133:
the dominant male is not looking. A dominant male must stay in his territory to defend it, which can mean months without eating, living on his store of blubber. Some males have stayed ashore for more than three months without food. Two fighting males use their weight and canine teeth against each other. The outcome is rarely fatal, and the defeated bull will flee; however, bulls suffer severe tears and cuts. Males commonly vocalize with a coughing roar that serves in both individual recognition and size assessment. Conflicts between high-ranking males are more often resolved with posturing and vocalizing than with physical contact.
184:
420:
67:
387:
137:
265:
2961:
20:
121:, possibly the largest of any mammal, with southern males typically five to six times heavier than the females. While the females average 400 to 900 kilograms (880 to 1,980 lb) and 2.6 to 3 metres (8.5 to 9.8 ft) long, the bulls average 2,200 to 4,000 kilograms (4,900 to 8,800 lb) and 4.2 to 5 metres (14 to 16 ft) long. The record-sized bull, shot in Possession Bay,
349:
164:, allows struggle to proceed without excessive injury or fatality. It is predominantly when two opposing males are so closely matched, as would be found in males not having established themselves in a dominance hierarchy, that asymmetries cannot be found and the confrontation escalates to a point where the asymmetries must be proved by aggressive use of ornamentation.
457:
273:
401:
display curved horns on the rams of the species which are big compared to the small horns displayed on the females of the species. The bigger the horns are, the more testosterone there was found to be in the male. This is important because social rank has a positive correlation with the length of the
226:
behaviour, where it was supposed that longer necks enabled favoured individuals to gather food inaccessible to other animals. But even though the giraffe's overall height is about 6 meters, it still typically feeds at about 2 meters above the ground. Moreover, the giraffe's kudu, impala, and steenbok
410:
Polyandrous females have two or more mating partners while they are in heat. Females are more likely to find a new mate when their current male had a high number of paternities the year before or their current male was old. This is presumed to have an effect on offspring and giving them more genetic
364:
that are bigger will let out a different sound than smaller koalas. The bigger males which are routinely sought out for are called sires. Females choose sires because of indirect benefits that their offspring could inherit, like larger bodies. Non-sires and females do not vary in their body mass and
132:
of the bulls gives rise to a dominance hierarchy, with access to harems and breeding activity being determined by rank. The dominant bulls or "harem masters" establish harems of several dozen females. The least successful males have no harems, but may try to copulate with a harem male's females when
485:
In some species, females may choose to mate with more than one male to prevent infanticide or harassment. Infanticide can be prevented by confusing the males in a given colony. If the female mates with multiple males, then the males will not know for sure who fathered the offspring. Infanticide can
239:
should be observed. But evolutionary history shows that increased neck length is not correlated to increases in other parts of the body, which would be expected from foraging selection, so sexual selection may be a more satisfactory explanation. Studies have failed to resolve the causes involved:
468:
areas in the sperm that contain mitochondria are also observed. Larger testes and bigger midpieces in sperm are seen in males that mate with multiple partners. A female that has been with multiple partners will most likely give birth to an offspring fathered by the male that produced the most or
427:
Sex role reversal is the change in behavior of a specific species from their ordinary pattern. Sex-role reversal supports sexual dimorphism very strongly. Female–female competition is a common abnormality within animals with accepted sex roles. Females invest into choosing the best possible mate
326:
arise. Elephant seals have a proboscis in the adult male, which is used to project loud noises, frequently heard during the mating season. Elephant seals with a bigger proboscis emit lower sounds than males with a smaller proboscis and are the bigger of the males in a colony. Mate-guarding is an
234:
with other males to exhibit dominance. There are six criteria that need to be satisfied for the exaggerated neck to be classified as a result of sexual selection. The characteristic should be more exaggerated in one of the sexes; it must be used to indicate dominance; have no direct survival
428:
because they have more of a part in bringing up their offspring than males (gestation and lactation). Gestation and lactation are energy-consuming, which means their competition for resources is high. Female–female competitions are observed to gain access for better mates.
339:
are a form of mate-guarding that have proved to show precopulatory female choice. Copulatory plugs are commonly acellular and thought to be made by proteins from the seminal vesicles. DNA taken from copulatory plugs show females deter from mating with close relatives.
152:, adorned males may gain a reproductive advantage without the intervention of female preference. This advantage will be conferred by weapons used in the process of resolving disputes, such as those over territorial rights. The use of sexual ornamentation as a
365:
can reject a male by screaming or hitting him. Male–male competition is rarely exhibited in koalas. Acoustic signaling is a type of call that can be used from a significant distance encoding an organism's location, condition and identity.
125:, on February 28, 1913, measured 6.85 metres (22.5 ft) long and was estimated to weigh 5,000 kilograms (11,000 lb). The maximum weight of a female is 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb) with a length of 3.7 metres (12 ft).
369:
display acoustic signaling, which is often interpreted as songs. When females hear these songs, named a 'whistle', they call onto the males to breed with a screech of their own. This action is termed 'calling of the sexes'.
481:
Cryptic female choice is a postcopulatory mechanism that cannot be observed because it takes place inside a female's body. It enables a female to have some control over who fathers her child even after fertilization.
464:
Sperm competition involves male gametes trying to fertilize eggs first. As a result of sperm competition, some males in a given species can develop bigger testes and seminal vesicles. Larger
2197:
432:
females acquire dominant status because resources for female reproduction are scarce. Dominant females in this species are heavier and win in competitions over other females.
486:
also be prevented by choosing a male that will protect her and the offspring. Sexual harassment may be avoided if females give in to males and copulate when they please.
1222:
1594:
402:
horns. Social rank leads to tending of a group of females to copulate with. Testosterone also appears more in polygynous species than in monogamous species.
122:
729:
335:
from occurring as it ensures reproductive success. This process can be engaged when a post-coital signal is sent to a male to keep guard by the female.
2882:
2666:
2582:
1236:
1322:
1253:
2044:
739:
716:
643:
631:
2238:
1294:
Sanvito, S.; Galimberti, F.; Miller, E. H. (2007). "Having a big nose: structure, ontogeny, and function of the elephant seal proboscis".
300:
happens to males in musth as it helps them win fights. A fight between a male in musth and one not can result in the death of the latter.
227:
competitors do not feed above 2 meters and prefer feeding at shoulder level as well, rather than at the maximum height they could reach.
755:
Jones, E. (1981). "Age in relation to
Breeding Status of the Male Southern Elephant Seal, Mirounga leonina (L.), at Macquarie Island".
128:
Males arrive in the colonies before the females and fight for control of harems. Large body size confers advantages in fighting. The
829:
820:
2937:
2752:
323:
2860:
1427:
McCreight, J. C.; DeWoody, J. A.; Waser, P. M. (2011). "DNA from copulatory plugs can give insights into sexual selection".
907:
Simmons, R. E.; Altwegg, R. (2010). "Necks-for-sex or competing browsers? A critique of ideas on the evolution of giraffe".
183:
1838:
659:
218:
has been put into question. Originally, scientists believed that the elongation of the giraffe's neck had been a result of
2917:
144:
fight fiercely each year. Unsuccessful males may not mate at all, while successful males have harems of 30 to 100 females.
2034:
2990:
2932:
2732:
2715:
1645:"Coronavirus genotype diversity and prevalence of infection in wild carnivores in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania"
934:
Mitchell, G.; Skinner, J. D.; S. J. van
Sittert (2009). "Sexual selection is not the origin of long necks in giraffes".
682:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2575:
469:
faster sperm. It was found that primates and rodents with longer flagellum fathered more offspring. The length of the
2870:
2710:
39:
1254:"Male mating competitiveness and age-dependent relationship between testosterone and social rank in bighorn sheep"
249:
2985:
2700:
2641:
1129:
Hollister-Smith, J. A.; et al. (2007). "Age, musth and paternity success in wild male
African elephants,
303:
Species with intense male–male competition are known to exhibit the most size dimorphism. For example, female
2922:
440:
Copulating with the opposite sex does not ensure fertilization of an egg. Postcopulatory mechanisms include
292:
continuously grow throughout their lifetime. As males grow older, they also experience increasing lapses of
1179:
230:
An alternative explanation for the origin of long necks in giraffe is sexual selection. Male giraffe often
2838:
2833:
2629:
2624:
2568:
2212:
1142:
214:) long neck are controversial. The long-accepted "competing browser's hypothesis" originally put forth by
167:
How often males will physically engage each other, and in what manner, can best be understood by applying
141:
106:
98:
71:
1029:
Simmons, R. E.; Scheepers, L. (1996). "Winning by a neck: Sexual selection in the evolution of giraffe".
2942:
1216:
445:
419:
1581:
SONGS, SCENTS, AND SENSES : SEXUAL SELECTION IN THE GREATER SAC-WINGED BAT, SACCOPTERYX BILINEATA
603:
2877:
2332:
2104:
1991:
1895:
1701:
974:
297:
2217:
1323:"Male mate guarding in a socially monogamous mammal, the round-eared sengi: on costs and trade-offs"
1147:
2774:
2742:
304:
157:
129:
1376:
Harcourt, A. H. (1991). "Sperm
Competition and the Evolution of Nonfertilizing Sperm in Mammals".
2887:
2865:
2850:
2512:
2463:
2447:
2406:
2356:
2298:
2178:
2128:
2015:
1911:
1868:
1717:
1625:
1520:
1478:
1409:
1393:
1345:
1276:
1204:
1160:
1046:
862:
815:
172:
1002:
Husak, J. F.; Swallow, J. G. (2011). "Compensatory traits and the evolution of male ornaments".
235:
benefits; cost the organism in terms of survival or other factors (e.g., energetics); positive
2892:
2678:
2607:
2547:
2504:
2455:
2398:
2376:"Sexual selection and genital evolution in mammals: a phylogenetic analysis of baculum length"
2348:
2290:
2230:
2170:
2120:
2040:
2007:
1960:
1819:
1770:
1725:
1674:
1617:
1595:"Validating methods for estimating endocranial volume in individual red deer (Cervus elaphus)"
1562:
1401:
880:
Leuthold, B. M.; Leuthold, W. (1972). "Food habits of giraffe in Tsavo
National Park, Kenya".
825:
735:
712:
639:
584:
535:
441:
332:
285:
253:
219:
199:
153:
118:
66:
2845:
2727:
2539:
2494:
2437:
2390:
2340:
2280:
2222:
2162:
2112:
2073:
1999:
1950:
1942:
1903:
1858:
1850:
1809:
1801:
1762:
1709:
1664:
1656:
1609:
1580:
1554:
1512:
1470:
1436:
1385:
1337:
1303:
1268:
1194:
1180:"Sexual-size dimorphism: Influence of mass and mating systems in the most dimorphic mammals"
1152:
1111:
1080:
1038:
1011:
982:
943:
916:
889:
854:
798:
764:
574:
566:
525:
515:
75:
35:
2927:
2909:
2855:
2799:
1237:
Effects of body size on male mating tactics and paternity in black bears, Ursus americanus
386:
357:
315:
83:
1363:
1066:"Necks for sex: sexual selection as an explanation for sauropod dinosaur neck elongation"
2336:
2108:
1995:
1899:
1705:
978:
841:
Mitchell, G.; Skinner, J. D. (200). "On the origin, evolution and phylogeny of giraffes
136:
2683:
2442:
2425:
2147:
2077:
1955:
1930:
1886:
Ah-King, M.; Ahnesjö, I. (2013). "The "Sex Role" Concept: An
Overview and Evaluation".
1814:
1789:
1669:
1644:
1389:
1115:
893:
802:
785:
McCann, T. S. (1981). "Aggression and sexual activity of male
Southern elephant seals,
579:
554:
530:
503:
366:
331:, and, when successful, helps to overlook and court the female. It especially prevents
319:
264:
215:
31:
2530:
Wolff, J. O.; Macdonald, D. W. (2004). "Promiscuous females protect their offspring".
1766:
1065:
2979:
2897:
2828:
2794:
2705:
2671:
1539:
1497:
1455:
1440:
1364:
Female
Copulation Calls in Guinea Baboons: Evidence for Postcopulatory Female Choice?
1099:
1084:
987:
962:
947:
920:
398:
375:
161:
87:
2516:
2467:
2360:
2317:
2302:
2182:
2132:
2092:
2061:
1915:
1872:
1629:
1524:
1482:
1413:
1349:
1280:
1164:
1050:
2964:
2816:
2693:
2688:
2634:
2375:
2019:
1747:
866:
394:
82:
A good example of intrasexual selection, in which males fight for dominance over a
19:
2410:
1692:
Hogg, J. T. (1984). "Mating in
Bighorn Sheep: Multiple Creative Male Strategies".
1474:
1156:
1979:
1613:
2062:"Copulation behaviour in mammals: evidence that sperm competition is widespread"
1748:"Sexual behavior, reproductive physiology and sperm competition in male mammals"
1252:
Martin, A. M.; Presseault-Gauvin, H.; Festa-Bianchet, M.; Pelletier, F. (2013).
667:
336:
168:
47:
2543:
2226:
1558:
1454:
Charlton, B. D.; Ellis, W. A. H.; Brumm, J.; Nilsson, K.; Fitch, W. T. (2012).
711:
Wood, The
Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats. Sterling Pub Co Inc (1983),
508:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1907:
1863:
1854:
1660:
1516:
1341:
1272:
858:
570:
248:
Precopulatory mechanisms determine who will father an offspring prior to sex.
2483:"The oviduct as a complex mediator of mammalian sperm function and selection"
1362:
Maestripieri, D., Leoni, M., Raza, S. S., Hirsch, E. J. & Whitham, J. C.
1015:
2804:
2779:
2769:
2757:
1946:
1713:
1456:"Female koalas prefer bellows in which lower formants indicate larger males"
1321:
Schubert, M.; Schradin, C.; Rödel, H. G.; Pillay, N.; Ribble, D. O. (2009).
520:
348:
328:
289:
236:
114:
51:
2551:
2508:
2459:
2402:
2344:
2294:
2234:
2174:
2116:
2011:
1964:
1823:
1805:
1774:
1678:
1621:
1566:
1405:
630:
Perrin, William F.; Würsig, Bernd; Thewissen, J. G. M., eds. (2008-11-24).
588:
539:
456:
23:
Elephants can use their ears as threat displays in male-to-male competition
2352:
2124:
1729:
2821:
2722:
1837:
Briefer, E. F.; Farrell, M. E.; Hayden, T. J.; McElligott, A. G. (2013).
608:
371:
280:
Male–male competition to copulate with the opposite sex is often seen in
223:
2003:
638:(2nd ed.). Burlington, Massachusetts: Academic Press. p. 346.
327:
important factor in male–male competition to ensure fertilization of an
272:
2789:
2762:
2451:
2285:
2268:
1721:
1397:
1208:
470:
429:
281:
231:
207:
195:
188:
55:
2499:
2482:
2426:"Cryptic Female Choice: Criteria for Establishing Female Sperm Choice"
1794:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
1540:"Evolutionary divergence in acoustic signals: causes and consequences"
768:
504:"Mate choice and sexual selection: what have we learned since Darwin?"
2811:
2784:
2617:
1980:"Intrasexual competition and sexual selection in cooperative mammals"
1790:"Polyandry as a mediator of sexual selection before and after mating"
1643:
Goller, K. V.; Fickel, J.; Hofer, H.; Beier, S.; East, M. L. (2013).
555:"Sexual dimorphism and sexual selection: a unified economic analysis"
256:
is a result of male–male competition that is easily seen in species.
43:
1931:"Intrasexual competition in females: evidence for sexual selection?"
1307:
1199:
1100:"Cow-calf relationships in giraffe (Giraffa-Camelopardalis-Giraffa)"
2394:
2166:
1042:
465:
455:
418:
385:
361:
347:
293:
271:
263:
182:
135:
91:
65:
18:
322:
competing fiercely for harems. As mammals reach sexual maturity,
2612:
473:
is also influenced by sperm competition in some mammal species.
2564:
2591:
2036:
Sexual Selection in Primates: New and Comparative Perspectives
1839:"Fallow deer polyandry is related to fertilization insurance"
397:
is a driving factor towards achieving fertilizing success.
963:"Evaluating performance costs of sexually selected traits"
378:
along with other mammals also perform acoustic signaling.
2097:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
1366:
International Journal of Primatology 26, 737–758 (2005)
240:
perhaps the neck was a result of both or other forces.
2560:
2033:
Peter M. Kappeler; Carel P. van Schaik (13 May 2004).
2318:"Sperm competition influences sperm size in mammals"
2093:"Sperm competition influences sperm size in mammals"
2091:
Gomendio, Montserrat; Roldan, Eduardo R. S. (1991).
2908:
2741:
2598:
252:is the biggest precopulatory mechanism in mammals.
1538:Wilkins, M. R.; Seddon, N.; Safran, R. J. (2013).
360:, mammals will call out to the opposite sex. Male
847:Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa
2146:Birkhead, Timothy R.; Pizzari, Tommaso (2002).
780:
778:
2576:
2039:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 151–.
1498:"Body size and sexual selection in the koala"
30:is a process the study of which started with
8:
1221:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
681:Block, D.; Meyer, Philip; Myers, P. (2004).
2262:
2260:
2258:
1741:
1739:
1593:Logan, C. J.; Clutton-Brock, T. H. (2013).
824:. Cambridge University Press, pp. 131–137.
693:. The Regents of the University of Michigan
666:. Seal Conservation Society. Archived from
2583:
2569:
2561:
2196:Hosken, David J.; Stockley, Paula (2004).
1978:Clutton-Brock, T. H.; et al. (2006).
1247:
1245:
604:"Large testicles are linked to infidelity"
46:, consisting of male–male competition and
2498:
2441:
2284:
2273:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
2216:
2066:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
1954:
1862:
1813:
1668:
1198:
1146:
986:
578:
529:
519:
2269:"Sexual dimorphism in primate evolution"
2198:"Sexual selection and genital evolution"
296:, a violent sexual excitement, and most
288:strongly promote male–male competition.
117:living today. Both species show extreme
2060:Møller, A. P.; Birkhead, T. R. (1989).
1746:Dixson, A. F.; Anderson, M. J. (2004).
502:Jones, A. G.; Ratterman, N. L. (2009).
494:
171:developed for biology, most notably by
2487:Molecular Reproduction and Development
1214:
1788:Kvarnemo, C.; Simmons, L. W. (2013).
7:
2316:Gomendio, M.; Roldan, E. R. (1991).
961:Oufiero, C. E.; Garland, T. (2007).
50:that mold the development of future
2679:Heterogametic sex / Homogametic sex
1843:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
1505:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
1330:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
1261:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
90:– large, oceangoing mammals of the
2443:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1998.tb01848.x
2078:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1989.tb01569.x
1390:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1991.tb04406.x
1235:Kovach, A. I. & Powell, R. A.
1116:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1977.tb00074.x
894:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1972.tb01173.x
803:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1981.tb03467.x
734:. New York: Sterling. p. 61.
553:Chu, C. Y. C.; Lee, R. D. (2012).
14:
2532:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
2205:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
2148:"Postcopulatory Sexual Selection"
1547:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
1496:Ellis; Bercovitch, F. B. (2011).
821:Evolution and the Theory of Games
311:) are 20–40% smaller than males.
193:Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata
179:An uncertain example: the giraffe
2960:
2959:
2753:Evolution of sexual reproduction
2325:Proceedings: Biological Sciences
1441:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2011.00806.x
1085:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00197.x
988:10.1111/j.1365-2435.2007.01259.x
948:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2009.00573.x
921:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2010.00711.x
602:Vogt, Yngve (January 29, 2014).
206:The evolutionary origins of the
2481:Holt, W. V; Fazeli, A. (2010).
1104:Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie
324:secondary sexual characteristic
2861:Sexual reproduction in animals
636:Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals
559:Theoretical Population Biology
1:
1767:10.1016/s0031-9384(04)00362-2
1475:10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.09.034
1157:10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.12.008
314:Male mammals can compete for
160:among males, also known as a
97:. There are two species: the
2733:Sex as a biological variable
2716:Simultaneous hermaphroditism
2267:Plavcan, J. Michael (2001).
1614:10.1016/j.beproc.2012.10.015
1178:Weckerly, Floyd, W. (1998).
757:Australian Wildlife Research
54:in a population for a given
1296:Canadian Journal of Zoology
34:'s observations concerning
28:Sexual selection in mammals
3007:
2871:Penile-vaginal intercourse
2711:Sequential hermaphroditism
2544:10.1016/j.tree.2003.12.009
2227:10.1016/j.tree.2003.11.012
1559:10.1016/j.tree.2012.10.002
882:African Journal of Ecology
40:sexual selection in humans
2955:
2701:Testis-determining factor
1908:10.1007/s11692-013-9226-7
1855:10.1007/s00265-013-1485-x
1755:Physiology & Behavior
1661:10.1007/s00705-012-1562-x
1517:10.1007/s00265-010-1136-4
1342:10.1007/s00265-009-0842-2
1273:10.1007/s00265-013-1516-7
859:10.1080/00359190309519935
728:Carwardine, Mark (2008).
687:(Southern elephant seal)"
571:10.1016/j.tpb.2012.06.002
436:Postcopulatory mechanisms
16:Mode of natural selection
2642:Sex-determination system
2424:Birkhead, T. R. (1998).
1239:. 1268, 1257–1268 (2003)
1016:10.1163/000579510x541265
660:"Southern Elephant Seal"
352:Mother with joey on back
244:Precopulatory mechanisms
2383:The American Naturalist
2374:Ramm, Steven A (2007).
2155:Nature Reviews Genetics
1714:10.1126/science.6539948
1098:Langman, V. A. (1977).
521:10.1073/pnas.0901129106
142:northern elephant seals
72:southern elephant seals
2625:Sexual differentiation
2345:10.1098/rspb.1991.0029
2117:10.1098/rspb.1991.0029
1806:10.1098/rstb.2012.0042
1583:. 89, 1401–1410 (2008)
843:Giraffa camelopardalis
461:
424:
391:
353:
277:
269:
222:acting in relation to
212:Giraffa camelopardalis
203:
145:
107:southern elephant seal
79:
24:
2667:Temperature-dependent
1947:10.1093/beheco/arr106
1602:Behavioural Processes
477:Cryptic female choice
459:
446:cryptic female choice
422:
389:
351:
275:
267:
260:Male–male competition
250:Male–male competition
186:
150:intrasexual selection
139:
78:for the right to mate
69:
22:
1888:Evolutionary Biology
1649:Archives of Virology
1187:Journal of Mammalogy
691:Animal Diversity Web
514:(Suppl 1): 10001–8.
305:American black bears
298:reproductive success
2991:Mammalian sexuality
2883:Hormonal motivation
2856:Fungal reproduction
2775:Reproductive system
2337:1991RSPSB.243..181G
2109:1991RSPSB.243..181G
2004:10.1038/nature05386
1996:2006Natur.444.1065C
1900:2013EvBio..40..461A
1706:1984Sci...225..526H
1064:Senter, P. (2007).
1031:American Naturalist
979:2007FuEco..21..676O
460:Stained human sperm
268:American black bear
158:dominance hierarchy
130:agonistic behaviour
86:of females, is the
2888:Human reproduction
2866:Sexual intercourse
2851:Plant reproduction
2286:10.1002/ajpa.10011
1935:Behavioral Ecology
1864:20.500.11850/76517
1800:(1613): 20120042.
1429:Journal of Zoology
1131:Loxodonta africana
1073:Journal of Zoology
967:Functional Ecology
936:Journal of Zoology
909:Journal of Zoology
791:Journal of Zoology
462:
425:
392:
390:Bighorn male sheep
354:
278:
270:
204:
173:John Maynard Smith
146:
80:
25:
2973:
2972:
2893:Lordosis behavior
2608:Sexual dimorphism
2500:10.1002/mrd.21234
2103:(1308): 181–185.
2046:978-1-139-45115-4
1700:(4661): 526–529.
769:10.1071/wr9810327
741:978-1-4027-5623-8
717:978-0-85112-235-9
645:978-0-12-373553-9
452:Sperm competition
442:sperm competition
415:Sex-role reversal
333:sperm competition
286:African elephants
254:Sexual dimorphism
220:natural selection
200:San Francisco Zoo
119:sexual dimorphism
103:M. angustirostris
2998:
2986:Sexual selection
2963:
2962:
2923:Animal sexuality
2846:Sexual selection
2585:
2578:
2571:
2562:
2556:
2555:
2527:
2521:
2520:
2502:
2478:
2472:
2471:
2445:
2436:(4): 1212–1218.
2421:
2415:
2414:
2380:
2371:
2365:
2364:
2322:
2313:
2307:
2306:
2288:
2264:
2253:
2252:
2250:
2249:
2243:
2237:. Archived from
2220:
2202:
2193:
2187:
2186:
2152:
2143:
2137:
2136:
2088:
2082:
2081:
2057:
2051:
2050:
2030:
2024:
2023:
1990:(7122): 1065–8.
1975:
1969:
1968:
1958:
1941:(6): 1131–1140.
1929:Rosvall (2011).
1926:
1920:
1919:
1883:
1877:
1876:
1866:
1834:
1828:
1827:
1817:
1785:
1779:
1778:
1752:
1743:
1734:
1733:
1689:
1683:
1682:
1672:
1640:
1634:
1633:
1599:
1590:
1584:
1577:
1571:
1570:
1544:
1535:
1529:
1528:
1511:(6): 1229–1235.
1502:
1493:
1487:
1486:
1469:(6): 1565–1571.
1463:Animal Behaviour
1460:
1451:
1445:
1444:
1424:
1418:
1417:
1373:
1367:
1360:
1354:
1353:
1327:
1318:
1312:
1311:
1291:
1285:
1284:
1258:
1249:
1240:
1233:
1227:
1226:
1220:
1212:
1202:
1184:
1175:
1169:
1168:
1150:
1135:Animal Behaviour
1126:
1120:
1119:
1095:
1089:
1088:
1070:
1061:
1055:
1054:
1026:
1020:
1019:
999:
993:
992:
990:
958:
952:
951:
931:
925:
924:
904:
898:
897:
877:
871:
870:
838:
832:
816:Maynard Smith, J
813:
807:
806:
787:Mirounga leonina
782:
773:
772:
752:
746:
745:
725:
719:
709:
703:
702:
700:
698:
685:Mirounga leonina
678:
672:
671:
656:
650:
649:
627:
621:
620:
618:
616:
599:
593:
592:
582:
550:
544:
543:
533:
523:
499:
309:Ursus americanus
154:signaling device
113:) – the largest
76:Macquarie Island
36:sexual selection
3006:
3005:
3001:
3000:
2999:
2997:
2996:
2995:
2976:
2975:
2974:
2969:
2951:
2938:Differentiation
2928:Human sexuality
2918:Plant sexuality
2904:
2800:Spermatogenesis
2744:
2737:
2600:
2594:
2589:
2559:
2529:
2528:
2524:
2480:
2479:
2475:
2423:
2422:
2418:
2378:
2373:
2372:
2368:
2331:(1308): 181–5.
2320:
2315:
2314:
2310:
2266:
2265:
2256:
2247:
2245:
2241:
2218:10.1.1.509.2660
2200:
2195:
2194:
2190:
2150:
2145:
2144:
2140:
2090:
2089:
2085:
2059:
2058:
2054:
2047:
2032:
2031:
2027:
1977:
1976:
1972:
1928:
1927:
1923:
1885:
1884:
1880:
1836:
1835:
1831:
1787:
1786:
1782:
1750:
1745:
1744:
1737:
1691:
1690:
1686:
1642:
1641:
1637:
1597:
1592:
1591:
1587:
1578:
1574:
1542:
1537:
1536:
1532:
1500:
1495:
1494:
1490:
1458:
1453:
1452:
1448:
1426:
1425:
1421:
1375:
1374:
1370:
1361:
1357:
1325:
1320:
1319:
1315:
1308:10.1139/z06-193
1293:
1292:
1288:
1256:
1251:
1250:
1243:
1234:
1230:
1213:
1200:10.2307/1382840
1182:
1177:
1176:
1172:
1148:10.1.1.519.7141
1128:
1127:
1123:
1097:
1096:
1092:
1068:
1063:
1062:
1058:
1028:
1027:
1023:
1001:
1000:
996:
960:
959:
955:
933:
932:
928:
906:
905:
901:
879:
878:
874:
840:
839:
835:
814:
810:
784:
783:
776:
754:
753:
749:
742:
727:
726:
722:
710:
706:
696:
694:
680:
679:
675:
658:
657:
653:
646:
632:"Earless Seals"
629:
628:
624:
614:
612:
601:
600:
596:
552:
551:
547:
501:
500:
496:
492:
479:
454:
438:
417:
408:
384:
367:Sac-winged bats
358:breeding season
346:
262:
246:
181:
148:In the case of
64:
42:, and in other
17:
12:
11:
5:
3004:
3002:
2994:
2993:
2988:
2978:
2977:
2971:
2970:
2968:
2967:
2956:
2953:
2952:
2950:
2949:
2948:
2947:
2946:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2920:
2914:
2912:
2906:
2905:
2903:
2902:
2901:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2874:
2873:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2842:
2841:
2836:
2826:
2825:
2824:
2819:
2809:
2808:
2807:
2802:
2792:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2772:
2767:
2766:
2765:
2760:
2749:
2747:
2739:
2738:
2736:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2719:
2718:
2713:
2703:
2698:
2697:
2696:
2691:
2684:Sex chromosome
2681:
2676:
2675:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2639:
2638:
2637:
2632:
2622:
2621:
2620:
2615:
2604:
2602:
2596:
2595:
2590:
2588:
2587:
2580:
2573:
2565:
2558:
2557:
2522:
2493:(11): 934–43.
2473:
2416:
2395:10.1086/510688
2389:(3): 360–369.
2366:
2308:
2254:
2188:
2167:10.1038/nrg774
2138:
2083:
2072:(2): 119–131.
2052:
2045:
2025:
1970:
1921:
1894:(4): 461–470.
1878:
1849:(4): 657–665.
1829:
1780:
1735:
1684:
1635:
1585:
1572:
1530:
1488:
1446:
1435:(4): 300–304.
1419:
1384:(2): 314–328.
1368:
1355:
1336:(2): 257–264.
1313:
1302:(2): 207–220.
1286:
1267:(6): 919–928.
1241:
1228:
1170:
1141:(2): 287–296.
1121:
1110:(3): 264–286.
1090:
1056:
1043:10.1086/285955
1037:(5): 771–786.
1021:
994:
973:(4): 676–689.
953:
942:(4): 281–286.
926:
899:
888:(2): 129–141.
872:
833:
808:
797:(3): 295–310.
774:
763:(2): 327–334.
747:
740:
731:Animal Records
720:
704:
673:
670:on 2010-10-26.
651:
644:
622:
594:
545:
493:
491:
488:
478:
475:
453:
450:
437:
434:
416:
413:
407:
404:
383:
380:
376:spotted hyenas
345:
342:
320:elephant seals
261:
258:
245:
242:
216:Charles Darwin
180:
177:
63:
62:Elephant seals
60:
32:Charles Darwin
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3003:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2983:
2981:
2966:
2958:
2957:
2954:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2930:
2929:
2926:
2925:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2915:
2913:
2911:
2907:
2899:
2898:Pelvic thrust
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2872:
2869:
2868:
2867:
2864:
2863:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2831:
2830:
2829:Fertilization
2827:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2814:
2813:
2810:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2797:
2796:
2795:Gametogenesis
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2755:
2754:
2751:
2750:
2748:
2746:
2740:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2728:parasexuality
2726:
2724:
2721:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2708:
2707:
2706:Hermaphrodite
2704:
2702:
2699:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2686:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2673:
2672:Haplodiploidy
2670:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2644:
2643:
2640:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2627:
2626:
2623:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2610:
2609:
2606:
2605:
2603:
2597:
2593:
2586:
2581:
2579:
2574:
2572:
2567:
2566:
2563:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2538:(3): 127–34.
2537:
2533:
2526:
2523:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2477:
2474:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2420:
2417:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2377:
2370:
2367:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2319:
2312:
2309:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2263:
2261:
2259:
2255:
2244:on 2017-10-12
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2199:
2192:
2189:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2161:(4): 262–73.
2160:
2156:
2149:
2142:
2139:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2087:
2084:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2056:
2053:
2048:
2042:
2038:
2037:
2029:
2026:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1974:
1971:
1966:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1925:
1922:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1882:
1879:
1874:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1833:
1830:
1825:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1784:
1781:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1761:(2): 361–71.
1760:
1756:
1749:
1742:
1740:
1736:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1688:
1685:
1680:
1676:
1671:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1655:(4): 729–34.
1654:
1650:
1646:
1639:
1636:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1596:
1589:
1586:
1582:
1576:
1573:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1553:(3): 156–66.
1552:
1548:
1541:
1534:
1531:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1499:
1492:
1489:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1457:
1450:
1447:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1423:
1420:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1372:
1369:
1365:
1359:
1356:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1324:
1317:
1314:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1290:
1287:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1255:
1248:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1232:
1229:
1224:
1218:
1210:
1206:
1201:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1181:
1174:
1171:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1149:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1125:
1122:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1094:
1091:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1067:
1060:
1057:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1025:
1022:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
998:
995:
989:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
957:
954:
949:
945:
941:
937:
930:
927:
922:
918:
914:
910:
903:
900:
895:
891:
887:
883:
876:
873:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
837:
834:
831:
830:0-521-28884-3
827:
823:
822:
817:
812:
809:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
781:
779:
775:
770:
766:
762:
758:
751:
748:
743:
737:
733:
732:
724:
721:
718:
714:
708:
705:
697:September 11,
692:
688:
686:
677:
674:
669:
665:
664:pinnipeds.org
661:
655:
652:
647:
641:
637:
633:
626:
623:
611:
610:
605:
598:
595:
590:
586:
581:
576:
572:
568:
565:(2): 355–63.
564:
560:
556:
549:
546:
541:
537:
532:
527:
522:
517:
513:
509:
505:
498:
495:
489:
487:
483:
476:
474:
472:
467:
458:
451:
449:
447:
443:
435:
433:
431:
421:
414:
412:
405:
403:
400:
399:Bighorn sheep
396:
388:
381:
379:
377:
373:
368:
363:
359:
350:
343:
341:
338:
334:
330:
325:
321:
318:as well with
317:
312:
310:
306:
301:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
274:
266:
259:
257:
255:
251:
243:
241:
238:
233:
228:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
201:
197:
194:
190:
185:
178:
176:
174:
170:
165:
163:
162:pecking order
159:
155:
151:
143:
138:
134:
131:
126:
124:
123:South Georgia
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
93:
89:
88:elephant seal
85:
77:
73:
68:
61:
59:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
21:
2817:spermatozoon
2745:reproduction
2694:Y chromosome
2689:X chromosome
2635:Virilization
2630:Feminization
2535:
2531:
2525:
2490:
2486:
2476:
2433:
2429:
2419:
2386:
2382:
2369:
2328:
2324:
2311:
2276:
2272:
2246:. Retrieved
2239:the original
2211:(2): 87–93.
2208:
2204:
2191:
2158:
2154:
2141:
2100:
2096:
2086:
2069:
2065:
2055:
2035:
2028:
1987:
1983:
1973:
1938:
1934:
1924:
1891:
1887:
1881:
1846:
1842:
1832:
1797:
1793:
1783:
1758:
1754:
1697:
1693:
1687:
1652:
1648:
1638:
1605:
1601:
1588:
1579:Ecology, E.
1575:
1550:
1546:
1533:
1508:
1504:
1491:
1466:
1462:
1449:
1432:
1428:
1422:
1381:
1377:
1371:
1358:
1333:
1329:
1316:
1299:
1295:
1289:
1264:
1260:
1231:
1217:cite journal
1193:(1): 33–52.
1190:
1186:
1173:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1124:
1107:
1103:
1093:
1076:
1072:
1059:
1034:
1030:
1024:
1007:
1003:
997:
970:
966:
956:
939:
935:
929:
912:
908:
902:
885:
881:
875:
850:
846:
842:
836:
819:
811:
794:
790:
786:
760:
756:
750:
730:
723:
707:
695:. Retrieved
690:
684:
676:
668:the original
663:
654:
635:
625:
613:. Retrieved
607:
597:
562:
558:
548:
511:
507:
497:
484:
480:
463:
439:
426:
409:
395:Testosterone
393:
382:Testosterone
355:
337:Mating plugs
313:
308:
302:
279:
247:
229:
211:
205:
192:
166:
156:to create a
149:
147:
127:
110:
102:
94:
81:
74:fighting on
38:, including
27:
26:
615:January 31,
411:diversity.
356:During the
276:Mating plug
169:game theory
48:mate choice
2980:Categories
2878:Copulation
2599:Biological
2248:2017-10-11
490:References
115:carnivoran
111:M. leonina
52:phenotypes
2933:Mechanics
2910:Sexuality
2805:Oogenesis
2780:Sex organ
2770:Germ cell
2758:Anisogamy
2430:Evolution
2279:: 25–53.
2213:CiteSeerX
1608:: 143–6.
1378:Evolution
1143:CiteSeerX
1079:: 45–53.
1004:Behaviour
853:: 51–73.
406:Polyandry
329:offspring
290:Elephants
237:allometry
187:Two male
2965:Category
2943:Activity
2839:Internal
2834:External
2723:Intersex
2552:16701243
2517:35911991
2509:20886635
2468:24919867
2460:28565225
2403:17238128
2361:23578349
2303:31722173
2295:11786990
2235:16701234
2183:10841073
2175:11967551
2133:23578349
2012:17183322
1965:22479137
1916:16668363
1873:18823407
1824:23339234
1775:15488551
1679:23212740
1630:32069068
1622:23137587
1567:23141110
1525:26046352
1483:53175246
1414:26795599
1406:28567878
1350:44029280
1281:18283821
1165:54327948
1051:84406669
1010:: 1–29.
915:: 6–12.
609:Phys.org
589:22699007
540:19528643
466:midpiece
423:Meerkats
372:Red deer
344:Callings
224:foraging
189:giraffes
99:northern
95:Mirounga
2790:Meiosis
2763:Isogamy
2452:2411251
2353:1675796
2333:Bibcode
2125:1675796
2105:Bibcode
2020:4397323
1992:Bibcode
1956:3199163
1896:Bibcode
1815:3576577
1730:6539948
1722:1694008
1702:Bibcode
1694:Science
1670:7086904
1398:2409666
1209:1382840
975:Bibcode
867:6522531
818:(1982)
580:3462896
531:2702796
471:baculum
430:Meerkat
282:mammals
208:giraffe
196:necking
56:species
44:mammals
2812:Gamete
2785:Mating
2743:Sexual
2618:Female
2550:
2515:
2507:
2466:
2458:
2450:
2411:905005
2409:
2401:
2359:
2351:
2301:
2293:
2233:
2215:
2181:
2173:
2131:
2123:
2043:
2018:
2010:
1984:Nature
1963:
1953:
1914:
1871:
1822:
1812:
1773:
1728:
1720:
1677:
1667:
1628:
1620:
1565:
1523:
1481:
1412:
1404:
1396:
1348:
1279:
1207:
1163:
1145:
1049:
865:
828:
738:
715:
642:
587:
577:
538:
528:
362:koalas
316:harems
105:) and
2601:terms
2513:S2CID
2464:S2CID
2448:JSTOR
2407:S2CID
2379:(PDF)
2357:S2CID
2321:(PDF)
2299:S2CID
2242:(PDF)
2201:(PDF)
2179:S2CID
2151:(PDF)
2129:S2CID
2016:S2CID
1912:S2CID
1869:S2CID
1751:(PDF)
1718:JSTOR
1626:S2CID
1598:(PDF)
1543:(PDF)
1521:S2CID
1501:(PDF)
1479:S2CID
1459:(PDF)
1410:S2CID
1394:JSTOR
1346:S2CID
1326:(PDF)
1277:S2CID
1257:(PDF)
1205:JSTOR
1183:(PDF)
1161:S2CID
1069:(PDF)
1047:S2CID
863:S2CID
294:musth
140:Male
92:genus
84:harem
70:Male
2822:ovum
2613:Male
2548:PMID
2505:PMID
2456:PMID
2399:PMID
2349:PMID
2291:PMID
2231:PMID
2171:PMID
2121:PMID
2041:ISBN
2008:PMID
1961:PMID
1820:PMID
1771:PMID
1726:PMID
1675:PMID
1618:PMID
1563:PMID
1402:PMID
1223:link
826:ISBN
736:ISBN
713:ISBN
699:2010
640:ISBN
617:2014
585:PMID
536:PMID
444:and
374:and
232:neck
210:'s (
2592:Sex
2540:doi
2495:doi
2438:doi
2391:doi
2387:169
2341:doi
2329:243
2281:doi
2277:116
2223:doi
2163:doi
2113:doi
2101:243
2074:doi
2000:doi
1988:444
1951:PMC
1943:doi
1904:doi
1859:hdl
1851:doi
1810:PMC
1802:doi
1798:368
1763:doi
1710:doi
1698:225
1665:PMC
1657:doi
1653:158
1610:doi
1555:doi
1513:doi
1471:doi
1437:doi
1433:284
1386:doi
1338:doi
1304:doi
1269:doi
1195:doi
1153:doi
1133:".
1112:doi
1081:doi
1077:271
1039:doi
1035:148
1012:doi
1008:148
983:doi
944:doi
940:278
917:doi
913:282
890:doi
855:doi
845:".
799:doi
795:195
789:".
765:doi
575:PMC
567:doi
526:PMC
516:doi
512:106
198:in
2982::
2662:ZO
2657:XO
2652:ZW
2647:XY
2546:.
2536:19
2534:.
2511:.
2503:.
2491:77
2489:.
2485:.
2462:.
2454:.
2446:.
2434:52
2432:.
2428:.
2405:.
2397:.
2385:.
2381:.
2355:.
2347:.
2339:.
2327:.
2323:.
2297:.
2289:.
2275:.
2271:.
2257:^
2229:.
2221:.
2209:19
2207:.
2203:.
2177:.
2169:.
2157:.
2153:.
2127:.
2119:.
2111:.
2099:.
2095:.
2070:38
2068:.
2064:.
2014:.
2006:.
1998:.
1986:.
1982:.
1959:.
1949:.
1939:22
1937:.
1933:.
1910:.
1902:.
1892:40
1890:.
1867:.
1857:.
1847:67
1845:.
1841:.
1818:.
1808:.
1796:.
1792:.
1769:.
1759:83
1757:.
1753:.
1738:^
1724:.
1716:.
1708:.
1696:.
1673:.
1663:.
1651:.
1647:.
1624:.
1616:.
1606:92
1604:.
1600:.
1561:.
1551:28
1549:.
1545:.
1519:.
1509:65
1507:.
1503:.
1477:.
1467:84
1465:.
1461:.
1431:.
1408:.
1400:.
1392:.
1382:45
1380:.
1344:.
1334:64
1332:.
1328:.
1300:85
1298:.
1275:.
1265:67
1263:.
1259:.
1244:^
1219:}}
1215:{{
1203:.
1191:79
1189:.
1185:.
1159:.
1151:.
1139:74
1137:.
1108:43
1106:.
1102:.
1075:.
1071:.
1045:.
1033:.
1006:.
981:.
971:21
969:.
965:.
938:.
911:.
886:10
884:.
861:.
851:58
849:.
793:.
777:^
759:.
689:.
662:.
634:.
606:.
583:.
573:.
563:82
561:.
557:.
534:.
524:.
510:.
506:.
448:.
284:.
191:,
175:.
58:.
2584:e
2577:t
2570:v
2554:.
2542::
2519:.
2497::
2470:.
2440::
2413:.
2393::
2363:.
2343::
2335::
2305:.
2283::
2251:.
2225::
2185:.
2165::
2159:3
2135:.
2115::
2107::
2080:.
2076::
2049:.
2022:.
2002::
1994::
1967:.
1945::
1918:.
1906::
1898::
1875:.
1861::
1853::
1826:.
1804::
1777:.
1765::
1732:.
1712::
1704::
1681:.
1659::
1632:.
1612::
1569:.
1557::
1527:.
1515::
1485:.
1473::
1443:.
1439::
1416:.
1388::
1352:.
1340::
1310:.
1306::
1283:.
1271::
1225:)
1211:.
1197::
1167:.
1155::
1118:.
1114::
1087:.
1083::
1053:.
1041::
1018:.
1014::
991:.
985::
977::
950:.
946::
923:.
919::
896:.
892::
869:.
857::
805:.
801::
771:.
767::
761:8
744:.
701:.
683:"
648:.
619:.
591:.
569::
542:.
518::
307:(
202:.
109:(
101:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
