Sex-determination system - Knowledge (XXG)

1003: 1098:(ZW), and males have two of the same kind of chromosomes (ZZ). In the chicken, this was found to be dependent on the expression of DMRT1. In birds, the genes FET1 and ASW are found on the W chromosome for females, similar to how the Y chromosome contains SRY. However, not all species depend upon the W for their sex. For example, there are moths and butterflies that are ZW, but some have been found female with ZO, as well as female with ZZW. Also, while mammals deactivate one of their extra X chromosomes when female, it appears that in the case of 401: 141:). The details of some sex-determination systems are not yet fully understood. Hopes for future fetal biological system analysis include complete-reproduction-system initialized signals that can be measured during pregnancies to more accurately determine whether a determined sex of a fetus is male, or female. Such analysis of biological systems could also signal whether the fetus is hermaphrodite, which includes total or partial of both male and female reproduction organs. 33: 177: 7336: 6921: 2109: 2271:, which have both ZW and XY systems in the same population, despite the fact that ZW and XY have different gene locations. A recent theoretical model raises the possibility of both transitions between the XY/XX and ZZ/ZW system and environmental sex determination The platypus' genes also back up the possible evolutionary link between XY and ZW, because they have the 1383:, etc. In such systems, there is typically a dominance hierarchy, where one system is dominant over another if in conflict. For example, in some species of cichlid fish from Lake Malawi, if an individual has both the XY locus (on one chromosome pair) and the WZ locus (on another chromosome pair), then the W is dominant and the individual has a female phenotype. 1987: 1277: 2323:

fish, that evolved sex chromosomes separately; their Y chromosome never inverted and can still swap genes with the X. These species' sex chromosomes are relatively primitive and unspecialized. Because the Y does not have male-specific genes and can interact with the X, XY and YY females can be formed

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are currently existing sex chromosomes that formed when an autosome pair fused to the previously existing sex chromosome pair. Following this fusion, the autosomal portion undergoes recombination suppression, allowing them to differentiate. Such systems have been observed in insects, reptiles, birds,

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It is unknown how exactly temperature-dependent sex determination evolved. It could have evolved through certain sexes being more suited to certain areas that fit the temperature requirements. For example, a warmer area could be more suitable for nesting, so more females are produced to increase the

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Clownfish live in colonies of several small undifferentiated fish and two large fish (male and female). The male and female are the only sexually mature fish to reproduce. Clownfish are protandrous hermaphrodites, which means after they mature into males, they eventually can transform into females.

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results from the male phenotype, not the sex chromosomes themselves. Therefore, if some XY sex-reversed females are fertile and adaptive under some circumstances, then the X and Y chromosomes would recombine in these individuals, preventing Y chromosome decay and maintaining long-term homomorphism.

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Stöck, Matthias; Horn, Agnès; Grossen, Christine; Lindtke, Dorothea; Sermier, Roberto; Betto-Colliard, Caroline; Dufresnes, Christophe; Bonjour, Emmanuel; Dumas, Zoé; Luquet, Emilien; Maddalena, Tiziano; Sousa, Helena Clavero; Martinez-Solano, Iñigo; Perrin, Nicolas (17 May 2011). Rice, William R.

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Ashman, Tia-Lynn; Bachtrog, Doris; Blackmon, Heath; Goldberg, Emma E.; Hahn, Matthew W.; Kirkpatrick, Mark; Kitano, Jun; Mank, Judith E.; Mayrose, Itay; Ming, Ray; Otto, Sarah P.; Peichel, Catherine L.; Pennell, Matthew W.; Perrin, Nicolas; Ross, Laura; Valenzuela, Nicole; Vamosi, Jana C. (24 June

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gene possessed by birds on their X chromosomes. Regardless, XY and ZW follow a similar route. All sex chromosomes started out as an original autosome of an original amniote that relied upon temperature to determine the sex of offspring. After the mammals separated, the reptile branch further split

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had formerly been thought to exhibit this phenomenon, but were found to actually have different temperature-dependent embryo mortality rates for each sex. For some species with TSD, sex determination is achieved by exposure to hotter temperatures resulting in the offspring being one sex and cooler

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is an evolutionary phenomenon where sex chromosomes disappear, or becomes autosomal, and autosomal chromosomes become sexual, repeatedly over evolutionary time. Some lineages have extensive turnover, but others don't. Generally, in an XY system, if the Y chromosome is degenerate, mostly different

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In systems with two sex chromosomes, they can be heteromorphic or homomorphic. Homomorphic sex chromosomes are almost identical in size and gene content. The two familiar kinds of sex chromosome pairs (XY and ZW) are heteromorphic. Homomorphic sex chromosomes exist among pufferfish, ratite birds,

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as the primary determiner of sex. Despite the similarities between the ZW and XY systems, these sex chromosomes evolved separately. In the case of the chicken, their Z chromosome is more similar to humans' autosome 9. The chicken's Z chromosome also seems to be related to the X chromosome of the

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It is an evolutionary puzzle why certain sex chromosomes remain homomorphic over millions of years, especially among lineages of fishes, amphibians, and nonavian reptiles. The fountain-of-youth model states that heteromorphy results from recombination suppression, and recombination suppression

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is on autosome 1 and not sex-linked. This means that an XX female individual is genetically similar to a ZZ male individual, and an XY male individual is to a ZW female individual. The mechanism behind this is yet unclear, but it is hypothesized that during its recent evolution, the XY-to-ZW

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The gene content of the X chromosome is almost identical among placental mammals. This is hypothesized to be because the X inactivation means any change would cause serious disruption, thus subjecting it to strong purifying selection. Similarly, birds have highly conserved Z chromosomes.

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is polygenic. Juvenile zebrafishes (0–30 days after hatching) have both ovary-like tissue to testis tissue. They then develop into male or female adults, with the determination based on a complex interaction genes on multiple chromosomes, but not affected by environmental variations.

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gene on platypus sex chromosomes X3 and X5 suggest that it is possible the sex-determining gene for the platypus is the same one that is involved in bird sex-determination. More research must be conducted in order to determine the exact sex determining gene of the platypus.

433:, as well as some insects. In this system, females have two of the same kind of sex chromosome (XX), while males have two distinct sex chromosomes (XY). The X and Y sex chromosomes are different in shape and size from each other, unlike the rest of the chromosomes ( 5672:

Torres Maldonado LC, Landa Piedra A, Moreno Mendoza N, Marmolejo Valencia A, Meza Martínez A, Merchant Larios H (October 2002). "Expression profiles of Dax1, Dmrt1, and Sox9 during temperature sex determination in gonads of the sea turtle Lepidochelys olivacea".

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Sexual chromosome pairs can arise from an autosomal pair that, for various reasons, stopped recombination, allowing for their divergence. The rate at which recombination is suppressed, and therefore the rate of sex chromosome divergence, is very different across

1882:, so that the banding pattern of the X chromosome is the same as that of Y, but with a region near the centromere reversed. (fig 7 ) In some species, the X is pericentrically inverted and the Y is ancestral. In other species it is the opposite. (p. 15 ) 5116:

Zhou, Yang; Zhan, Xiaoyu; Jin, Jiazheng; Zhou, Long; Bergman, Juraj; Li, Xuemei; Rousselle, Marjolaine Marie C.; Belles, Meritxell Riera; Zhao, Lan; Fang, Miaoquan; Chen, Jiawei; Fang, Qi; Kuderna, Lukas; Marques-Bonet, Tomas; Kitayama, Haruka (July 2023).

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Kuroiwa A, Handa S, Nishiyama C, Chiba E, Yamada F, Abe S, Matsuda Y (July 2011). "Additional copies of CBX2 in the genomes of males of mammals lacking SRY, the Amami spiny rat (Tokudaia osimensis) and the Tokunoshima spiny rat (Tokudaia tokunoshimensis)".

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denotes the absence of a second sex chromosome. Generally in this method, the sex is determined by amount of genes expressed across the two chromosomes. This system is observed in a number of insects, including the grasshoppers and crickets of order

1859:, historical events in the evolution of sex chromosomes are called evolutionary strata. The human Y-chromosome has had about 5 strata since the origin of the X and Y chromosomes about 300 Mya from a pair of autosomes. Each stratum was formed when a 2180:. It is an evolutionarily adaptive strategy for mitochondria as mitochondrial inheritance is exclusively from mother to child. The first published case of mitochondrial male sterility among metazoan was reported in 2022 in the hermaphroditic snail 4616:

Nguyen, Dung Ho My; Panthum, Thitipong; Ponjarat, Jatupong; Laopichienpong, Nararat; Kraichak, Ekaphan; Singchat, Worapong; Ahmad, Syed Farhan; Muangmai, Narongrit; Peyachoknagul, Surin; Na-Nakorn, Uthairat; Srikulnath, Kornsorn (5 January 2021).

488:. However, when an extra DAX1 gene is placed on the X chromosome, the result is a female, despite the existence of SRY, since it overrides the effects of SRY. Even when there are normal sex chromosomes in XX females, duplication or expression of 163:

While diversity in sex determination systems is common throughout different biological systems, the systems beyond XY/XX/XO in mammals are often left to more advanced courses for those whose studies specialize in genetics of other organisms.

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loci are different. For example, if there are 3 alleles per locus, then there would be 9 mating types, each of which can mate with 4 other mating types. By multiplicative combination, it generates a vast number of mating types. For example,

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TSD. The specific temperatures required to produce each sex are known as the female-promoting temperature and the male-promoting temperature. When the temperature stays near the threshold during the temperature sensitive period, the

1102:, the males produce double the normal amount of enzymes, due to having two Z's. Because the use of ZW sex determination is varied, it is still unknown how exactly most species determine their sex. However, reportedly, the silkworm 1953:

became fertile females, producing YY sons. Since Chinook salmons have homomorphic sex chromosomes, such YY sons are healthy. When YY males mate with XX females, all their progeny would be XY male if grown under normal conditions.

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David, Patrice; Degletagne, Cyril; Saclier, Nathanaëlle; Jennan, Aurel; Jarne, Philippe; Plénet, Sandrine; Konecny, Lara; François, Clémentine; Guéguen, Laurent; Garcia, Noéline; Lefébure, Tristan; Luquet, Emilien (May 2022).

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uses both XX/XY and ZW/ZZ system within the species, with some populations using homomorphic XX/XY while others using heteromorphic ZW/ZZ. A population in Thailand appears to use both systems simultaneously, possibly because

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In both XY and ZW sex determination systems, the sex chromosome carrying the critical factors is often significantly smaller, carrying little more than the genes necessary for triggering the development of a given sex.

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is analogous to sex in multi-cellular organisms, and is sometimes described using those terms, though they are not necessarily correlated with physical body structures. Some species have more than two mating types.

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Grützner F, Rens W, Tsend-Ayush E, El-Mogharbel N, O'Brien PC, Jones RC, et al. (December 2004). "In the platypus a meiotic chain of ten sex chromosomes shares genes with the bird Z and mammal X chromosomes".

1425:, have sex determination regions that are labile, meaning that one species may have the sex determination region in one chromosome, but a closely related species might have the same region moved to a different non- 1165:

generation of the life cycle, the sex chromosomes known as U and V assort in spores that carry either the U chromosome and give rise to female gametophytes, or the V chromosome and give rise to male gametophytes.

977: 840: 1638: 2015:. For others species using TSD, it is exposure to temperatures on both extremes that results in offspring of one sex, and exposure to moderate temperatures that results in offspring of the opposite sex, called 1119:, usually only males are produced. This is due to the fact that the haploid eggs double their chromosomes, resulting in ZZ or WW. The ZZ become males, but the WW are not viable and are not brought to term. 2202: 2024:

is varied between the two sexes. Some species' temperature standards are based on when a particular enzyme is created. These species that rely upon temperature for their sex determination do not have the

979:. During meiosis, 5 of X form one chain, and 5 of Y form another chain. Thus, they behave effectively as a typical XY chromosomal system, except each of X and Y is broken into 5 parts, with the effect at 6748: 2332:, each system being more than 120 million years old, suggesting that inversions are not necessarily an eventuality. XO sex determination can evolve from XY sex determination with about 2 million years. 3199:

Gruetzner F, Ashley T, Rowell DM, Marshall Graves JA (April 2006). "How did the platypus get its sex chromosome chain? A comparison of meiotic multiples and sex chromosomes in plants and animals".

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Grützner, Frank; Rens, Willem; Tsend-Ayush, Enkhjargal; El-Mogharbel, Nisrine; O'Brien, Patricia C. M.; Jones, Russell C.; Ferguson-Smith, Malcolm A.; Marshall Graves, Jennifer A. (December 2004).

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Some species, however, have no sex-determination system. Hermaphrodite species include the common earthworm and certain species of snails. A few species of fish, reptiles, and insects reproduce by

4529:"Comparative chromosome mapping of sex-linked genes and identification of sex chromosomal rearrangements in the Japanese wrinkled frog (Rana rugosa, Ranidae) with ZW and XY sex chromosome systems" 2316:. There is some concern that the Y chromosome will shrink further and stop functioning in ten million years: but the Y chromosome has been strictly conserved after its initial rapid gene loss. 1543: 1711: 1271: 2461: 2083:– larvae become males if they make physical contact with a female, and females if they end up on the bare sea floor. This is triggered by the presence of a chemical produced by the females, 5870:

Casas, L., Saborido-Rey, F., Ryu, T., Michell, C., Ravasi, T., & Irigoien, X. (2016). Sex Change in Clownfish: Molecular Insights from Transcriptome Analysis. Scientific Reports, 6(1).

2006:, sex is determined by the temperature at which the egg is incubated during a temperature-sensitive period. There are no examples of temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) in birds. 2238:

chromosome 9, rather than X or Y. This suggests not that the ZW and XY sex-determination systems share an origin but that the sex chromosomes are derived from autosomal chromosomes of the

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Smith CA, Roeszler KN, Ohnesorg T, Cummins DM, Farlie PG, Doran TJ, Sinclair AH (September 2009). "The avian Z-linked gene DMRT1 is required for male sex determination in the chicken".

2284:. These two groups both evolved the ZW system separately, as evidenced by the existence of different sex chromosomal locations. In mammals, one of the autosome pair, now Y, mutated its 2057:

amount that nest next season. In amniotes, environmental sex determination preceded the genetically determined systems of birds and mammals; it is thought that a temperature-dependent

7871: 2176:: In many flowering plants, the mitochondria can cause hermaphrodite individuals to be unable to father offsprings, effectively turning them into exclusive females. This is a form of 1161:

stage of the life cycle, rather than being hermaphrodite, occurs as separate male or female individuals that produce male and female gametes respectively. When meiosis occurs in the

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Furman, Benjamin L S; Metzger, David C H; Darolti, Iulia; Wright, Alison E; Sandkam, Benjamin A; Almeida, Pedro; Shu, Jacelyn J; Mank, Judith E (1 June 2020). Fraser, Bonnie (ed.).

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In Y-centered sex determination, the SRY gene is the main gene in determining male characteristics, but multiple genes are required to develop testes. In XY mice, lack of the gene

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is found in birds, some reptiles, and some insects and other organisms. The ZW sex-determination system is reversed compared to the XY system: females have two different kinds of

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is used by birds as their sex locus, species who have XY chromosomes also rely upon DMRT1, contained on chromosome 9, for sexual differentiation at some point in their formation.

409: 4921:"Chromosome banding in Amphibia: XXVI. Coexistence of homomorphic XY sex chromosomes and a derived Y-autosome translocation in Eleutherodactylus maussi (Anura, Leptodactylidae)" 3960:

Miyakawa MO, Tsuchida K, Miyakawa H (March 2018). "The doublesex gene integrates multi-locus complementary sex determination signals in the Japanese ant, Vollenhovia emeryi".

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uses different systems. Two use homomorphic male heterogamety, one uses XX/XY, one uses ZZ/ZW. Remarkably, the X and Z chromosomes are homologous, and the Y and W as well.

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is found in some moths. In these insects there is one sex chromosome, Z. Males have two Z chromosomes, whereas females have one Z. Males are ZZ, while females are Z0.

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pythons, and European tree frogs. Some are quite old, meaning that there is some evolutionary force that resists their differentiation. For example, three species of

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They develop undifferentiated until they are needed to fill a certain role in their environment, i.e., if they receive the social and environmental cues to do so.

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occur very frequently at 4 particular points. One of the X chromosomes is homologous to the human X chromosome, and another is homologous to the bird Z chromosome.

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Kiuchi T, Koga H, Kawamoto M, Shoji K, Sakai H, Arai Y, et al. (May 2014). "A single female-specific piRNA is the primary determiner of sex in the silkworm".

1453:. With zero of that chromosome, the frog develops into a male. With one or more, the frog develops into a female. One female had as many as 16 of that chromosome. 6734: 3687: 2715: 7372: 2362: 465:

and still live. Human sex is determined by the presence or absence of a Y chromosome with a functional SRY gene. Once the SRY gene is activated, cells create

4490:"Cytogenetics of the endemic New Zealand frog, Leiopelma hochstetteri: extraordinary supernumerary chromosome variation and a unique sex-chromosome system" 1334:

locus, are generally heterozygous females. In rare instances diploid individuals may be homozygous, these develop into sterile males. The gene acting as a

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based on genetic cues during corresponding life stages of their type. This could be due to environmental factors such as seasons and temperature. In some

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sex chromosomes. Instead, homologues with eutherian sex chromosomes lie on the platypus chromosome 6, which means that the eutherian sex chromosomes were

4874:"Chromosome banding in amphibia: XVII. First demonstration of multiple sex chromosomes in amphibians: Eleutherodactylus maussi (Anura, Leptodactylidae)" 1548: 1945:) are often infertile, sex-reversed individuals of some species are fertile under some conditions. For example, some XY-individuals in population of 218:

In 1694, J.R. Camerarius, conducted early experiments on pollination and reported the existence of male and female characteristics in plants(Maize).

7257: 1060:) also have a form of XO determination, in which both sexes lack a second sex chromosome. The mechanism of sex determination is not yet understood. 4919:

Schmid, M.; Feichtinger, W.; Steinlein, C.; Haaf, T.; Schartl, M.; Visbal García, R.; Manzanilla Pupo, J.; Fernández Badillo, A. (14 August 2003).

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Chromosomal sex determination may have evolved early in the history of eukaryotes. But in plants it has been suggested to have evolved recently.

1824:{\displaystyle \mathrm {X} _{1}\mathrm {X} _{1}\mathrm {X} _{2}\mathrm {X} _{2}{\text{♀}}/\mathrm {X} _{1}\mathrm {X} _{2}\mathrm {Y} {\text{♂}}} 564: 6787: 4101:

Liew, Woei Chang; Bartfai, Richard; Lim, Zijie; Sreenivasan, Rajini; Siegfried, Kellee R.; Orban, Laszlo (10 April 2012). Alsina, Berta (ed.).

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have homologous, homomorphic sex chromosomes, and this homomorphism was maintained for at least 5.4 million years by occasional recombination.

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locus for other Hymenopterans. Most females in the Hymenoptera order can decide the sex of their offspring by holding received sperm in their

1207:. Furthermore, it is not as simple as "two different mating types can mate", but rather, a matter of combinatorics. As a simple example, most 7861: 7502: 6716: 6684: 6115: 5184: 4801: 3772:"The sex chromosomes of bryophytes: Recent insights, open questions, and reinvestigations of Frullania dilatata and Plagiochila asplenioides" 3304: 2425: 3735:

Bachtrog D, Kirkpatrick M, Mank JE, McDaniel SF, Pires JC, Rice W, Valenzuela N (September 2011). "Are all sex chromosomes created equal?".

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The accepted hypothesis of XY and ZW sex chromosome evolution in amniotes is that they evolved at the same time, in two different branches.

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Ezaz T, Stiglec R, Veyrunes F, Marshall Graves JA (September 2006). "Relationships between vertebrate ZW and XY sex chromosome systems".

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Lemaitre, Claire; Braga, Marilia D. V.; Gautier, Christian; Sagot, Marie-France; Tannier, Eric; Marais, Gabriel A. B. (1 January 2009).

408: 1961:, for which XX males and XY males both suppresses sex chromosome recombination, but XX and XY females both recombine at the same rate. 1716:

heteromorphism, meaning that both males and females have XY chromosomes, but their Y chromosomes are different on one or more C-bands.

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at the time that the monotremes diverged from the therian mammals (marsupials and eutherian mammals). However, homologues to the avian

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and also controls the expression of the genes TRA-2 and HER-1. These genes reduce male gene activation and increase it, respectively.

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is male with one sex chromosome (X0); with a pair of chromosomes (XX) it is a hermaphrodite. Its main sex gene is XOL, which encodes

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and either releasing it into their oviduct or not. This allows them to create more workers, depending on the status of the colony.

126:. The sexual differentiation is generally triggered by a main gene (a "sex locus"), with a multitude of other genes following in a 2189:

In some flies and crustaceans, all offspring of a particular individual female are either exclusively male or exclusively female (

1440:). In some species, some populations have homomorphic sex chromosomes while other populations have heteromorphic sex chromosomes. 7312: 7127: 6780: 5200:

Zhou, Qi; Wang, Jun; Huang, Ling; Nie, Wenhui; Wang, Jinhuan; Liu, Yan; Zhao, Xiangyi; Yang, Fengtang; Wang, Wen (14 June 2008).

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Uno, Yoshinobu; Nishida, Chizuko; Oshima, Yuki; Yokoyama, Satoshi; Miura, Ikuo; Matsuda, Yoichi; Nakamura, Masahisa (June 2008).

2150: 3042:"How did the platypus get its sex chromosome chain? A comparison of meiotic multiples and sex chromosomes in plants and animals" 2074: 1970: 6674: 5795:

Janzen FJ, Phillips PC (November 2006). "Exploring the evolution of environmental sex determination, especially in reptiles".

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Sember, Alexandr; Nguyen, Petr; Perez, Manolo F.; Altmanová, Marie; Ráb, Petr; Cioffi, Marcelo de Bello (13 September 2021).

4619:"An Investigation of ZZ/ZW and XX/XY Sex Determination Systems in North African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus, Burchell, 1822)" 3329:"tra-2 encodes a membrane protein and may mediate cell communication in the Caenorhabditis elegans sex determination pathway" 2441: 7487: 7292: 5936:"Male-Killing, Nematode Infections, Bacteriophage Infection, and Virulence of Cytoplasmic Bacteria in the Genus Wolbachia" 7358: 7307: 7107: 7090: 6901: 2857:

Huang B, Wang S, Ning Y, Lamb AN, Bartley J (December 1999). "Autosomal XX sex reversal caused by duplication of SOX9".

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Ogilvie MB, Choquette CJ (August 1981). "Nettie Maria Stevens (1861–1912): her life and contributions to cytogenetics".

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No genes are shared between the avian ZW and mammal XY chromosomes and the chicken Z chromosome is similar to the human

1938: 485: 4412:"A phylogenetic study of sex determiner location in a group of Australasian Chironomus species (Diptera, Chironomidae)" 3679: 2703: 1021:

In this variant of the XY system, females have two copies of the sex chromosome (XX) but males have only one (X0). The

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Among animals, the most common chromosomal sex determination systems are XY, XO, ZW, ZO, but with numerous exceptions.

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Watts PC, Buley KR, Sanderson S, Boardman W, Ciofi C, Gibson R (December 2006). "Parthenogenesis in Komodo dragons".

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Mating types are extensively studied in fungi. Among fungi, mating type is determined by chromosomal regions called

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which typically ensures the development of a single, male reproductive system. In typical XX embryos, cells secrete

7245: 7085: 4678:"Multiple sex chromosomes in teleost fishes from a cytogenetic perspective: state of the art and future challenges" 2797:

Chandra, H. S. (25 April 1999). "Another way of looking at the enigma of sex determination in Ellobius lutescens".

2357: 2172: 2092: 1362:. The environment may have a limited, minor influence on sex determination. Examples include African cichlid fish ( 1002: 534: 145: 7634: 7075: 6870: 6792: 3294: 2347: 1898:

and mammals. They are useful to the study of the evolution of Y chromosome degeneration and dosage compensation.

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However, there is some evidence to suggest that there could have been transitions between ZW and XY, such as in

1867:, stopping it from recombination with the X chromosome. Over time, each inverted region decays, possibly due to 1481:

were not native to Thailand, and were introduced from different source populations which resulted in a mixture.

7688: 3614: 1042: 980: 5526:"High incidence of a male-specific genetic marker in phenotypic female chinook salmon from the Columbia River" 3089:"In the platypus a meiotic chain of ten sex chromosomes shares genes with the bird Z and mammal X chromosomes" 2636:

Hayashi, Shun; Abe, Takuya; Igawa, Takeshi; Katsura, Yukako; Kazama, Yusuke; Nozawa, Masafumi (31 July 2024).

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Some species such as various plants and fish do not have a fixed sex, and instead go through life cycles and

7297: 1718: 1276: 513: 445:); in others, however, such as fruit flies, sexual differentiation occurs as soon as the egg is fertilized. 7641: 7624: 7594: 7567: 7213: 7208: 7004: 6999: 6943: 6775: 6761: 3870:"The gene csd is the primary signal for sexual development in the honeybee and encodes an SR-type protein" 2935:"RNA binding protein sex-lethal (Sxl) and control of Drosophila sex determination and dosage compensation" 2341: 2309: 2101: 1860: 1484:

Multiple sex chromosomes like those of platypus also occurs in bony fish. Some moths and butterflies have

1457: 1068: 153: 49: 2099:, the dominant individual in a group becomes female while the other ones are male, and bluehead wrasses ( 7629: 7527: 7317: 5202:"Neo-sex chromosomes in the black muntjac recapitulate incipient evolution of mammalian sex chromosomes" 2297: 2293: 2267: 2210: 1879: 1871:. Primate Y-chromosome evolution was rapid, with multiple inversions and shifts of the boundary of PAR. 1864: 1359: 1358:

Polygenic sex determination is when the sex is primarily determined by genes that occur on multiple non-

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that are expressed or not expressed depending on the temperature. The sex of some species, such as the

1445: 2053:, has an initial bias, set by chromosomes, but can later be changed by the temperature of incubation. 1217:" mating system: there are two loci, and mating between two individuals is possible if the alleles on 7897: 7849: 7774: 7759: 7589: 7537: 7512: 7452: 7252: 6804: 6629: 6347: 6202: 5892: 5376: 5329: 5130: 4241: 4114: 4067: 3969: 3816: 3805:"Contrasted patterns in mating-type chromosomes in fungi: Hotspots versus coldspots of recombination" 3534: 3436: 3385: 3155: 3142:

Warren WC, Hillier LW, Marshall Graves JA, Birney E, Ponting CP, Grützner F, et al. (May 2008).

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gene, causing that chromosome to designate sex. After this mutation, the SRY-containing chromosome

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denotes a situation where the phenotypic sex is different from the genotypic sex. While in humans,

1868: 1401: 441:. In some species, such as humans, organisms remain sex indifferent for a time during development ( 400: 99: 79:. There are also some species in which only one sex is present, temporarily or permanently, due to 65: 5061:"Footprints of Inversions at Present and Past Pseudoautosomal Boundaries in Human Sex Chromosomes" 4451:"Multiple sex determining regions in a group of related Chironomus species (Diptera:Chironomidae)" 7262: 7240: 7225: 6616:

Hughes JF, Skaletsky H, Brown LG, Pyntikova T, Graves T, Fulton RS, et al. (February 2012).

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Gruetzner, Frank; Ashley, Terry; Rowell, David M.; Marshall Graves, Jennifer A. (1 April 2006).

5755: 2892:

Uhlenhaut NH, Jakob S, Anlag K, Eisenberger T, Sekido R, Kress J, et al. (December 2009).

520:. Species that use the number of Xs to determine sex are nonviable with an extra X chromosome. 7579: 7491: 7267: 7053: 6982: 6712: 6680: 6655: 6590: 6555: 6474: 6430: 6373: 6320: 6279: 6230: 6164: 6111: 6086: 6013: 5955: 5908: 5851: 5812: 5690: 5651: 5602: 5563: 5545: 5506: 5467: 5449: 5410: 5392: 5345: 5298: 5280: 5241: 5223: 5180: 5154: 5146: 5098: 5080: 5041: 5033: 4994: 4986: 4948: 4940: 4901: 4893: 4846: 4797: 4762: 4754: 4715: 4697: 4658: 4640: 4598: 4556: 4548: 4509: 4470: 4431: 4392: 4374: 4335: 4317: 4275: 4257: 4207: 4189: 4150: 4132: 4083: 4036: 3985: 3942: 3891: 3850: 3832: 3752: 3715: 3653: 3550: 3498: 3452: 3401: 3358: 3300: 3260: 3216: 3181: 3124: 3116: 3069: 3061: 3014: 2964: 2915: 2874: 2839: 2768: 2675: 2657: 2618: 2600: 2548: 2530: 2451: 2421: 2262:

chromosome contains an avian sex-determination gene, further suggesting an evolutionary link.

2177: 1426: 1204: 6618:"Strict evolutionary conservation followed rapid gene loss on human and rhesus Y chromosomes" 5980:

Bachtrog D, Mank JE, Peichel CL, Kirkpatrick M, Otto SP, Ashman TL, et al. (July 2014).

5951: 5486: 5259:

Pala, I.; Naurin, S.; Stervander, M.; Hasselquist, D.; Bensch, S.; Hansson, B. (March 2012).

3481:

Stiglec R, Ezaz T, Graves JA (2007). "A new look at the evolution of avian sex chromosomes".

2312:. Once it inverted, the Y chromosome became unable to remedy deleterious mutations, and thus 253:

According to the Tree of Sex database (as of 2023), the known sex determination systems are:

7769: 7668: 7220: 7102: 6799: 6645: 6637: 6582: 6545: 6535: 6500: 6464: 6420: 6412: 6363: 6355: 6310: 6269: 6261: 6220: 6210: 6154: 6144: 6076: 6045: 6003: 5993: 5947: 5900: 5839: 5804: 5717: 5682: 5641: 5633: 5594: 5553: 5537: 5498: 5457: 5441: 5400: 5384: 5337: 5288: 5272: 5231: 5213: 5138: 5088: 5072: 5025: 4978: 4932: 4885: 4836: 4789: 4746: 4705: 4689: 4648: 4630: 4590: 4578: 4540: 4501: 4462: 4423: 4382: 4366: 4325: 4307: 4265: 4249: 4197: 4181: 4140: 4122: 4075: 4026: 4016: 3977: 3932: 3922: 3881: 3840: 3824: 3803:

Idnurm, Alexander; Hood, Michael E.; Johannesson, Hanna; Giraud, Tatiana (1 December 2015).

3783: 3744: 3645: 3542: 3490: 3444: 3393: 3348: 3340: 3252: 3208: 3171: 3163: 3108: 3053: 3004: 2954: 2946: 2905: 2866: 2829: 2758: 2750: 2665: 2649: 2608: 2592: 2413: 2281: 2084: 2079: 1942: 1647:

has a complex sex determination system involving 3 sex chromosomes and 4 autosomal alleles.

32: 7824: 7819: 5013: 4594: 3636:

Traut W, Sahara K, Marec F (2007). "Sex chromosomes and sex determination in Lepidoptera".

2209:, highlighted here in green, are all that is left of the original autosomes that can still 7661: 7482: 7430: 7302: 7284: 7230: 7174: 5581:

Rodrigues, Nicolas; Studer, Tania; Dufresnes, Christophe; Perrin, Nicolas (1 April 2018).

3911:"Duplication and concerted evolution in a master sex determiner under balancing selection" 2132:

that can reproduce both sexually and asexually, depending on whether a mate is available.

2125: 2121: 2062: 1919: 1116: 1034:). A small number of mammals also lack a Y chromosome. These include the Amami spiny rat ( 80: 6248:

Veyrunes F, Waters PD, Miethke P, Rens W, McMillan D, Alsop AE, et al. (June 2008).

5840: 4005:"Single locus complementary sex determination in Hymenoptera: an "unintelligent" design?" 553:, presents a particular sex determination scheme that in some ways resembles that of the 17: 6726: 6633: 6351: 6206: 6034:"Extreme mitochondrial DNA divergence underlies genetic conflict over sex determination" 5896: 5582: 5380: 5333: 5134: 4354: 4245: 4118: 4071: 3973: 3820: 3576: 3538: 3440: 3389: 3159: 3104: 2763: 2738: 2670: 2383: 429:

is the most familiar, as it is found in humans. The XX/XY system is found in most other

7552: 7476: 7058: 6852: 6650: 6617: 6425: 6400: 6274: 6249: 6225: 6190: 6159: 6132: 6008: 5981: 5646: 5621: 5558: 5525: 5462: 5430:"Transitions Between Male and Female Heterogamety Caused by Sex-Antagonistic Selection" 5429: 5405: 5364: 5363:

Palmer, Daniela H.; Rogers, Thea F.; Dean, Rebecca; Wright, Alison E. (November 2019).

5293: 5260: 5236: 5201: 5093: 5060: 4710: 4677: 4653: 4618: 4387: 4330: 4295: 4270: 4229: 4202: 4169: 4145: 4102: 4031: 4004: 3937: 3910: 3845: 3804: 3176: 3143: 2637: 2613: 2580: 2325: 2239: 1950: 1946: 1376: 1214: 461:. Members of SRY-reliant species can have uncommon XY chromosomal combinations such as 212: 6550: 6523: 5686: 4528: 3886: 3869: 3353: 3328: 2959: 2934: 2077:

systems including location-dependent determination systems as seen in the marine worm

542:

also have a second Y chromosome, known as Y', that creates XY' females and YY' males.

176: 7886: 7532: 7272: 7203: 7169: 7080: 7046: 6891: 6845: 6250:"Bird-like sex chromosomes of platypus imply recent origin of mammal sex chromosomes" 5808: 5502: 5118: 4970: 4449:

Martin, Jon; Kuvangkadilok, Chaliow; Peart, Dianne H.; Lee, Barry T. O. (June 1980).

3464: 2222: 2129: 1295: 1290: 1209: 1185: 1112: 442: 222: 127: 123: 84: 76: 6602: 6385: 5824: 5737: 5583:"Sex-Chromosome Recombination in Common Frogs Brings Water to the Fountain-of-Youth" 5317: 4858: 3510: 3272: 3228: 3026: 2780: 2417: 2153:

from parents to children. They primarily infect arthropods and nematodes. Different

2140:

There are exceptional sex-determination systems, neither genetic nor environmental.

986:

Although it is an XY system, the platypus' sex chromosomes share no homologues with

7507: 7381: 7339: 7191: 7068: 7063: 7009: 6906: 6862: 6857: 6486: 5920: 5756:"Nest-site philopatry and the evolution of temperature-dependent sex determination" 3665: 3562: 3413: 2950: 2313: 2305: 2301: 2277: 2042: 1994:

Many other sex-determination systems exist. In some species of reptiles, including

1990:

All alligators determine the sex of their offspring by the temperature of the nest.

1934: 1450: 1420: 1371: 493: 466: 6573:

Graves JA (22 July 2004). "The degenerate Y chromosome--can conversion save it?".

5846:(8th. ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates, Inc. Publishers. pp. 1429:. Some species even have the sex determination region different among individuals 6706: 6401:"Evolutionary transitions between mechanisms of sex determination in vertebrates" 6149: 5998: 5029: 4312: 4228:

Wright, Alison E.; Dean, Rebecca; Zimmer, Fabian; Mank, Judith E. (4 July 2016).

4127: 2324:

as well as XX males. Non-inverted Y chromosomes with long histories are found in

7726: 7721: 7584: 7562: 7557: 7425: 6315: 6298: 5445: 4793: 2218: 2182: 1958: 1347: 1299: 1191: 1181: 1175: 1158: 1099: 1095: 242:

In 1922, C.B. Bridges, put forth the Genic Balance Theory of sex determination.

149: 90:

In some species, sex determination is genetic: males and females have different

6469: 6452: 6195:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

5142: 4982: 3981: 2910: 2893: 229:

and it eventually established the modern understanding of inheritance from two

7746: 7736: 7731: 7716: 7656: 7646: 7547: 7522: 7496: 7447: 7437: 7385: 6359: 6049: 5341: 4873: 4841: 4824: 4781: 4635: 4579:"Weird Animal Genomes and the Evolution of Vertebrate Sex and Sex Chromosomes" 4544: 4411: 4079: 3828: 3748: 3256: 3212: 3088: 3057: 3009: 2992: 1875: 1409: 1162: 1027: 103: 6299:"Human Y chromosome, sex determination, and spermatogenesis- a feminist view" 5959: 5606: 5549: 5453: 5396: 5349: 5284: 5227: 5150: 5084: 5037: 4990: 4944: 4897: 4758: 4701: 4644: 4602: 4552: 4513: 4474: 4435: 4378: 4321: 4261: 4193: 4136: 3836: 3120: 3065: 2661: 2604: 2484:"Nettie Stevens: A Discoverer of Sex Chromosomes | Learn Science at Scitable" 7698: 7442: 7420: 7401: 7350: 7179: 7154: 7144: 7132: 6540: 6215: 6081: 6064: 5598: 5218: 4450: 3041: 2871:

10.1002/(SICI)1096-8628(19991203)87:4<349::AID-AJMG13>3.0.CO;2-N

2247: 2235: 2206: 2158: 2145: 2108: 2096: 2021: 2007: 1995: 1713: 1415: 1387: 1364: 1150: 1031: 991: 987: 546: 413: 134: 61: 6659: 6594: 6559: 6478: 6434: 6416: 6377: 6324: 6283: 6234: 6168: 6090: 6065:"Gamete competition, gamete limitation, and the evolution of the two sexes" 6017: 5912: 5816: 5694: 5655: 5637: 5567: 5510: 5471: 5414: 5302: 5245: 5158: 5102: 5045: 4998: 4952: 4850: 4766: 4719: 4693: 4662: 4560: 4396: 4339: 4279: 4211: 4154: 4087: 4040: 3989: 3946: 3927: 3895: 3854: 3756: 3657: 3554: 3502: 3456: 3405: 3264: 3220: 3185: 3128: 3073: 3018: 2968: 2919: 2878: 2843: 2772: 2679: 2622: 2534: 2149:

genus of parasitic bacteria lives inside the cytoplasm of its host, and is

698:{\displaystyle X_{1},X_{2},X_{3},X_{4},X_{5},Y_{1},Y_{2},Y_{3},Y_{4},Y_{5}} 6133:"XY and ZW: is meiotic sex chromosome inactivation the rule in evolution?" 4905: 4370: 4185: 4021: 3362: 2596: 7684: 7468: 7196: 7097: 6896: 5076: 3811:. Special Issue: Fungal sex and mushrooms – A credit to Lorna Casselton. 2834: 2818:"A SOX9 duplication and familial 46,XX developmental testicular disorder" 2817: 2653: 2243: 2050: 2026: 1339: 1311: 1064: 558: 550: 532:, as well as the regular system. For example, while having an XY format, 474: 438: 434: 208: 157: 69: 57: 53: 6641: 5541: 5276: 4466: 4253: 3546: 3448: 3397: 3344: 3167: 3144:"Genome analysis of the platypus reveals unique signatures of evolution" 3112: 2894:"Somatic sex reprogramming of adult ovaries to testes by FOXL2 ablation" 2408:

Rosenfield KA (2018). "Hermaphrodite". In Vonk J, Shackelford T (eds.).

239:

In 1917, C.E. Allen, discovered sex determination mechanisms in plants.

7854: 7708: 7619: 7614: 7164: 7137: 6399:

Quinn AE, Sarre SD, Ezaz T, Marshall Graves JA, Georges A (June 2011).

6265: 5729: 5318:"Molecular and evolutionary dynamics of animal sex-chromosome turnover" 4889: 4505: 4427: 2754: 2058: 2003: 1856: 1327: 1319: 1197: 230: 45: 6503:(Press release). University of Chicago Medical Center. 28 October 1999 6368: 5934:

Stevens, Lori; Giordano, Rosanna; Fialho, Roberto F. (November 2001).

5388: 4936: 4750: 4682:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

3788: 3771: 3649: 3494: 2526: 1986: 972:{\displaystyle X_{1}X_{1}/X_{2}X_{2}/X_{3}X_{3}/X_{4}X_{4}/X_{5}X_{5}} 835:{\displaystyle X_{1}Y_{1}/X_{2}Y_{2}/X_{3}Y_{3}/X_{4}Y_{4}/X_{5}Y_{5}} 27:

Biological system that determines the development of an organism's sex

7764: 7651: 7415: 7411: 7406: 7186: 7159: 6992: 5904: 5119:"Eighty million years of rapid evolution of the primate Y chromosome" 4489: 3680:"Genetic Mechanisms of Sex Determination - Learn Science at Scitable" 2320: 2255: 1999: 517: 430: 91: 6586: 5871: 4920: 4734: 2549:"Nettie Maria Stevens (1861–1912) | The Embryo Project Encyclopedia" 1915:, then turnover is unlikely. In particular, this applies to humans. 1633:{\displaystyle WZ_{1}Z_{2}{\text{♀}}/Z_{1}Z_{1}Z_{2}Z_{2}{\text{♂}}} 5721: 5524:

Nagler, J J; Bouma, J; Thorgaard, G H; Dauble, D D (January 2001).

3868:

Beye M, Hasselmann M, Fondrk MK, Page RE, Omholt SW (August 2003).

7829: 7814: 7809: 7804: 7799: 7794: 7789: 7784: 7779: 7754: 7692: 6874: 2272: 2200: 2107: 2088: 2046: 2034: 1985: 1849: 1275: 1154: 1051: 1001: 995: 501: 497: 484:

on the X chromosome results in sterility, but in humans it causes

407: 399: 257:

Sex determination systems in vertebrates, insects and angiosperms

2638:"Sex chromosome cycle as a mechanism of stable sex determination" 6987: 2285: 2124:

and are female altogether. There are some reptiles, such as the

2038: 2030: 2011:

temperatures resulting in the other. This type of TSD is called

489: 481: 458: 95: 7354: 6939: 6730: 6966: 2329: 2289: 1307: 1303: 454: 171: 6191:"Multiple independent origins of sex chromosomes in amniotes" 2344:, who discovered the role of chromosomes in sex determination 225:

published on inheritance of genetic traits. This is known as

1326:

locus and are therefore males. Fertilized eggs develop into

6453:"Sex chromosome specialization and degeneration in mammals" 4355:"Sex Chromosome Evolution: So Many Exceptions to the Rules" 4003:

van Wilgenburg E, Driessen G, Beukeboom LW (January 2006).

1918:

The ZW and XY systems can evolve into to each other due to

6524:"The organization and evolution of the human Y chromosome" 2308:

that are still homologous to one another are known as the

236:

In 1902, C.E. McClung identified sex chromosomes in bugs.

5428:

van Doorn, G Sander; Kirkpatrick, Mark (1 October 2010).

4872:

Schmid, M.; Steinlein, C.; Feichtinger, W. (March 1992).

2412:. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 1–2. 2095:: adults start out male, then become female. In tropical 5487:"Sex Reversal: A Fountain of Youth for Sex Chromosomes?" 1322:

individuals which have a single, hemizygous copy of the

7872:

International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature

5708:

Bull JJ (March 1980). "Sex Determination in Reptiles".

2816:

Cox JJ, Willatt L, Homfray T, Woods CG (January 2011).

188: 6935: 4735:"Sex Chromosomes and Sex Determination in Lepidoptera" 4969:

Zhu, Zexian; Younas, Lubna; Zhou, Qi (18 July 2024).

4782:"A New Look at Sex Determination in Poeciliid Fishes" 2168:, where sons lose the entire genome from the father. 1728: 1661: 1551: 1490: 1235: 848: 711: 567: 516:, use the presence of two X chromosomes to determine 36:

Some chromosomal sex determination systems in animals

6501:"The evolution of the sex chromosomes: Step by step" 5365:"How to identify sex chromosomes and their turnover" 5177:

Sex chromosomes and sex determination in vertebrates

5014:"Four Evolutionary Strata on the Human X Chromosome" 4971:"Evolution and regulation of animal sex chromosomes" 4733:

Traut, W.; Sahara, K.; Marec, F. (18 January 2008).

1342:

and several candidate genes have been proposed as a

7842: 7745: 7707: 7677: 7605: 7461: 7392: 7283: 7116: 6973: 6884: 6813: 6768: 4825:"A comparative view on sex determination in medaka" 4296:"Ever-Young Sex Chromosomes in European Tree Frogs" 2993:"A comparative view on sex determination in medaka" 1006:

Heredity of sex chromosomes in XO sex determination

477:, which drives the body toward the female pathway. 5982:"Sex determination: why so many ways of doing it?" 5012:Lahn, Bruce T.; Page, David C. (29 October 1999). 4780:Kallman, Klaus D. (1984), Turner, Bruce J. (ed.), 2205:The ends of the XY chromosomes in a human cell in 1878:, the two chromosomes are only distinguished by a 1823: 1705: 1632: 1538:{\displaystyle W_{1}W_{2}Z{\text{♀}}/ZZ{\text{♂}}} 1537: 1330:individuals which, due to high variability in the 1265: 971: 834: 697: 4103:"Polygenic Sex Determination System in Zebrafish" 2515:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 1706:{\displaystyle XY_{b}{\text{♀}}/XY_{a}{\text{♂}}} 4577:Graves, Jennifer A. Marshall (1 December 2008). 4054:Moore, Emily C.; Roberts, Reade B. (June 2013). 3770:Renner, S. S.; Heinrichs, J.; Sousa, A. (2017). 3296:Sex wars: genes, bacteria, and biased sex ratios 2450:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 116–117. 2217:Sex determination systems may have evolved from 1266:{\displaystyle 9\times 32\times 9\times 9=23328} 133:In other cases, sex of a fetus is determined by 3327:Kuwabara PE, Okkema PG, Kimble J (April 1992). 2319:There are some vertebrate species, such as the 496:in developed mice can also occur when the gene 106:differences, generally through combinations of 4168:Liew, Woei Chang; Orbán, László (March 2014). 500:is removed from females. Even though the gene 7366: 6951: 6742: 5749: 5747: 4410:Martin, Jon; Lee, B. T. O. (September 1984). 2410:Encyclopedia of Animal Cognition and Behavior 2363:Sex determination and differentiation (human) 8: 6184: 6182: 6180: 6178: 5975: 5973: 5971: 5969: 5667: 5665: 4788:, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 95–171, 453:Some species (including humans) have a gene 68:have two common sexes and a few less common 5622:"Temperature-dependent sex ratio in a bird" 5261:"Evidence of a neo-sex chromosome in birds" 3711:Handbuch Der Zoologie / Handbook of Zoology 3299:. Princeton University Press. p. 250. 2581:"Tree of Sex: A database of sexual systems" 1957:Support for the hypothesis is found in the 7704: 7373: 7359: 7351: 6958: 6944: 6936: 6749: 6735: 6727: 6446: 6444: 3476: 3474: 3288: 3286: 3284: 3282: 2986: 2984: 2982: 2980: 2978: 2939:Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 2792: 2790: 102:. In animals this is often accompanied by 83:, the act of a female reproducing without 48:system that determines the development of 6649: 6549: 6539: 6468: 6424: 6367: 6314: 6273: 6224: 6214: 6158: 6148: 6110:. Univ of California Press. p. 359. 6080: 6007: 5997: 5645: 5557: 5461: 5404: 5292: 5235: 5217: 5092: 4840: 4709: 4652: 4634: 4386: 4329: 4311: 4269: 4201: 4144: 4126: 4030: 4020: 3962:Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 3936: 3926: 3885: 3844: 3787: 3352: 3175: 3008: 2958: 2909: 2833: 2762: 2704:"Genetic Mechanisms of Sex Determination" 2669: 2612: 1816: 1811: 1805: 1800: 1793: 1788: 1782: 1777: 1771: 1766: 1759: 1754: 1747: 1742: 1735: 1730: 1727: 1698: 1692: 1680: 1675: 1669: 1660: 1625: 1619: 1609: 1599: 1589: 1580: 1575: 1569: 1559: 1550: 1530: 1519: 1514: 1505: 1495: 1489: 1310:. Sex determination is controlled by the 1234: 1111:platypus. When a ZW species, such as the 963: 953: 944: 938: 928: 919: 913: 903: 894: 888: 878: 869: 863: 853: 847: 826: 816: 807: 801: 791: 782: 776: 766: 757: 751: 741: 732: 726: 716: 710: 689: 676: 663: 650: 637: 624: 611: 598: 585: 572: 566: 524:Other variants of XX/XY sex determination 6575:Reproduction, Fertility, and Development 5952:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.32.081501.114132 5940:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 3909:Privman E, Wurm Y, Keller L (May 2013). 2933:Penalva LO, Sánchez L (September 2003). 1318:) locus. Unfertilized eggs develop into 255: 207:Sex determination was discovered in the 31: 6189:Vallender EJ, Lahn BT (November 2006). 6063:Lehtonen J, Parker GA (December 2014). 2737:Goodfellow PN, Camerino G (June 1999). 2374: 2353:Maternal influence on sex determination 1982:Temperature-dependent sex determination 6788:Development of the reproductive system 4595:10.1146/annurev.genet.42.110807.091714 2697: 2695: 2693: 2691: 2689: 1926:Homomorphism and the fountain of youth 7862:List of organisms by chromosome count 6297:Marshall Graves JA (September 2000). 5675:General and Comparative Endocrinology 5170: 5168: 4964: 4962: 4572: 4570: 4223: 4221: 4170:"Zebrafish sex: a complicated affair" 2300:with its partner. The regions of the 557:of birds and lacks the SRY gene. The 7: 4488:Green, David M. (1 September 1988). 3776:Journal of Systematics and Evolution 3587:from the original on 4 November 2014 2859:American Journal of Medical Genetics 2743:Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 2464:from the original on 11 October 2020 1054:species. Transcaucasian mole voles ( 457:on the Y chromosome that determines 152:species, a few individuals may have 7054:Heterogametic sex / Homogametic sex 6107:Cannabis: Evolution and Ethnobotany 6104:Clarke R, Merlin M (28 June 2016). 3690:from the original on 19 August 2017 2822:The New England Journal of Medicine 2718:from the original on 19 August 2017 1314:of a complementary sex determiner ( 6708:The Evolution of Sex Determination 2065:of amniotes with sex chromosomes. 1812: 1801: 1789: 1767: 1755: 1743: 1731: 492:causes testes to develop. Gradual 156:of both sexes, a condition called 25: 6522:Charlesworth B (14 August 2003). 5872:https://doi.org/10.1038/srep35461 5530:Environmental Health Perspectives 5485:Perrin, Nicolas (December 2009). 5316:Vicoso, Beatriz (December 2019). 3577:"Virgin births for giant lizards" 2559:from the original on 8 April 2019 2494:from the original on 7 April 2019 1911:from the X chromosome, and has X 1338:locus has been identified in the 1298:is found in insects belonging to 1040:) and the Tokunoshima spiny rat ( 7335: 7334: 7128:Evolution of sexual reproduction 6920: 6919: 6131:Namekawa SH, Lee JT (May 2009). 5809:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2006.01138.x 5754:Valenzuela N, Janzen FJ (2001). 5503:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2009.00837.x 4174:Briefings in Functional Genomics 3915:Proceedings. Biological Sciences 2945:(3): 343–59, table of contents. 2254:chromosome shares homology with 1386:The sex-determination system of 412:Human male XY chromosomes after 175: 7483:Macrochromosome/Microchromosome 5797:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 5776:from the original on 4 May 2013 5710:The Quarterly Review of Biology 5620:Göth A, Booth DT (March 2005). 5587:Molecular Biology and Evolution 4786:Evolutionary Genetics of Fishes 3607:"Evolution of the Y Chromosome" 3483:Cytogenetic and Genome Research 2418:10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6_329-1 2388:The Embryo Project Encyclopedia 2075:environmental sex determination 2029:, but have other genes such as 1971:Environmental sex determination 528:Some fish have variants of the 7236:Sexual reproduction in animals 6705:Beukeboom L, Perrin N (2014). 5322:Nature Ecology & Evolution 5123:Nature Ecology & Evolution 4925:Cytogenetics and Cell Genetics 4230:"How to make a sex chromosome" 2951:10.1128/MMBR.67.3.343-359.2003 1139:ZZ/Z0 sex-determination system 1106:uses a single female-specific 427:XX/XY sex-determination system 1: 5763:Evolutionary Ecology Research 5687:10.1016/s0016-6480(02)00511-7 4056:"Polygenic sex determination" 3887:10.1016/S0092-8674(03)00606-8 3333:Molecular Biology of the Cell 2739:"DAX-1, an 'antitestis' gene" 2384:"Sex Determination in Humans" 2296:and was no longer completely 2242:of birds and mammals. In the 2159:determine the sex of its host 2087:. Some species, such as some 1863:(PAR) of the Y chromosome is 1456:Different populations of the 7108:Sex as a biological variable 7091:Simultaneous hermaphroditism 6902:Disorders of sex development 6150:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000493 6069:Molecular Human Reproduction 5999:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001899 5065:Genome Biology and Evolution 5030:10.1126/science.286.5441.964 4359:Genome Biology and Evolution 4313:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001062 4128:10.1371/journal.pone.0034397 2382:Schnebly, Risa Aria (2021). 2173:Mitochondrial male sterility 1451:supernumerary sex chromosome 1280:Haplodiploid sex chromosomes 508:X-centered sex determination 486:adrenal hypoplasia congenita 449:Y-centered sex determination 437:), and are sometimes called 6711:. Oxford University Press. 6679:. OUP Oxford. p. 168. 6316:10.1095/biolreprod63.3.667b 5446:10.1534/genetics.110.118596 5175:Solari, Alberto J. (1994). 4794:10.1007/978-1-4684-4652-4_3 3714:. Walter de Gruyter. 1925. 2642:The Journal of Biochemistry 2447:The Biology of Reproduction 2166:paternal genome elimination 2069:Other environmental systems 1468:transition occurred twice. 1354:Polygenic sex determination 1133:Z0 sex-determination system 1092:ZW sex-determination system 1086:ZW sex-determination system 1017:X0 sex-determination system 530:XY sex-determination system 421:XY sex-determination system 211:by the American geneticist 75:In some species, there are 7914: 7523:Dinoflagellate chromosomes 7246:Penile-vaginal intercourse 7086:Sequential hermaphroditism 6470:10.1016/j.cell.2006.02.024 5143:10.1038/s41559-022-01974-x 4983:10.1038/s41576-024-00757-3 3982:10.1016/j.ibmb.2018.01.006 2911:10.1016/j.cell.2009.11.021 2358:Sequential hermaphroditism 2164:In some species, there is 1979: 1968: 1874:Among many species of the 1288: 1173: 1130: 1083: 1030:and in cockroaches (order 1014: 535:Xiphophorus nezahualcoyotl 418: 404:Drosophila sex-chromosomes 98:that specify their sexual 7893:Sex-determination systems 7867:List of sequenced genomes 7635:Chromosomal translocation 7508:A chromosome/B chromosome 7499:(or accessory chromosome) 7330: 7076:Testis-determining factor 6915: 6676:Mutation-Driven Evolution 6360:10.1016/j.cub.2006.08.021 6050:10.1016/j.cub.2022.04.014 5342:10.1038/s41559-019-1050-8 5179:. Boca Raton: CRC Press. 4842:10.1016/j.mod.2004.03.001 4829:Mechanisms of Development 4636:10.3389/fgene.2020.562856 4583:Annual Review of Genetics 4545:10.1007/s10577-008-1217-7 4080:10.1016/j.cub.2013.04.004 3829:10.1016/j.fbr.2015.06.001 3749:10.1016/j.tig.2011.05.005 3724:– via Google Books. 3257:10.1007/s10577-011-9223-6 3213:10.1007/s00412-005-0034-4 3058:10.1007/s00412-005-0034-4 3010:10.1016/j.mod.2004.03.001 2997:Mechanisms of Development 2348:Testis-determining factor 1843:Origin of sex chromosomes 1395:Other chromosomal systems 18:Sex-determination systems 7689:Telomere-binding protein 7503:Supernumerary chromosome 7017:Sex-determination system 6821:Sex-determination system 6451:Graves JA (March 2006). 2221:, which is a feature of 2051:Australian dragon lizard 1719:Eleutherodactylus maussi 1043:Tokudaia tokunoshimensis 42:sex-determination system 6541:10.1186/gb-2003-4-9-226 6303:Biology of Reproduction 6216:10.1073/pnas.0608879103 5219:10.1186/gb-2008-9-6-r98 4975:Nature Reviews Genetics 4823:Schartl M (July 2004). 2991:Schartl M (July 2004). 2161:by a variety of means. 2112:Life cycle of clownfish 2047:Australian skink lizard 1908:sex-chromosome turnover 1902:Sex-chromosome turnover 1438:intraspecific variation 7625:Structural alterations 7000:Sexual differentiation 6869:Sex determining gene: 6776:Sexual differentiation 6417:10.1098/rsbl.2010.1126 5638:10.1098/rsbl.2004.0247 4694:10.1098/rstb.2020.0098 3928:10.1098/rspb.2012.2968 3809:Fungal Biology Reviews 2342:Clarence Erwin McClung 2310:pseudoautosomal region 2214: 2151:vertically transmitted 2113: 2102:Thalassoma bifasciatum 1991: 1861:pseudoautosomal region 1825: 1707: 1634: 1539: 1446:Leiopelma hochstetteri 1443:The New Zealand frog, 1360:homologous chromosomes 1281: 1267: 1229:a type of fungus, has 1007: 973: 836: 699: 512:Some species, such as 471:anti-müllerian hormone 416: 405: 50:sexual characteristics 37: 7642:Numerical alterations 7630:Chromosomal inversion 7528:Homologous chromosome 7042:Temperature-dependent 6841:Temperature-dependent 6082:10.1093/molehr/gau068 5842:Developmental biology 5599:10.1093/molbev/msy008 4623:Frontiers in Genetics 4234:Nature Communications 4022:10.1186/1742-9994-3-1 2597:10.1038/sdata.2014.15 2268:Xiphophorus maculatus 2204: 2111: 1989: 1976:Temperature-dependent 1965:Environmental systems 1880:pericentric inversion 1826: 1708: 1635: 1540: 1427:homologous chromosome 1279: 1268: 1225:Schizophyllum commune 1200:, has 7 mating types 1127:ZZ/Z0 sex chromosomes 1080:ZW/ZZ sex chromosomes 1011:XX/X0 sex chromosomes 1005: 974: 842:, while females have 837: 700: 411: 403: 396:XX/XY sex chromosomes 227:Mendelian inheritance 35: 7850:Extrachromosomal DNA 7538:Satellite chromosome 7513:Lampbrush chromosome 7453:Nuclear organization 6805:Paramesonephric duct 6673:Nei M (2 May 2013). 6044:(10): 2325–2333.e6. 4009:Frontiers in Zoology 3583:. 20 December 2006. 2835:10.1056/NEJMc1010311 2258:mammals, while the X 2105:) are the reverse. 1726: 1659: 1652:Gastrotheca pseustes 1549: 1488: 1233: 846: 709: 565: 561:has sex chromosomes 7543:Centromere position 7518:Polytene chromosome 7488:Circular chromosome 7258:Hormonal motivation 7231:Fungal reproduction 7150:Reproductive system 6642:10.1038/nature10843 6634:2012Natur.483...82H 6352:2006CBio...16.R736E 6207:2006PNAS..10318031V 6201:(48): 18031–18032. 5897:2006Natur.444.1021W 5891:(7122): 1021–1022. 5542:10.1289/ehp.0110967 5381:2019MolEc..28.4709P 5334:2019NatEE...3.1632V 5277:10.1038/hdy.2011.70 5135:2023NatEE...7.1114Z 4533:Chromosome Research 4467:10.1038/hdy.1980.34 4371:10.1093/gbe/evaa081 4254:10.1038/ncomms12087 4246:2016NatCo...712087W 4186:10.1093/bfgp/elt041 4119:2012PLoSO...734397L 4072:2013CBio...23.R510M 3974:2018IBMB...94...42M 3821:2015FunBR..29..220I 3547:10.1038/nature03021 3539:2004Natur.432..913G 3449:10.1038/nature13315 3441:2014Natur.509..633K 3398:10.1038/nature08298 3390:2009Natur.461..267S 3345:10.1091/mbc.3.4.461 3293:Majerus ME (2003). 3245:Chromosome Research 3168:10.1038/nature06936 3160:2008Natur.453..175W 3113:10.1038/nature03021 3105:2004Natur.432..913G 1913:dosage compensation 1895:Neo-sex chromosomes 1890:Neo-sex chromosomes 1839:See for a review. 1413:, particularly the 1402:European tree frogs 1372:Myopus schisticolor 1213:have a "tetrapolar 1117:parthenogenetically 258: 246:Chromosomal systems 154:sex characteristics 137:variables (such as 66:sexual reproduction 7263:Human reproduction 7241:Sexual intercourse 7226:Plant reproduction 6266:10.1101/gr.7101908 5838:Gilbert S (2006). 5077:10.1093/gbe/evp006 4890:10.1007/BF00346007 4739:Sexual Development 4688:(1833): 20200098. 4506:10.1007/BF00331795 4428:10.1007/BF00292396 3921:(1758): 20122968. 3737:Trends in Genetics 3638:Sexual Development 3617:on 4 November 2004 2755:10.1007/PL00013201 2654:10.1093/jb/mvae045 2444:, Fusco G (2019). 2215: 2114: 1992: 1821: 1703: 1645:Southern platyfish 1630: 1535: 1473:Clarias gariepinus 1282: 1263: 1145:UV sex chromosomes 1057:Ellobius lutescens 1037:Tokudaia osimensis 1008: 969: 832: 695: 555:ZW sex chromosomes 417: 406: 256: 187:. You can help by 94:or even different 60:that create their 38: 7880: 7879: 7838: 7837: 7575:Centromere number 7492:Linear chromosome 7348: 7347: 7268:Lordosis behavior 6983:Sexual dimorphism 6933: 6932: 6758:Sex determination 6718:978-0-19-163140-5 6686:978-0-19-163781-0 6346:(17): R736–R743. 6117:978-0-520-29248-2 6075:(12): 1161–1168. 5497:(12): 3043–3049. 5389:10.1111/mec.15245 5375:(21): 4709–4724. 5369:Molecular Ecology 5328:(12): 1632–1641. 5186:978-0-8493-4571-5 5024:(5441): 964–967. 4937:10.1159/000071612 4803:978-1-4684-4652-4 4751:10.1159/000111765 4066:(12): R510–R512. 3789:10.1111/jse.12266 3650:10.1159/000111765 3533:(7019): 913–917. 3495:10.1159/000103170 3435:(7502): 633–636. 3384:(7261): 267–271. 3306:978-0-691-00981-0 3154:(7192): 175–183. 3099:(7019): 913–917. 2427:978-3-319-47829-6 1857:geological strata 1819: 1780: 1701: 1678: 1628: 1578: 1533: 1517: 705:. The males have 391: 390: 205: 204: 16:(Redirected from 7905: 7705: 7669:Polyploidization 7497:Extra chromosome 7412:Genetic material 7375: 7368: 7361: 7352: 7338: 7337: 7298:Animal sexuality 7221:Sexual selection 6960: 6953: 6946: 6937: 6923: 6922: 6800:Mesonephric duct 6751: 6744: 6737: 6728: 6722: 6691: 6690: 6670: 6664: 6663: 6653: 6613: 6607: 6606: 6570: 6564: 6563: 6553: 6543: 6519: 6513: 6512: 6510: 6508: 6497: 6491: 6490: 6472: 6448: 6439: 6438: 6428: 6396: 6390: 6389: 6371: 6335: 6329: 6328: 6318: 6294: 6288: 6287: 6277: 6245: 6239: 6238: 6228: 6218: 6186: 6173: 6172: 6162: 6152: 6128: 6122: 6121: 6101: 6095: 6094: 6084: 6060: 6054: 6053: 6028: 6022: 6021: 6011: 6001: 5977: 5964: 5963: 5931: 5925: 5924: 5905:10.1038/4441021a 5880: 5874: 5868: 5862: 5861: 5845: 5835: 5829: 5828: 5803:(6): 1775–1784. 5792: 5786: 5785: 5783: 5781: 5775: 5760: 5751: 5742: 5741: 5705: 5699: 5698: 5669: 5660: 5659: 5649: 5617: 5611: 5610: 5578: 5572: 5571: 5561: 5521: 5515: 5514: 5482: 5476: 5475: 5465: 5425: 5419: 5418: 5408: 5360: 5354: 5353: 5313: 5307: 5306: 5296: 5256: 5250: 5249: 5239: 5221: 5197: 5191: 5190: 5172: 5163: 5162: 5129:(7): 1114–1130. 5113: 5107: 5106: 5096: 5056: 5050: 5049: 5009: 5003: 5002: 4966: 4957: 4956: 4931:(1–4): 330–343. 4916: 4910: 4909: 4884:(5–6): 284–292. 4869: 4863: 4862: 4844: 4835:(7–8): 639–645. 4820: 4814: 4813: 4812: 4810: 4777: 4771: 4770: 4730: 4724: 4723: 4713: 4673: 4667: 4666: 4656: 4638: 4613: 4607: 4606: 4574: 4565: 4564: 4524: 4518: 4517: 4485: 4479: 4478: 4446: 4440: 4439: 4407: 4401: 4400: 4390: 4350: 4344: 4343: 4333: 4315: 4290: 4284: 4283: 4273: 4225: 4216: 4215: 4205: 4165: 4159: 4158: 4148: 4130: 4098: 4092: 4091: 4051: 4045: 4044: 4034: 4024: 4000: 3994: 3993: 3957: 3951: 3950: 3940: 3930: 3906: 3900: 3899: 3889: 3865: 3859: 3858: 3848: 3800: 3794: 3793: 3791: 3767: 3761: 3760: 3732: 3726: 3725: 3706: 3700: 3699: 3697: 3695: 3676: 3670: 3669: 3633: 3627: 3626: 3624: 3622: 3613:. Archived from 3603: 3597: 3596: 3594: 3592: 3573: 3567: 3566: 3521: 3515: 3514: 3489:(1–4): 103–109. 3478: 3469: 3468: 3424: 3418: 3417: 3373: 3367: 3366: 3356: 3324: 3318: 3317: 3315: 3313: 3290: 3277: 3276: 3239: 3233: 3232: 3196: 3190: 3189: 3179: 3139: 3133: 3132: 3084: 3078: 3077: 3037: 3031: 3030: 3012: 3003:(7–8): 639–645. 2988: 2973: 2972: 2962: 2930: 2924: 2923: 2913: 2904:(6): 1130–1142. 2889: 2883: 2882: 2854: 2848: 2847: 2837: 2813: 2807: 2806: 2794: 2785: 2784: 2766: 2749:(6–7): 857–863. 2734: 2728: 2727: 2725: 2723: 2708:Nature Education 2699: 2684: 2683: 2673: 2633: 2627: 2626: 2616: 2575: 2569: 2568: 2566: 2564: 2545: 2539: 2538: 2510: 2504: 2503: 2501: 2499: 2480: 2474: 2473: 2471: 2469: 2438: 2432: 2431: 2405: 2399: 2398: 2396: 2394: 2379: 2282:Archosauromorpha 2213:with each other. 2080:Bonellia viridis 2073:There are other 1943:XX male syndrome 1869:Muller's ratchet 1855:In analogy with 1830: 1828: 1827: 1822: 1820: 1817: 1815: 1810: 1809: 1804: 1798: 1797: 1792: 1786: 1781: 1778: 1776: 1775: 1770: 1764: 1763: 1758: 1752: 1751: 1746: 1740: 1739: 1734: 1712: 1710: 1709: 1704: 1702: 1699: 1697: 1696: 1684: 1679: 1676: 1674: 1673: 1639: 1637: 1636: 1631: 1629: 1626: 1624: 1623: 1614: 1613: 1604: 1603: 1594: 1593: 1584: 1579: 1576: 1574: 1573: 1564: 1563: 1544: 1542: 1541: 1536: 1534: 1531: 1523: 1518: 1515: 1510: 1509: 1500: 1499: 1434:the same species 1272: 1270: 1269: 1264: 1205:mating-type loci 978: 976: 975: 970: 968: 967: 958: 957: 948: 943: 942: 933: 932: 923: 918: 917: 908: 907: 898: 893: 892: 883: 882: 873: 868: 867: 858: 857: 841: 839: 838: 833: 831: 830: 821: 820: 811: 806: 805: 796: 795: 786: 781: 780: 771: 770: 761: 756: 755: 746: 745: 736: 731: 730: 721: 720: 704: 702: 701: 696: 694: 693: 681: 680: 668: 667: 655: 654: 642: 641: 629: 628: 616: 615: 603: 602: 590: 589: 577: 576: 259: 200: 197: 179: 172: 122:chromosomes, or 21: 7913: 7912: 7908: 7907: 7906: 7904: 7903: 7902: 7883: 7882: 7881: 7876: 7834: 7741: 7703: 7673: 7662:Paleopolyploidy 7607: 7601: 7457: 7431:Heterochromatin 7394: 7388: 7379: 7349: 7344: 7326: 7313:Differentiation 7303:Human sexuality 7293:Plant sexuality 7279: 7175:Spermatogenesis 7119: 7112: 6975: 6969: 6964: 6934: 6929: 6911: 6880: 6809: 6764: 6762:differentiation 6755: 6725: 6719: 6704: 6700: 6698:Further reading 6695: 6694: 6687: 6672: 6671: 6667: 6628:(7387): 82–86. 6615: 6614: 6610: 6587:10.1071/RD03096 6572: 6571: 6567: 6521: 6520: 6516: 6506: 6504: 6499: 6498: 6494: 6450: 6449: 6442: 6405:Biology Letters 6398: 6397: 6393: 6340:Current Biology 6337: 6336: 6332: 6296: 6295: 6291: 6254:Genome Research 6247: 6246: 6242: 6188: 6187: 6176: 6143:(5): e1000493. 6130: 6129: 6125: 6118: 6103: 6102: 6098: 6062: 6061: 6057: 6038:Current Biology 6030: 6029: 6025: 5992:(7): e1001899. 5979: 5978: 5967: 5933: 5932: 5928: 5882: 5881: 5877: 5869: 5865: 5858: 5837: 5836: 5832: 5794: 5793: 5789: 5779: 5777: 5773: 5758: 5753: 5752: 5745: 5707: 5706: 5702: 5671: 5670: 5663: 5626:Biology Letters 5619: 5618: 5614: 5580: 5579: 5575: 5523: 5522: 5518: 5484: 5483: 5479: 5427: 5426: 5422: 5362: 5361: 5357: 5315: 5314: 5310: 5258: 5257: 5253: 5199: 5198: 5194: 5187: 5174: 5173: 5166: 5115: 5114: 5110: 5058: 5057: 5053: 5011: 5010: 5006: 4968: 4967: 4960: 4918: 4917: 4913: 4871: 4870: 4866: 4822: 4821: 4817: 4808: 4806: 4804: 4779: 4778: 4774: 4732: 4731: 4727: 4675: 4674: 4670: 4615: 4614: 4610: 4576: 4575: 4568: 4526: 4525: 4521: 4487: 4486: 4482: 4448: 4447: 4443: 4409: 4408: 4404: 4352: 4351: 4347: 4306:(5): e1001062. 4292: 4291: 4287: 4227: 4226: 4219: 4167: 4166: 4162: 4100: 4099: 4095: 4060:Current Biology 4053: 4052: 4048: 4002: 4001: 3997: 3959: 3958: 3954: 3908: 3907: 3903: 3867: 3866: 3862: 3802: 3801: 3797: 3769: 3768: 3764: 3734: 3733: 3729: 3722: 3708: 3707: 3703: 3693: 3691: 3678: 3677: 3673: 3635: 3634: 3630: 3620: 3618: 3611:Annenberg Media 3605: 3604: 3600: 3590: 3588: 3575: 3574: 3570: 3523: 3522: 3518: 3480: 3479: 3472: 3426: 3425: 3421: 3375: 3374: 3370: 3326: 3325: 3321: 3311: 3309: 3307: 3292: 3291: 3280: 3241: 3240: 3236: 3198: 3197: 3193: 3141: 3140: 3136: 3086: 3085: 3081: 3039: 3038: 3034: 2990: 2989: 2976: 2932: 2931: 2927: 2891: 2890: 2886: 2856: 2855: 2851: 2815: 2814: 2810: 2799:Current Science 2796: 2795: 2788: 2736: 2735: 2731: 2721: 2719: 2702:Hake L (2008). 2701: 2700: 2687: 2635: 2634: 2630: 2585:Scientific Data 2577: 2576: 2572: 2562: 2560: 2547: 2546: 2542: 2512: 2511: 2507: 2497: 2495: 2482: 2481: 2477: 2467: 2465: 2458: 2440: 2439: 2435: 2428: 2407: 2406: 2402: 2392: 2390: 2381: 2380: 2376: 2371: 2338: 2261: 2253: 2240:common ancestor 2199: 2138: 2126:boa constrictor 2122:parthenogenesis 2071: 2063:common ancestor 2017:Pattern II 1984: 1978: 1973: 1967: 1928: 1920:sexual conflict 1904: 1892: 1845: 1837: 1799: 1787: 1765: 1753: 1741: 1729: 1724: 1723: 1688: 1665: 1657: 1656: 1615: 1605: 1595: 1585: 1565: 1555: 1547: 1546: 1501: 1491: 1486: 1485: 1397: 1377:green swordtail 1356: 1293: 1287: 1231: 1230: 1178: 1172: 1147: 1135: 1129: 1088: 1082: 1019: 1013: 959: 949: 934: 924: 909: 899: 884: 874: 859: 849: 844: 843: 822: 812: 797: 787: 772: 762: 747: 737: 722: 712: 707: 706: 685: 672: 659: 646: 633: 620: 607: 594: 581: 568: 563: 562: 526: 510: 451: 423: 398: 262:Taxonomic group 248: 201: 195: 192: 185:needs expansion 170: 81:parthenogenesis 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7911: 7909: 7901: 7900: 7895: 7885: 7884: 7878: 7877: 7875: 7874: 7869: 7864: 7859: 7858: 7857: 7846: 7844: 7840: 7839: 7836: 7835: 7833: 7832: 7827: 7822: 7817: 7812: 7807: 7802: 7797: 7792: 7787: 7782: 7777: 7772: 7767: 7762: 7757: 7751: 7749: 7743: 7742: 7740: 7739: 7734: 7729: 7724: 7719: 7713: 7711: 7702: 7701: 7696: 7681: 7679: 7675: 7674: 7672: 7671: 7666: 7665: 7664: 7659: 7654: 7649: 7639: 7638: 7637: 7632: 7622: 7617: 7611: 7609: 7603: 7602: 7600: 7599: 7598: 7597: 7592: 7587: 7582: 7572: 7571: 7570: 7565: 7560: 7555: 7553:Submetacentric 7550: 7540: 7535: 7530: 7525: 7520: 7515: 7510: 7505: 7500: 7494: 7485: 7480: 7479:or heterosome) 7473:Sex chromosome 7465: 7463: 7459: 7458: 7456: 7455: 7450: 7445: 7440: 7435: 7434: 7433: 7428: 7418: 7409: 7404: 7398: 7396: 7390: 7389: 7380: 7378: 7377: 7370: 7363: 7355: 7346: 7345: 7343: 7342: 7331: 7328: 7327: 7325: 7324: 7323: 7322: 7321: 7320: 7315: 7310: 7295: 7289: 7287: 7281: 7280: 7278: 7277: 7276: 7275: 7270: 7265: 7260: 7255: 7250: 7249: 7248: 7233: 7228: 7223: 7218: 7217: 7216: 7211: 7201: 7200: 7199: 7194: 7184: 7183: 7182: 7177: 7167: 7162: 7157: 7152: 7147: 7142: 7141: 7140: 7135: 7124: 7122: 7114: 7113: 7111: 7110: 7105: 7100: 7095: 7094: 7093: 7088: 7078: 7073: 7072: 7071: 7066: 7059:Sex chromosome 7056: 7051: 7050: 7049: 7044: 7039: 7034: 7029: 7024: 7014: 7013: 7012: 7007: 6997: 6996: 6995: 6990: 6979: 6977: 6971: 6970: 6965: 6963: 6962: 6955: 6948: 6940: 6931: 6930: 6928: 6927: 6916: 6913: 6912: 6910: 6909: 6904: 6899: 6894: 6888: 6886: 6882: 6881: 6879: 6878: 6867: 6866: 6865: 6860: 6853:Sex chromosome 6850: 6849: 6848: 6843: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6817: 6815: 6811: 6810: 6808: 6807: 6802: 6797: 6796: 6795: 6785: 6784: 6783: 6772: 6770: 6766: 6765: 6756: 6754: 6753: 6746: 6739: 6731: 6724: 6723: 6717: 6701: 6699: 6696: 6693: 6692: 6685: 6665: 6608: 6581:(5): 527–534. 6565: 6528:Genome Biology 6514: 6492: 6463:(5): 901–914. 6440: 6411:(3): 443–448. 6391: 6330: 6309:(3): 667–676. 6289: 6260:(6): 965–973. 6240: 6174: 6123: 6116: 6096: 6055: 6023: 5965: 5946:(1): 519–545. 5926: 5875: 5863: 5856: 5830: 5787: 5743: 5722:10.1086/411613 5700: 5661: 5612: 5593:(4): 942–948. 5573: 5516: 5477: 5440:(2): 629–645. 5420: 5355: 5308: 5271:(3): 264–272. 5251: 5206:Genome Biology 5192: 5185: 5164: 5108: 5051: 5004: 4958: 4911: 4864: 4815: 4802: 4772: 4745:(6): 332–346. 4725: 4668: 4608: 4589:(1): 565–586. 4566: 4539:(4): 637–647. 4519: 4480: 4461:(3): 367–382. 4441: 4422:(3): 190–197. 4402: 4365:(6): 750–763. 4345: 4285: 4217: 4180:(2): 172–187. 4160: 4093: 4046: 3995: 3952: 3901: 3880:(4): 419–429. 3860: 3815:(3): 220–229. 3795: 3782:(4): 333–339. 3762: 3743:(9): 350–357. 3727: 3720: 3701: 3684:www.nature.com 3671: 3644:(6): 332–346. 3628: 3598: 3568: 3516: 3470: 3419: 3368: 3339:(4): 461–473. 3319: 3305: 3278: 3251:(5): 635–644. 3234: 3191: 3134: 3079: 3032: 2974: 2925: 2884: 2865:(4): 349–353. 2849: 2808: 2786: 2729: 2685: 2628: 2570: 2553:embryo.asu.edu 2540: 2521:(4): 292–311. 2505: 2488:www.nature.com 2475: 2457:978-1108499859 2456: 2433: 2426: 2400: 2373: 2372: 2370: 2367: 2366: 2365: 2360: 2355: 2350: 2345: 2337: 2334: 2288:gene into the 2259: 2251: 2223:microorganisms 2198: 2195: 2178:mother’s curse 2137: 2134: 2070: 2067: 2013:Pattern I 1980:Main article: 1977: 1974: 1969:Main article: 1966: 1963: 1951:Columbia River 1947:Chinook salmon 1927: 1924: 1903: 1900: 1891: 1888: 1844: 1841: 1836: 1833: 1814: 1808: 1803: 1796: 1791: 1785: 1774: 1769: 1762: 1757: 1750: 1745: 1738: 1733: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1622: 1618: 1612: 1608: 1602: 1598: 1592: 1588: 1583: 1572: 1568: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1529: 1526: 1522: 1513: 1508: 1504: 1498: 1494: 1458:Japanese frog 1396: 1393: 1355: 1352: 1289:Main article: 1286: 1283: 1262: 1259: 1256: 1253: 1250: 1247: 1244: 1241: 1238: 1215:heterothallism 1186:microorganisms 1174:Main article: 1171: 1168: 1146: 1143: 1131:Main article: 1128: 1125: 1084:Main article: 1081: 1078: 1015:Main article: 1012: 1009: 981:recombinations 966: 962: 956: 952: 947: 941: 937: 931: 927: 922: 916: 912: 906: 902: 897: 891: 887: 881: 877: 872: 866: 862: 856: 852: 829: 825: 819: 815: 810: 804: 800: 794: 790: 785: 779: 775: 769: 765: 760: 754: 750: 744: 740: 735: 729: 725: 719: 715: 692: 688: 684: 679: 675: 671: 666: 662: 658: 653: 649: 645: 640: 636: 632: 627: 623: 619: 614: 610: 606: 601: 597: 593: 588: 584: 580: 575: 571: 525: 522: 509: 506: 450: 447: 419:Main article: 397: 394: 389: 388: 385: 382: 379: 376: 373: 370: 367: 363: 362: 359: 356: 353: 350: 347: 344: 341: 337: 336: 333: 330: 327: 324: 321: 318: 315: 311: 310: 307: 304: 301: 298: 295: 292: 289: 285: 284: 281: 278: 275: 272: 269: 266: 263: 247: 244: 213:Nettie Stevens 203: 202: 182: 180: 169: 166: 77:hermaphrodites 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7910: 7899: 7896: 7894: 7891: 7890: 7888: 7873: 7870: 7868: 7865: 7863: 7860: 7856: 7853: 7852: 7851: 7848: 7847: 7845: 7841: 7831: 7828: 7826: 7823: 7821: 7818: 7816: 7813: 7811: 7808: 7806: 7803: 7801: 7798: 7796: 7793: 7791: 7788: 7786: 7783: 7781: 7778: 7776: 7773: 7771: 7768: 7766: 7763: 7761: 7758: 7756: 7753: 7752: 7750: 7748: 7744: 7738: 7735: 7733: 7730: 7728: 7725: 7723: 7720: 7718: 7715: 7714: 7712: 7710: 7706: 7700: 7697: 7694: 7690: 7686: 7683: 7682: 7680: 7676: 7670: 7667: 7663: 7660: 7658: 7655: 7653: 7650: 7648: 7645: 7644: 7643: 7640: 7636: 7633: 7631: 7628: 7627: 7626: 7623: 7621: 7618: 7616: 7613: 7612: 7610: 7608:and evolution 7604: 7596: 7593: 7591: 7588: 7586: 7583: 7581: 7578: 7577: 7576: 7573: 7569: 7566: 7564: 7561: 7559: 7556: 7554: 7551: 7549: 7546: 7545: 7544: 7541: 7539: 7536: 7534: 7533:Isochromosome 7531: 7529: 7526: 7524: 7521: 7519: 7516: 7514: 7511: 7509: 7506: 7504: 7501: 7498: 7495: 7493: 7489: 7486: 7484: 7481: 7478: 7474: 7470: 7467: 7466: 7464: 7460: 7454: 7451: 7449: 7446: 7444: 7441: 7439: 7436: 7432: 7429: 7427: 7424: 7423: 7422: 7419: 7417: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7403: 7400: 7399: 7397: 7391: 7387: 7383: 7376: 7371: 7369: 7364: 7362: 7357: 7356: 7353: 7341: 7333: 7332: 7329: 7319: 7316: 7314: 7311: 7309: 7306: 7305: 7304: 7301: 7300: 7299: 7296: 7294: 7291: 7290: 7288: 7286: 7282: 7274: 7273:Pelvic thrust 7271: 7269: 7266: 7264: 7261: 7259: 7256: 7254: 7251: 7247: 7244: 7243: 7242: 7239: 7238: 7237: 7234: 7232: 7229: 7227: 7224: 7222: 7219: 7215: 7212: 7210: 7207: 7206: 7205: 7204:Fertilization 7202: 7198: 7195: 7193: 7190: 7189: 7188: 7185: 7181: 7178: 7176: 7173: 7172: 7171: 7170:Gametogenesis 7168: 7166: 7163: 7161: 7158: 7156: 7153: 7151: 7148: 7146: 7143: 7139: 7136: 7134: 7131: 7130: 7129: 7126: 7125: 7123: 7121: 7115: 7109: 7106: 7104: 7103:parasexuality 7101: 7099: 7096: 7092: 7089: 7087: 7084: 7083: 7082: 7081:Hermaphrodite 7079: 7077: 7074: 7070: 7067: 7065: 7062: 7061: 7060: 7057: 7055: 7052: 7048: 7047:Haplodiploidy 7045: 7043: 7040: 7038: 7035: 7033: 7030: 7028: 7025: 7023: 7020: 7019: 7018: 7015: 7011: 7008: 7006: 7003: 7002: 7001: 6998: 6994: 6991: 6989: 6986: 6985: 6984: 6981: 6980: 6978: 6972: 6968: 6961: 6956: 6954: 6949: 6947: 6942: 6941: 6938: 6926: 6918: 6917: 6914: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6898: 6895: 6893: 6892:Hermaphrodite 6890: 6889: 6887: 6883: 6876: 6872: 6868: 6864: 6861: 6859: 6856: 6855: 6854: 6851: 6847: 6846:Haplodiploidy 6844: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6823: 6822: 6819: 6818: 6816: 6814:Genetic basis 6812: 6806: 6803: 6801: 6798: 6794: 6791: 6790: 6789: 6786: 6782: 6779: 6778: 6777: 6774: 6773: 6771: 6767: 6763: 6759: 6752: 6747: 6745: 6740: 6738: 6733: 6732: 6729: 6720: 6714: 6710: 6709: 6703: 6702: 6697: 6688: 6682: 6678: 6677: 6669: 6666: 6661: 6657: 6652: 6647: 6643: 6639: 6635: 6631: 6627: 6623: 6619: 6612: 6609: 6604: 6600: 6596: 6592: 6588: 6584: 6580: 6576: 6569: 6566: 6561: 6557: 6552: 6547: 6542: 6537: 6533: 6529: 6525: 6518: 6515: 6502: 6496: 6493: 6488: 6484: 6480: 6476: 6471: 6466: 6462: 6458: 6454: 6447: 6445: 6441: 6436: 6432: 6427: 6422: 6418: 6414: 6410: 6406: 6402: 6395: 6392: 6387: 6383: 6379: 6375: 6370: 6365: 6361: 6357: 6353: 6349: 6345: 6341: 6334: 6331: 6326: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6293: 6290: 6285: 6281: 6276: 6271: 6267: 6263: 6259: 6255: 6251: 6244: 6241: 6236: 6232: 6227: 6222: 6217: 6212: 6208: 6204: 6200: 6196: 6192: 6185: 6183: 6181: 6179: 6175: 6170: 6166: 6161: 6156: 6151: 6146: 6142: 6138: 6137:PLOS Genetics 6134: 6127: 6124: 6119: 6113: 6109: 6108: 6100: 6097: 6092: 6088: 6083: 6078: 6074: 6070: 6066: 6059: 6056: 6051: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6035: 6027: 6024: 6019: 6015: 6010: 6005: 6000: 5995: 5991: 5987: 5983: 5976: 5974: 5972: 5970: 5966: 5961: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5945: 5941: 5937: 5930: 5927: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5910: 5906: 5902: 5898: 5894: 5890: 5886: 5879: 5876: 5873: 5867: 5864: 5859: 5857:9780878932504 5853: 5849: 5844: 5843: 5834: 5831: 5826: 5822: 5818: 5814: 5810: 5806: 5802: 5798: 5791: 5788: 5772: 5768: 5764: 5757: 5750: 5748: 5744: 5739: 5735: 5731: 5727: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5711: 5704: 5701: 5696: 5692: 5688: 5684: 5680: 5676: 5668: 5666: 5662: 5657: 5653: 5648: 5643: 5639: 5635: 5631: 5627: 5623: 5616: 5613: 5608: 5604: 5600: 5596: 5592: 5588: 5584: 5577: 5574: 5569: 5565: 5560: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5543: 5539: 5535: 5531: 5527: 5520: 5517: 5512: 5508: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5481: 5478: 5473: 5469: 5464: 5459: 5455: 5451: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5431: 5424: 5421: 5416: 5412: 5407: 5402: 5398: 5394: 5390: 5386: 5382: 5378: 5374: 5370: 5366: 5359: 5356: 5351: 5347: 5343: 5339: 5335: 5331: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5312: 5309: 5304: 5300: 5295: 5290: 5286: 5282: 5278: 5274: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5255: 5252: 5247: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5229: 5225: 5220: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5196: 5193: 5188: 5182: 5178: 5171: 5169: 5165: 5160: 5156: 5152: 5148: 5144: 5140: 5136: 5132: 5128: 5124: 5120: 5112: 5109: 5104: 5100: 5095: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5055: 5052: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5035: 5031: 5027: 5023: 5019: 5015: 5008: 5005: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4988: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4965: 4963: 4959: 4954: 4950: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4915: 4912: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4868: 4865: 4860: 4856: 4852: 4848: 4843: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4819: 4816: 4805: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4776: 4773: 4768: 4764: 4760: 4756: 4752: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4736: 4729: 4726: 4721: 4717: 4712: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4672: 4669: 4664: 4660: 4655: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4637: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4612: 4609: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4584: 4580: 4573: 4571: 4567: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4530: 4523: 4520: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4484: 4481: 4476: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4445: 4442: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4406: 4403: 4398: 4394: 4389: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4349: 4346: 4341: 4337: 4332: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4314: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4289: 4286: 4281: 4277: 4272: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4255: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4224: 4222: 4218: 4213: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4164: 4161: 4156: 4152: 4147: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4129: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4113:(4): e34397. 4112: 4108: 4104: 4097: 4094: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4050: 4047: 4042: 4038: 4033: 4028: 4023: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 3999: 3996: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3956: 3953: 3948: 3944: 3939: 3934: 3929: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3905: 3902: 3897: 3893: 3888: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3864: 3861: 3856: 3852: 3847: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3799: 3796: 3790: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3766: 3763: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3731: 3728: 3723: 3721:9783110162103 3717: 3713: 3712: 3705: 3702: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3675: 3672: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3632: 3629: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3602: 3599: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3572: 3569: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3520: 3517: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3477: 3475: 3471: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3423: 3420: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3372: 3369: 3364: 3360: 3355: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3323: 3320: 3308: 3302: 3298: 3297: 3289: 3287: 3285: 3283: 3279: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3238: 3235: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3195: 3192: 3187: 3183: 3178: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3138: 3135: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3083: 3080: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3036: 3033: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3011: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2987: 2985: 2983: 2981: 2979: 2975: 2970: 2966: 2961: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2929: 2926: 2921: 2917: 2912: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2888: 2885: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2853: 2850: 2845: 2841: 2836: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2812: 2809: 2804: 2800: 2793: 2791: 2787: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2765: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2733: 2730: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2698: 2696: 2694: 2692: 2690: 2686: 2681: 2677: 2672: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2632: 2629: 2624: 2620: 2615: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2574: 2571: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2544: 2541: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2509: 2506: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2479: 2476: 2463: 2459: 2453: 2449: 2448: 2443: 2437: 2434: 2429: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2404: 2401: 2389: 2385: 2378: 2375: 2368: 2364: 2361: 2359: 2356: 2354: 2351: 2349: 2346: 2343: 2340: 2339: 2335: 2333: 2331: 2327: 2322: 2317: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2306:Y chromosomes 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2274: 2270: 2269: 2263: 2257: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2232: 2229: 2226: 2224: 2220: 2212: 2208: 2203: 2196: 2194: 2192: 2187: 2185: 2184: 2179: 2175: 2174: 2169: 2167: 2162: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2147: 2141: 2135: 2133: 2131: 2130:Komodo dragon 2127: 2123: 2118: 2110: 2106: 2104: 2103: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2081: 2076: 2068: 2066: 2064: 2060: 2054: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2023: 2018: 2014: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1988: 1983: 1975: 1972: 1964: 1962: 1960: 1955: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1941:(such as the 1940: 1936: 1932: 1925: 1923: 1921: 1916: 1914: 1909: 1901: 1899: 1896: 1889: 1887: 1883: 1881: 1877: 1872: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1853: 1851: 1842: 1840: 1834: 1832: 1806: 1794: 1783: 1772: 1760: 1748: 1736: 1721: 1720: 1715: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1654: 1653: 1648: 1646: 1641: 1620: 1616: 1610: 1606: 1600: 1596: 1590: 1586: 1581: 1570: 1566: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1527: 1524: 1520: 1511: 1506: 1502: 1496: 1492: 1482: 1480: 1479:C. gariepinus 1475: 1474: 1469: 1466: 1462: 1461: 1454: 1452: 1448: 1447: 1441: 1439: 1435: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1423: 1418: 1417: 1412: 1411: 1405: 1403: 1394: 1392: 1389: 1384: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1373: 1369:), lemmings ( 1368: 1366: 1361: 1353: 1351: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1297: 1296:Haplodiploidy 1292: 1291:Haplodiploidy 1285:Haplodiploidy 1284: 1278: 1274: 1273:mating types. 1260: 1257: 1254: 1251: 1248: 1245: 1242: 1239: 1236: 1228: 1226: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1211: 1210:basidiomycete 1206: 1201: 1199: 1195: 1193: 1187: 1183: 1177: 1169: 1167: 1164: 1160: 1157:species, the 1156: 1152: 1144: 1142: 1140: 1134: 1126: 1124: 1120: 1118: 1115:, reproduces 1114: 1113:Komodo dragon 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1087: 1079: 1077: 1075: 1071: 1070: 1066: 1061: 1059: 1058: 1053: 1049: 1048:Sorex araneus 1045: 1044: 1039: 1038: 1033: 1029: 1024: 1018: 1010: 1004: 1000: 997: 993: 989: 984: 982: 964: 960: 954: 950: 945: 939: 935: 929: 925: 920: 914: 910: 904: 900: 895: 889: 885: 879: 875: 870: 864: 860: 854: 850: 827: 823: 817: 813: 808: 802: 798: 792: 788: 783: 777: 773: 767: 763: 758: 752: 748: 742: 738: 733: 727: 723: 717: 713: 690: 686: 682: 677: 673: 669: 664: 660: 656: 651: 647: 643: 638: 634: 630: 625: 621: 617: 612: 608: 604: 599: 595: 591: 586: 582: 578: 573: 569: 560: 556: 552: 548: 545:At least one 543: 541: 537: 536: 531: 523: 521: 519: 515: 507: 505: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 478: 476: 472: 468: 464: 460: 456: 448: 446: 444: 443:embryogenesis 440: 436: 432: 428: 422: 415: 410: 402: 395: 393: 386: 383: 380: 377: 374: 371: 368: 365: 364: 360: 357: 354: 351: 348: 345: 342: 339: 338: 334: 331: 328: 325: 322: 319: 316: 313: 312: 308: 305: 302: 299: 296: 293: 290: 287: 286: 282: 279: 276: 273: 270: 267: 264: 261: 260: 254: 251: 245: 243: 240: 237: 234: 232: 228: 224: 223:Gregor Mendel 219: 216: 214: 210: 199: 190: 186: 183:This section 181: 178: 174: 173: 167: 165: 161: 159: 155: 151: 147: 142: 140: 136: 135:environmental 131: 129: 128:domino effect 125: 124:haplodiploidy 121: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 97: 93: 88: 86: 85:fertilization 82: 78: 73: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 43: 34: 30: 19: 7574: 7542: 7472: 7382:Cytogenetics 7192:spermatozoon 7120:reproduction 7069:Y chromosome 7064:X chromosome 7016: 7010:Virilization 7005:Feminization 6907:Sex reversal 6863:Y chromosome 6858:X chromosome 6820: 6757: 6707: 6675: 6668: 6625: 6621: 6611: 6578: 6574: 6568: 6531: 6527: 6517: 6505:. Retrieved 6495: 6460: 6456: 6408: 6404: 6394: 6343: 6339: 6333: 6306: 6302: 6292: 6257: 6253: 6243: 6198: 6194: 6140: 6136: 6126: 6106: 6099: 6072: 6068: 6058: 6041: 6037: 6026: 5989: 5986:PLOS Biology 5985: 5943: 5939: 5929: 5888: 5884: 5878: 5866: 5841: 5833: 5800: 5796: 5790: 5778:. 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