:
2227:
2217:
2183:
2177:
2176:
2166:
2132:
2123:
2122:
2092:
2086:
2085:
2055:
2049:
2048:
2028:
2022:
2021:
2019:
2017:
2012:on July 17, 2019
2011:
2005:. Archived from
1978:
1969:
1963:
1962:
1940:
1929:
1928:
1898:
1889:
1888:
1878:
1846:
1840:
1839:
1829:
1820:(6): 1043–1048.
1803:
1797:
1796:
1778:
1772:
1771:
1749:
1738:
1737:
1705:
1699:
1698:
1696:
1694:
1675:
1669:
1668:
1638:
1632:
1631:
1614:(6): 1351–1363.
1601:
1592:
1591:
1557:
1551:
1550:
1512:
1506:
1505:
1479:
1456:
1445:
1444:
1438:
1430:
1428:
1426:
1407:
1401:
1400:
1374:
1353:
1347:
1346:
1336:
1326:
1292:
1283:
1282:
1280:
1278:
1267:learntechlib.org
1258:
1249:
1248:
1220:
1209:
1208:
1188:
1182:
1181:
1151:
1131:
1112:
975:anorexia nervosa
955:anorexia nervosa
733:
626:
619:
612:
596:
595:
594:
561:Research methods
220:Psychophysiology
80:Basic psychology
51:
32:
21:
3116:
3115:
3111:
3110:
3109:
3107:
3106:
3105:
3101:Neuropsychology
3086:
3085:
3076:
3071:
3070:
3032:
3031:
3027:
2997:
2996:
2992:
2977:
2959:Springer-Verlag
2948:
2947:
2943:
2928:news.leiden.edu
2922:
2876:
2875:
2871:
2849:
2848:
2844:
2837:
2820:
2819:
2815:
2805:
2803:
2789:
2788:
2784:
2776:
2765:
2761:
2760:
2756:
2710:
2709:
2705:
2667:
2666:
2662:
2638:10.1.1.461.9003
2624:Neuropsychology
2620:
2619:
2615:
2569:
2568:
2564:
2526:
2525:
2521:
2511:
2510:
2506:
2465:
2464:
2460:
2438:
2437:
2433:
2389:
2388:
2384:
2344:
2343:
2339:
2299:
2298:
2294:
2246:
2245:
2241:
2185:
2184:
2180:
2134:
2133:
2126:
2094:
2093:
2089:
2057:
2056:
2052:
2030:
2029:
2025:
2015:
2013:
2009:
1976:
1971:
1970:
1966:
1942:
1941:
1932:
1900:
1899:
1892:
1848:
1847:
1843:
1805:
1804:
1800:
1793:
1780:
1779:
1775:
1751:
1750:
1741:
1707:
1706:
1702:
1692:
1690:
1677:
1676:
1672:
1640:
1639:
1635:
1603:
1602:
1595:
1580:
1559:
1558:
1554:
1514:
1513:
1509:
1477:10.1.1.485.1953
1458:
1457:
1448:
1431:
1424:
1422:
1409:
1408:
1404:
1372:10.1.1.485.1953
1355:
1354:
1350:
1309:(36): 13592–7.
1294:
1293:
1286:
1276:
1274:
1260:
1259:
1252:
1222:
1221:
1212:
1190:
1189:
1185:
1170:10.2307/2785779
1153:
1152:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1134:
1113:
1109:
1104:
1082:
1051:
1031:
1006:
1001:
984:
951:
926:
920:
879:
866:
850:
833:
816:
796:
787:
771:reading fluency
748:
734:
731:
721:
630:
592:
590:
583:
582:
581:
580:
556:Psychotherapies
524:
514:
513:
434:
426:
425:
424:
423:
252:
242:
241:
240:
239:
200:Neuropsychology
82:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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3112:
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3098:
3088:
3087:
3084:
3083:
3075:
3074:External links
3072:
3069:
3068:
3025:
3006:(4): 559–575.
2990:
2975:
2941:
2869:
2842:
2836:978-0805812725
2835:
2813:
2782:
2754:
2703:
2676:(2): 186–193.
2660:
2613:
2562:
2519:
2504:
2477:(3): 399–419.
2458:
2443:(in Spanish).
2431:
2382:
2355:(1): 249–256.
2337:
2310:(6): 1079–93.
2292:
2239:
2178:
2149:(13): 4771–9.
2124:
2105:(5): 398–408.
2087:
2050:
2023:
1989:(1): 211–219.
1964:
1953:(5): 449–476.
1930:
1911:(4): 121–126.
1890:
1861:(3): 221–226.
1841:
1798:
1791:
1773:
1739:
1700:
1670:
1651:(2): 623–626.
1633:
1593:
1578:
1552:
1525:(1): 176–186.
1507:
1446:
1402:
1348:
1284:
1250:
1231:(3): 219–228.
1210:
1183:
1164:(4): 405–414.
1142:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1133:
1132:
1106:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1099:
1098:
1093:
1088:
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1078:
1050:
1047:
1030:
1027:
1015:working memory
1005:
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1000:
997:
983:
980:
950:
947:
919:
916:
878:
875:
865:
862:
849:
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832:
829:
815:
812:
795:
792:
786:
783:
753:working memory
747:
744:
729:
720:
717:
662:task switching
632:
631:
629:
628:
621:
614:
606:
603:
602:
601:
600:
585:
584:
579:
578:
573:
568:
563:
558:
553:
548:
543:
538:
533:
527:
526:
525:
520:
519:
516:
515:
512:
511:
506:
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491:
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481:
476:
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461:
456:
451:
446:
441:
435:
432:
431:
428:
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422:
421:
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396:
391:
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381:
376:
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366:
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341:
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326:
321:
316:
311:
306:
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296:
291:
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276:
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255:
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217:
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197:
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177:
172:
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162:
157:
152:
147:
145:Cross-cultural
142:
137:
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116:
111:
106:
101:
96:
91:
85:
84:
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78:
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73:
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66:
61:
53:
52:
44:
43:
37:
36:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
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6:
4:
3:
2:
3113:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3093:
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3081:
3078:
3077:
3073:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3029:
3026:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2994:
2991:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2976:9783319676142
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2945:
2942:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2918:
2914:
2909:
2904:
2899:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2885:
2880:
2873:
2870:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2846:
2843:
2838:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2817:
2814:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2786:
2783:
2775:
2771:
2764:
2758:
2755:
2750:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2719:
2714:
2707:
2704:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2664:
2661:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2631:(6): 657–73.
2630:
2626:
2625:
2617:
2614:
2609:
2605:
2600:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2578:
2573:
2566:
2563:
2558:
2554:
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2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2523:
2520:
2515:
2508:
2505:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2471:
2462:
2459:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2435:
2432:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2398:
2393:
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2383:
2378:
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2366:
2362:
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2349:
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2338:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2304:
2296:
2293:
2288:
2284:
2279:
2274:
2269:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2255:
2250:
2243:
2240:
2235:
2231:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2215:1721.1/130385
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2194:
2189:
2182:
2179:
2174:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2143:
2138:
2131:
2129:
2125:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2099:
2091:
2088:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2068:(2): 252–65.
2067:
2063:
2062:
2054:
2051:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2027:
2024:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1983:
1975:
1968:
1965:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1947:
1939:
1937:
1935:
1931:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1905:
1897:
1895:
1891:
1886:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1845:
1842:
1837:
1833:
1828:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1814:
1809:
1802:
1799:
1794:
1788:
1784:
1777:
1774:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1756:
1748:
1746:
1744:
1740:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1704:
1701:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1674:
1671:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1645:
1637:
1634:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1608:
1600:
1598:
1594:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1579:9780120097319
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1556:
1553:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1519:
1511:
1508:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1478:
1473:
1470:(1): 49–100.
1469:
1465:
1464:
1455:
1453:
1451:
1447:
1442:
1436:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1406:
1403:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1365:(1): 49–100.
1364:
1360:
1352:
1349:
1344:
1340:
1335:
1330:
1325:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
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1234:
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1144:
1137:
1129:
1125:
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1111:
1108:
1101:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1083:
1079:
1077:
1075:
1074:brain fitness
1070:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1048:
1046:
1042:
1040:
1036:
1028:
1026:
1024:
1018:
1016:
1011:
1003:
998:
996:
994:
989:
981:
979:
976:
972:
968:
964:
963:schizophrenia
960:
956:
948:
946:
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