127:
286:). An EROEI of 2 (or 2:1 ratio) would mean that to produce 2 barrels of actual oil the equivalent in energy of 1 barrel of oil has to be burnt/consumed. A 1984 study estimated the EROEI of the various known oil-shale deposits as varying between 0.7 and 13.3. More recent studies estimates the EROEI of oil shales to be 1–2:1 or 2–16:1 – depending on whether self-energy is counted as a cost or internal energy is excluded and only purchased energy is counted as input.
263:). The temperature at which the kerogen decomposes into usable hydrocarbons varies with the time-scale of the process; in the above-ground retorting process decomposition begins at 300 °C (570 °F), but proceeds more rapidly and completely at higher temperatures. Decomposition takes place most quickly at a temperature between 480 and 520 °C (900 and 970 °F).
615:
called into question proposals for commercial operations in
Colorado, Utah and Wyoming, stating that "(t)here are no economically viable ways yet known to extract and process oil shale for commercial purposes". The US Energy Information Administration sometimes uses the phrase "shale (tight) oil" to
162:
at the turn of the 18th century. The
British Crown granted a patent in 1694 to three persons who had "found a way to extract and make great quantities of pitch, tarr and oyle out of a sort of stone." Later sold as Betton's British Oil, the distilled product was said to have been "tried by diverse
305:
have a relatively high yield of 25 to 100 US gallons (95 to 379 L; 21 to 83 imp gal) of shale oil per ton of oil shale; about one third yield from 10 to 25 US gallons (38 to 95 L; 8.3 to 20.8 imp gal) per ton. (Ten US gal/ton is approximately 3.4 tons of oil per
608: m). Worldwide production of shale oil was estimated at 17,700 barrels per day (2,810 m/d) in 2008. The leading producers were China (7,600 barrels per day (1,210 m/d)), Estonia (6,300 barrels per day (1,000 m/d)), and Brazil (3,800 barrels per day (600 m/d)).
389:
has concluded that raw shale oil has a mild carcinogenic potential, comparable to some intermediate petroleum refinery products, while upgraded shale oil has lower carcinogenic potential, as most of the polycyclic aromatics are believed to have been broken down by
2717:"Notice of Intent To Prepare a Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) and Possible Land Use Plan Amendments for Allocation of Oil Shale and Tar Sands Resources on Lands Administered by the Bureau of Land Management in Colorado, Utah and Wyoming"
91:
The term "shale oil" is also used for crude oil produced from shales of other unconventional, very low permeability formations. However, to reduce the risk of confusion of shale oil produced from oil shale with crude oil in oil-bearing shales, the term
230:
maintained their extraction industries into the early 21st century. In response to rising petroleum prices at the turn of the 21st century, extraction operations have commenced, been explored, or been renewed in the United States, China, Australia and
410:
Although raw shale oil can be immediately burnt as a fuel oil, many of its applications require that it be upgraded. The differing properties of the raw oils call for correspondingly various pre-treatments before it can be sent to a conventional
369:
at temperatures between 24 and 27 °C (75 and 81 °F), while conventional crude oil is pourable at temperatures between −60 and 30 °C (−76 and 86 °F); this property affects shale oil's ability to be transported in existing
281:
A critical measure of the viability of extraction of shale oil lies in the ratio of the energy produced by the oil shale to the energy used in its mining and processing, a ratio known as "Energy
Returned on Energy Invested"
1701:
1015:"Studies of the Scottish oil shale industry. Vol.1 History of the industry, working conditions and mineralogy of Scottish and Green River formation shales. Final report on US Department of Energy"
516:, most shale oil was upgraded for use as transport fuels. Afterwards, it was used as a raw material for chemical intermediates, pure chemicals and industrial resins, and as a railroad wood
257:
perform the shale oil extraction process after the rock is mined, crushed and transported to a retorting facility, although several experimental technologies perform the process in place (
956:
1148:"A study on the EU oil shale industry viewed in the light of the Estonian experience. A report by EASAC to the Committee on Industry, Research and Energy of the European Parliament"
226:
produced shale oil in the early 20th century. The discovery of crude oil in the Middle East during mid-century brought most of these industries to a halt, although
Estonia and
365:; some deposits contain more heteroatoms than others. Mineral particles and metals are often present as well. Generally, the oil is less fluid than crude oil, becoming
620:
each day, equal to about 64% of total U.S. crude oil production. The IEA also occasionally calls tight oil "shale oil", but classifies any products from oil shale with
1708:
2127:
788:
1228:
2151:
2539:
Fractional distillation yields mainly high molecular weight hydrocarbons, which can then be cracked to yield desirable hydrocarbons in the gasoline range.
1664:
Brandt, Adam R. (2009). "Converting Green River oil shale to liquid fuels with the
Alberta Taciuk Processor: energy inputs and greenhouse gas emissions".
1406:
1255:
2155:
274:, or a combination of these. Thermal dissolution involves the application of solvents at elevated temperatures and pressures, increasing oil output by
301:
The amount of oil that can be recovered during retorting varies with the oil shale and the technology used. About one sixth of the oil shales in the
1318:
2772:
633:
477:
can be first removed by water extraction. Upgrading shale oil into transport fuels requires adjusting hydrogen–carbon ratios by adding hydrogen (
2225:
967:
142:(Mesue the Younger) first described a method of extracting oil from "some kind of bituminous shale". It was also reported to have been used in
2794:
2532:
2203:
2135:
2051:
2017:
1970:
1931:
1274:
1120:
1082:
882:
846:
733:
1874:
1194:
151:
2663:
1788:
1021:
616:
refer to tight oil, "crude oil ... produced directly from tight oil resources". In 2021, the US produced 7.23 million barrels of such
249:
Shale oil is extracted by pyrolysis, hydrogenation, or thermal dissolution of oil shale. The pyrolysis of the rock is performed in a
1810:
2613:
2221:"Selective Biodegradation of S and N Heterocycles by a Recombinant Rhodococcus erythropolis Strain Containing Carbazole Dioxygenase"
1843:
1590:
782:
520:. As of 2008, it is primarily used as a heating oil and marine fuel, and to a lesser extent in the production of various chemicals.
121:
1416:
378:
2705:
Kraushaar, Jack P., and Robert A. Ristinen. Energy and the
Environment-2nd ed. New York, NY: Wiley & Sons Inc., 2006. 54–56.
957:"Oil & Gas Shales, Definitions & Distribution In Time & Space. In The History of On-Shore Hydrocarbon Use in the UK"
2003:
1322:
2522:
611:
The production of shale oil has been hindered because of technical difficulties and costs. In March 2011, the United States
341:
of hydrocarbons, and is characterized according to the bulk properties of the oil. It usually contains large quantities of
313:
reports producing 300,000 tons per year of shale oil from 6.6 million tons of shale, a yield of 4.5% by weight.
1960:
1014:
769:
648:
2835:
963:
306:
100 tons of shale.) About half of the oil shales in the Green River
Formation yield less than 10 US gal/ton.
97:
546:"Pale sulfonated shale oil" (PSSO), a sulfonated and ammonia-neutralized variant named "Ichthammol" (chemical name:
19:
This article is about synthetic petroleum produced from oil shale. For crude oil occurring in shale reservoirs, see
1781:
834:
673:
547:
564:
Global technically recoverable oil shale reserves have recently been estimated at 2.8 to 3.3 trillion barrels (450
612:
395:
295:
179:
had created additional demand for lighting. It served as a substitute for the increasingly scarce and expensive
2830:
2825:
2195:
1554:
Baldwin, R. M.; Bennett, D. P.; Briley, R. A. (1984). "Reactivity of oil shale towards solvent hydrogenation".
905:
540:
2219:
Bo Yu; Ping Xu; Shanshan Zhu; Xiaofeng Cai; Ying Wang; Li Li; Fuli Li; Xiaoyong Liu; Cuiqing Ma (March 2006).
1429:
1280:
2656:
2162:
2552:
130:
Three West
Lothian shale mounds, evidence of the early paraffin oil industry in the 19th century Scotland
2679:
2629:
2494:
2447:
2093:
1727:
1338:
1166:
1044:
986:
921:
470:
317:
claims to produce 250,000 tons of oil per year from 2 million tons of shale, a yield of 13%.
302:
176:
126:
2234:
1821:
1607:
1266:
466:
462:
334:
275:
244:
164:
105:
2130:, Office of Research and Development, Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory. p. 115.
1312:"Geology and resources of some world oil-shale deposits. Scientific Investigations Report 2005–5294"
1147:
1108:
A Short
History of the Art of Distillation from the Beginnings Up to the Death of Cellier Blumenthal
871:
A Short
History of the Art of Distillation from the Beginnings Up to the Death of Cellier Blumenthal
638:
338:
310:
139:
46:
333:
The properties of raw shale oil vary depending on the composition of the parent oil shale and the
309:
The major global shale oil producers have published their yields for their commercial operations.
2820:
2588:
2399:
2335:
1639:
1529:
1479:
799:
743:
559:
371:
254:
30:
1891:
1589:
Cleveland, Cutler J.; Costanza, Robert; Hall, Charles A. S.; Kaufmann, Robert (31 August 1984).
1202:
2606:
1498:
838:
2580:
2572:
2528:
2391:
2327:
2260:
2199:
2131:
2121:
2081:
2047:
2041:
2013:
1966:
1927:
1847:
1683:
1666:
1631:
1623:
1598:
1571:
1563:
1521:
1471:
1377:
1270:
1116:
1106:
1078:
878:
842:
778:
729:
696:
524:
493:
287:
1917:
1072:
278:
the dissolved organic matter. Different methods produce shale oil with different properties.
2564:
2383:
2319:
2250:
2242:
2071:
2067:
1675:
1615:
1513:
1463:
1112:
874:
688:
2692:
2642:
2507:
2475:
2460:
2368:
2106:
1755:
1740:
1351:
1311:
1179:
1057:
999:
934:
811:
755:
523:
Shale oil's concentration of high-boiling point compounds is suited for the production of
489:
227:
101:
1851:
1146:
Francu, Juraj; Harvie, Barbra; Laenen, Ben; Siirde, Andres; Veiderma, Mihkel (May 2007).
2749:
2238:
1611:
2716:
2255:
2220:
827:
267:
266:
Hydrogenation and thermal dissolution (reactive fluid processes) extract the oil using
54:
2161:. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer. p. 5. Archived from
2814:
2568:
2403:
2339:
643:
585:
478:
430:
391:
253:, situated either above ground or within the rock formation itself. As of 2008, most
195:
42:
2246:
1533:
1483:
1224:
2592:
1643:
517:
513:
458:
412:
382:
211:
62:
2304:
2279:"Process for treating hot shale oil effluent from a retort – US Patent # 4181596"
1619:
492:, can be used without further upgrading as an oil constituent and as a source of
325:
plant 550 tons of oil per day from 6,200 tons of shale, a yield of 9%.
2278:
2009:
1369:
1198:
653:
621:
536:
418:
223:
207:
143:
135:
1025:
84:. The refined products can be used for the same purposes as those derived from
2428:
1467:
399:
366:
350:
175:
during the 1840s. The oil was used as fuel, as a lubricant and lamp oil; the
2576:
2395:
2331:
1687:
1627:
1567:
1525:
1475:
1381:
700:
500:
for petroleum-originated heavy oils and as an adhesive-enhancing additive in
1923:
1517:
617:
454:
318:
187:
180:
154:
wrote of its healing properties. Shale oil was used to light the streets of
109:
93:
85:
65:
38:
34:
20:
2584:
2264:
1635:
2387:
2323:
1454:
Gorlov, E.G. (October 2007). "Thermal Dissolution Of Solid Fossil Fuels".
692:
2194:. 27th Oil Shale Symposium. 27th Oil Shale Symposium 2007 – Proceedings.
898:
532:
528:
442:
426:
358:
346:
322:
172:
81:
73:
69:
58:
2040:
Wauquier, Jean-Pierre; Trambouze, Pierre; Favennec, Jean-Pierre (1995).
186:
During the late 19th century, shale-oil extraction plants were built in
1425:
1421:
501:
497:
474:
434:
314:
271:
259:
203:
147:
50:
2085:
1679:
1575:
2043:
Petroleum Refining: Crude Oil. Petroleum Products. Process Flowsheets
1887:
482:
450:
446:
422:
362:
354:
342:
250:
232:
219:
191:
168:
155:
77:
2773:"US shale oil production in the Stated Policies Scenario, 2005-2030"
2750:"FAQS: How much shale (tight) oil is produced in the United States?"
2076:
1702:"Oil Shale Test Project. Oil Shale Research and Development Project"
1883:
283:
215:
199:
159:
125:
1408:
Alternative technologies for oil shale liquefaction and upgrading
469:
can address these problems and result in a product comparable to
725:
438:
496:. Distillate oils from the Kiviter process can also be used as
150:
in the early 14th century. In 1596, the personal physician of
49:. These processes convert the organic matter within the rock (
1707:. Shell Frontier Oil and Gas. 15 February 2006. Archived from
386:
2795:"Total energy supply outlook by fuel and scenario, 2000-2040"
2305:"A brief overview of motor fuels from shale oil of kukersite"
1071:
Cane, R.F. (1976). Teh Fu Yen; Chilingar, George V. (eds.).
349:
hydrocarbons. It can also contain significant quantities of
829:
Energy and the Missing Resource: A View from the Laboratory
2192:
Shale Products – Production, Quality and Market Challenges
1556:
American Chemical Society. Division of Petroleum Chemistry
138:
used by humans. In the 10th century, the Arabic physician
2156:"Agents Classified by the IARC Monographs, Volumes 1–102"
57:. The resulting oil can be used immediately as a fuel or
2657:"NPR's National Strategic Unconventional Resource Model"
1591:"Energy and the U.S. Economy: A Biophysical Perspective"
1497:
Koel, Mihkel; Ljovin, S.; Hollis, K.; Rubin, J. (2001).
588:, which is thought to have 1.5–2.6 trillion barrels (240
584: m) of shale oil, with the largest reserves in the
2369:"Estonian Oil Shale Retorting Industry at a Crossroads"
1890:: Jordanian Natural Resources Authority. Archived from
1153:. European Academies Science Advisory Council: 1, 5, 12
163:
persons in Aches and Pains with much benefit." Modern
543:
can create the lighter hydrocarbons used in gasoline.
2793:
International Energy Agency (IEA) (26 October 2022).
2771:
International Energy Agency (IEA) (26 October 2022).
488:
Shale oil produced by some technologies, such as the
353:. A typical shale oil composition includes 0.5–1% of
337:
used. Like conventional oil, shale oil is a complex
449:
form insoluble sediments and cause instability. The
1013:Louw, S.J.; Addison, J. (1985). Seaton, A. (ed.).
826:
674:"About technical terms of oil shale and shale oil"
290:reported an EROEI of three to four in 2006 on its
1261:. In Clarke, Alan W.; Trinnaman, Judy A. (eds.).
453:within the oil, present at higher levels than in
104:" and World Energy Resources 2013 report by the
457:, lends itself to the formation of destructive
1919:Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design
1873:Qian, Jialin; Wang Jianqiu (7 November 2006).
1499:"Using neoteric solvents in oil shale studies"
2128:United States Environmental Protection Agency
8:
2362:
2360:
2358:
2356:
1229:American Association of Petroleum Geologists
2715:Bureau of Land Management (14 April 2011).
2429:"Oil Shale: History, Incentives and Policy"
2152:International Agency for Research on Cancer
2422:
2420:
2123:Compendium reports on oil shale technology
421:in the raw oil clog downstream processes;
134:Oil shale was one of the first sources of
16:Oil produced from oil shale rock fragments
2481:. Congressional Research Service. RL34748
2434:. Congressional Research Service. RL33359
2376:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal
2312:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal
2254:
2120:Slawson, G. C.; Teh Fu Yen, eds. (1979).
2075:
1374:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal
1024:: 35. DE-ACO2 – 82ER60036. Archived from
681:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal
2185:
2183:
1319:United States Department of the Interior
634:Unconventional (oil & gas) reservoir
1954:
1952:
1950:
1400:
1398:
1363:
1361:
1305:
1303:
1301:
950:
948:
946:
944:
664:
112:" for crude oil in oil-bearing shales.
2688:
2677:
2638:
2627:
2503:
2492:
2456:
2445:
2298:
2296:
2226:Applied and Environmental Microbiology
2102:
2091:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1991:
1989:
1882:. International Oil Shale Conference.
1876:World oil shale retorting technologies
1782:"Fact Sheet: U.S. Oil Shale Resources"
1736:
1725:
1347:
1336:
1249:
1247:
1245:
1175:
1164:
1053:
1042:
995:
984:
930:
919:
807:
797:
794:from the original on 21 February 2014.
751:
741:
672:Reinsalu, Enno; Aarna, Indrek (2015).
441:that may be present, also destroy the
433:. Sulfur and nitrogen, along with the
2524:Principles of Environmental Chemistry
2474:Andrews, Anthony (17 November 2008).
1414:. International Oil Shale Symposium.
1141:
1139:
7:
2557:International Journal of Dermatology
1809:Promitis, Guntis (3 November 2008).
2070:. Energy Citations Database. 1979.
1754:Reiss, Spencer (13 December 2005).
1077:. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 56.
96:" is preferred for the latter. The
2664:United States Department of Energy
2427:Andrews, Anthony (13 April 2006).
1789:United States Department of Energy
1022:Institute of Occupational Medicine
771:World Energy Resources 2013 Survey
14:
2614:Energy Information Administration
2068:"Market assessment for shale oil"
2046:. Editions TECHNIP. p. 317.
550:) is still in application today.
122:History of the oil shale industry
2569:10.1111/j.1365-4632.2010.04551.x
1417:Tallinn University of Technology
955:Moody, Richard (20 April 2007).
379:polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
152:Frederick I, Duke of Württemberg
2247:10.1128/AEM.72.3.2235-2238.2006
1323:United States Geological Survey
167:industries were established in
1:
649:Underground coal gasification
2607:"Annual Energy Outlook 2006"
1620:10.1126/science.225.4665.890
964:Geological Society of London
100:recommends to use the term "
2476:"Developments in Oil Shale"
98:International Energy Agency
2852:
1506:Pure and Applied Chemistry
1405:Luik, Hans (8 June 2009).
1263:Survey of energy resources
835:Cambridge University Press
557:
548:Ammonium bituminosulfonate
398:classifies shale oil as a
242:
119:
18:
1916:McKetta, John J. (1994).
1468:10.3103/S0361521907050047
722:World Energy Outlook 2013
613:Bureau of Land Management
396:World Health Organization
296:Mahogany Research Project
68:specifications by adding
2527:. Jones & Bartlett.
2196:Colorado School of Mines
2010:McGraw-Hill Professional
2005:Synthetic Fuels Handbook
1965:. CRC Press. p. 7.
1756:"Tapping the Rock Field"
906:Colorado School of Mines
171:during the 1830s and in
2281:. freepatentsonline.com
2002:Speight, James (2008).
1518:10.1351/pac200173010153
825:Dostrovsky, I. (1988).
554:Reserves and production
2687:Cite journal requires
2637:Cite journal requires
2553:"Ichthammol revisited"
2551:Boyd, Alan S. (2010).
2502:Cite journal requires
2455:Cite journal requires
2367:Mölder, Leevi (2004).
2190:Purga, Jaanus (2007).
2101:Cite journal requires
1735:Cite journal requires
1346:Cite journal requires
1310:Dyni, John R. (2006).
1254:Dyni, John R. (2010).
1174:Cite journal requires
1052:Cite journal requires
994:Cite journal requires
929:Cite journal requires
777:. 2013. p. 2.46.
481:) or removing carbon (
131:
2521:James Girard (2004).
2388:10.3176/oil.2004.2.01
2324:10.3176/oil.2006.2.08
1959:Lee, Sunggyu (1991).
1818:Oil & Gas Journal
1368:Koel, Mihkel (1999).
1105:Forbes, R.J. (1970).
869:Forbes, R.J. (1970).
728:. 2013. p. 424.
693:10.3176/oil.2015.4.01
335:extraction technology
303:Green River Formation
177:Industrial Revolution
129:
55:synthetic oil and gas
1962:Oil Shale Technology
1822:PennWell Corporation
1456:Solid Fuel Chemistry
1370:"Estonian oil shale"
1267:World Energy Council
502:bituminous materials
467:hydrodenitrogenation
463:Hydrodesulfurization
294:development in the "
255:oil shale industries
245:Shale oil extraction
165:shale oil extraction
106:World Energy Council
2836:Egyptian inventions
2303:Oja, Vahur (2006).
2239:2006ApEnM..72.2235Y
1854:on 7 September 2011
1811:"Oil shale promise"
1612:1984Sci...225..890C
1435:on 24 February 2012
1269:. pp. 93–123.
966:: 1. Archived from
639:Oil shale economics
471:benchmark crude oil
377:Shale oil contains
311:Fushun Mining Group
140:Masawaih al-Mardini
47:thermal dissolution
2168:on 25 October 2011
1667:Energy & Fuels
1286:on 8 November 2014
973:on 6 February 2012
877:. pp. 41–42.
560:Oil shale reserves
525:middle distillates
494:phenolic compounds
445:used in refining.
400:Group 1 carcinogen
321:produces in their
239:Extraction process
132:
37:rock fragments by
31:unconventional oil
2730:(72): 21003–21005
2534:978-0-7637-2471-9
2205:978-1-63439-147-4
2137:978-2-7108-0685-1
2053:978-2-7108-0685-1
2019:978-0-07-149023-8
1972:978-0-8493-4615-6
1933:978-0-8247-2601-0
1848:Viru Keemia Grupp
1680:10.1021/ef900678d
1674:(12): 6253–6258.
1606:(4665): 890–897.
1276:978-0-946121-02-1
1193:Doscher, Todd M.
1122:978-90-04-00617-1
1084:978-0-444-41408-3
884:978-90-04-00617-1
848:978-0-521-31965-2
735:978-92-64-20130-9
504:such as asphalt.
288:Royal Dutch Shell
2843:
2806:
2805:
2803:
2801:
2790:
2784:
2783:
2781:
2779:
2768:
2762:
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2759:
2757:
2752:. 4 October 2022
2746:
2740:
2739:
2737:
2735:
2724:Federal Register
2721:
2712:
2706:
2703:
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2500:
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2415:
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2346:
2309:
2300:
2291:
2290:
2288:
2286:
2275:
2269:
2268:
2258:
2233:(3): 2235–2238.
2216:
2210:
2209:
2187:
2178:
2177:
2175:
2173:
2167:
2160:
2154:(17 June 2011).
2148:
2142:
2141:
2117:
2111:
2110:
2104:
2099:
2097:
2089:
2079:
2064:
2058:
2057:
2037:
2031:
2030:
2028:
2026:
1999:
1984:
1983:
1981:
1979:
1956:
1945:
1944:
1942:
1940:
1922:. Vol. 50.
1913:
1907:
1906:
1904:
1902:
1896:
1881:
1870:
1864:
1863:
1861:
1859:
1850:. Archived from
1840:
1834:
1833:
1831:
1829:
1815:
1806:
1800:
1799:
1797:
1795:
1786:
1778:
1772:
1771:
1769:
1767:
1762:. WIRED Magazine
1751:
1745:
1744:
1738:
1733:
1731:
1723:
1721:
1719:
1713:
1706:
1698:
1692:
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1661:
1655:
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1595:
1586:
1580:
1579:
1551:
1545:
1544:
1542:
1540:
1503:
1494:
1488:
1487:
1451:
1445:
1444:
1442:
1440:
1434:
1428:. Archived from
1413:
1402:
1393:
1392:
1390:
1388:
1365:
1356:
1355:
1349:
1344:
1342:
1334:
1332:
1330:
1316:
1307:
1296:
1295:
1293:
1291:
1285:
1279:. Archived from
1260:
1251:
1240:
1239:
1237:
1235:
1221:
1215:
1214:
1212:
1210:
1205:on 21 April 2008
1201:. Archived from
1190:
1184:
1183:
1177:
1172:
1170:
1162:
1160:
1158:
1152:
1143:
1134:
1133:
1131:
1129:
1113:Brill Publishers
1102:
1096:
1095:
1093:
1091:
1068:
1062:
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1055:
1050:
1048:
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1038:
1036:
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972:
961:
952:
939:
938:
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927:
925:
917:
915:
913:
903:
895:
889:
888:
875:Brill Publishers
866:
860:
859:
857:
855:
832:
822:
816:
815:
809:
805:
803:
795:
793:
776:
766:
760:
759:
753:
749:
747:
739:
718:
712:
711:
709:
707:
678:
669:
604:
603:
594:
593:
580:
579:
570:
569:
2851:
2850:
2846:
2845:
2844:
2842:
2841:
2840:
2831:Arab inventions
2826:Synthetic fuels
2811:
2810:
2809:
2799:
2797:
2792:
2791:
2787:
2777:
2775:
2770:
2769:
2765:
2755:
2753:
2748:
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2743:
2733:
2731:
2719:
2714:
2713:
2709:
2704:
2700:
2686:
2676:
2669:
2667:
2659:
2655:
2654:
2650:
2636:
2626:
2619:
2617:
2616:. February 2006
2609:
2605:
2604:
2600:
2550:
2549:
2545:
2535:
2520:
2519:
2515:
2501:
2491:
2484:
2482:
2478:
2473:
2472:
2468:
2454:
2444:
2437:
2435:
2431:
2426:
2425:
2418:
2408:
2406:
2371:
2366:
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2354:
2344:
2342:
2307:
2302:
2301:
2294:
2284:
2282:
2277:
2276:
2272:
2218:
2217:
2213:
2206:
2198:. p. 331.
2189:
2188:
2181:
2171:
2169:
2165:
2158:
2150:
2149:
2145:
2138:
2126:. Vol. 1.
2119:
2118:
2114:
2100:
2090:
2077:10.2172/5749060
2066:
2065:
2061:
2054:
2039:
2038:
2034:
2024:
2022:
2020:
2012:. p. 188.
2001:
2000:
1987:
1977:
1975:
1973:
1958:
1957:
1948:
1938:
1936:
1934:
1915:
1914:
1910:
1900:
1898:
1894:
1879:
1872:
1871:
1867:
1857:
1855:
1842:
1841:
1837:
1827:
1825:
1813:
1808:
1807:
1803:
1793:
1791:
1784:
1780:
1779:
1775:
1765:
1763:
1753:
1752:
1748:
1734:
1724:
1717:
1715:
1711:
1704:
1700:
1699:
1695:
1663:
1662:
1658:
1648:
1646:
1593:
1588:
1587:
1583:
1553:
1552:
1548:
1538:
1536:
1501:
1496:
1495:
1491:
1453:
1452:
1448:
1438:
1436:
1432:
1411:
1404:
1403:
1396:
1386:
1384:
1367:
1366:
1359:
1345:
1335:
1328:
1326:
1314:
1309:
1308:
1299:
1289:
1287:
1283:
1277:
1265:(22 ed.).
1258:
1253:
1252:
1243:
1233:
1231:
1223:
1222:
1218:
1208:
1206:
1192:
1191:
1187:
1173:
1163:
1156:
1154:
1150:
1145:
1144:
1137:
1127:
1125:
1123:
1115:. p. 250.
1104:
1103:
1099:
1089:
1087:
1085:
1070:
1069:
1065:
1051:
1041:
1034:
1032:
1031:on 26 July 2011
1028:
1017:
1012:
1011:
1007:
993:
983:
976:
974:
970:
959:
954:
953:
942:
928:
918:
911:
909:
901:
897:
896:
892:
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868:
867:
863:
853:
851:
849:
824:
823:
819:
806:
796:
791:
785:
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768:
767:
763:
750:
740:
736:
720:
719:
715:
705:
703:
676:
671:
670:
666:
662:
630:
601:
599:
591:
589:
577:
575:
567:
565:
562:
556:
510:
490:Kiviter process
408:
361:and 0.15–1% of
331:
268:hydrogen donors
247:
241:
228:Northeast China
124:
118:
108:uses the term "
102:light tight oil
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2849:
2847:
2839:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2813:
2812:
2808:
2807:
2785:
2763:
2741:
2707:
2698:
2689:|journal=
2648:
2639:|journal=
2598:
2563:(7): 757–760.
2543:
2533:
2513:
2504:|journal=
2466:
2457:|journal=
2416:
2352:
2318:(2): 160–163.
2292:
2270:
2211:
2204:
2179:
2143:
2136:
2112:
2103:|journal=
2059:
2052:
2032:
2018:
1985:
1971:
1946:
1932:
1926:. p. 49.
1908:
1897:on 27 May 2008
1865:
1835:
1801:
1773:
1746:
1737:|journal=
1714:on 27 May 2008
1693:
1656:
1581:
1562:(1): 148–153.
1546:
1512:(1): 153–159.
1489:
1462:(5): 290–298.
1446:
1394:
1357:
1348:|journal=
1297:
1275:
1241:
1216:
1185:
1176:|journal=
1135:
1121:
1097:
1083:
1063:
1054:|journal=
1005:
996:|journal=
940:
931:|journal=
890:
883:
861:
847:
817:
783:
761:
734:
713:
687:(4): 291–292.
663:
661:
658:
657:
656:
651:
646:
641:
636:
629:
626:
558:Main article:
555:
552:
509:
506:
407:
404:
330:
327:
243:Main article:
240:
237:
120:Main article:
117:
114:
33:produced from
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2848:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
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2796:
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2095:
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2083:
2078:
2073:
2069:
2063:
2060:
2055:
2049:
2045:
2044:
2036:
2033:
2021:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2006:
1998:
1996:
1994:
1992:
1990:
1986:
1974:
1968:
1964:
1963:
1955:
1953:
1951:
1947:
1935:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1920:
1912:
1909:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1878:
1877:
1869:
1866:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1839:
1836:
1823:
1819:
1812:
1805:
1802:
1790:
1783:
1777:
1774:
1761:
1757:
1750:
1747:
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1703:
1697:
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1677:
1673:
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1657:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
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1600:
1592:
1585:
1582:
1577:
1573:
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1557:
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1547:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1500:
1493:
1490:
1485:
1481:
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1473:
1469:
1465:
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1457:
1450:
1447:
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1427:
1423:
1419:
1418:
1410:
1409:
1401:
1399:
1395:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1364:
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1353:
1340:
1324:
1320:
1313:
1306:
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1298:
1282:
1278:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1257:
1250:
1248:
1246:
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1230:
1226:
1220:
1217:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1189:
1186:
1181:
1168:
1149:
1142:
1140:
1136:
1124:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1109:
1101:
1098:
1086:
1080:
1076:
1075:
1067:
1064:
1059:
1046:
1027:
1023:
1016:
1009:
1006:
1001:
988:
969:
965:
958:
951:
949:
947:
945:
941:
936:
923:
907:
900:
894:
891:
886:
880:
876:
872:
865:
862:
850:
844:
840:
836:
831:
830:
821:
818:
813:
801:
790:
786:
784:9780946121298
780:
773:
772:
765:
762:
757:
745:
737:
731:
727:
723:
717:
714:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
675:
668:
665:
659:
655:
652:
650:
647:
645:
644:Oil shale gas
642:
640:
637:
635:
632:
631:
627:
625:
623:
619:
614:
609:
607:
597:
587:
586:United States
583:
573:
561:
553:
551:
549:
544:
542:
539:. Additional
538:
534:
530:
526:
521:
519:
515:
507:
505:
503:
499:
495:
491:
486:
484:
480:
479:hydrocracking
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
459:free radicals
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
431:air pollution
428:
424:
420:
416:
414:
405:
403:
401:
397:
393:
392:hydrogenation
388:
384:
380:
375:
373:
372:oil pipelines
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
328:
326:
324:
320:
316:
312:
307:
304:
299:
297:
293:
289:
285:
279:
277:
273:
269:
264:
262:
261:
256:
252:
246:
238:
236:
234:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
196:United States
193:
189:
184:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
128:
123:
115:
113:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
89:
87:
83:
79:
75:
72:and removing
71:
67:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
43:hydrogenation
40:
36:
32:
28:
22:
2798:. Retrieved
2788:
2776:. Retrieved
2766:
2754:. Retrieved
2744:
2732:. Retrieved
2727:
2723:
2710:
2701:
2680:cite journal
2668:. Retrieved
2666:. April 2006
2651:
2630:cite journal
2618:. Retrieved
2601:
2560:
2556:
2546:
2538:
2523:
2516:
2495:cite journal
2483:. Retrieved
2469:
2448:cite journal
2436:. Retrieved
2407:. Retrieved
2382:(2): 97–98.
2379:
2375:
2343:. Retrieved
2315:
2311:
2283:. Retrieved
2273:
2230:
2224:
2214:
2191:
2170:. Retrieved
2163:the original
2146:
2122:
2115:
2094:cite journal
2062:
2042:
2035:
2023:. Retrieved
2004:
1976:. Retrieved
1961:
1937:. Retrieved
1918:
1911:
1899:. Retrieved
1892:the original
1875:
1868:
1856:. Retrieved
1852:the original
1844:"VKG Oil AS"
1838:
1826:. Retrieved
1817:
1804:
1792:. Retrieved
1776:
1764:. Retrieved
1759:
1749:
1728:cite journal
1716:. Retrieved
1709:the original
1696:
1671:
1665:
1659:
1647:. Retrieved
1603:
1597:
1584:
1559:
1555:
1549:
1537:. Retrieved
1509:
1505:
1492:
1459:
1455:
1449:
1437:. Retrieved
1430:the original
1415:
1407:
1385:. Retrieved
1373:
1339:cite journal
1327:. Retrieved
1288:. Retrieved
1281:the original
1262:
1232:. Retrieved
1219:
1207:. Retrieved
1203:the original
1188:
1167:cite journal
1155:. Retrieved
1126:. Retrieved
1107:
1100:
1088:. Retrieved
1073:
1066:
1045:cite journal
1033:. Retrieved
1026:the original
1008:
987:cite journal
975:. Retrieved
968:the original
922:cite journal
910:. Retrieved
893:
870:
864:
852:. Retrieved
828:
820:
770:
764:
721:
716:
704:. Retrieved
684:
680:
667:
610:
605:
595:
581:
571:
563:
545:
522:
518:preservative
514:World War II
511:
487:
419:Particulates
417:
413:oil refinery
409:
383:carcinogenic
381:, which are
376:
357:, 1.5–2% of
332:
308:
300:
291:
280:
265:
258:
248:
212:South Africa
185:
133:
90:
26:
25:
2485:24 December
2438:24 December
2409:25 December
2345:24 December
2285:28 December
2172:16 February
2025:24 December
1978:24 December
1387:24 December
1256:"Oil Shale"
1225:"Oil Shale"
1199:MSN Encarta
1195:"Petroleum"
912:24 December
899:"Oil Shale"
808:|work=
752:|work=
654:Spent shale
622:solid fuels
537:diesel fuel
402:to humans.
351:heteroatoms
224:Switzerland
208:New Zealand
144:Switzerland
136:mineral oil
2815:Categories
2800:1 November
2778:1 November
1794:10 January
1539:22 January
977:10 January
837:. p.
706:16 January
660:References
329:Properties
74:impurities
2821:Oil shale
2756:7 October
2734:9 October
2577:1365-4632
2404:252707682
2396:0208-189X
2340:204222114
2332:0208-189X
1924:CRC Press
1858:9 October
1828:9 October
1766:27 August
1688:0887-0624
1649:28 August
1628:0036-8075
1568:0569-3799
1526:0033-4545
1476:1934-8029
1382:0208-189X
1376:(Extra).
1290:3 January
1074:Oil Shale
908:. 2008: 2
810:ignored (
800:cite book
754:ignored (
744:cite book
701:0208-189X
618:tight oil
455:crude oil
443:catalysts
406:Upgrading
385:. The US
319:Petrobras
188:Australia
181:whale oil
110:tight oil
94:tight oil
86:crude oil
66:feedstock
39:pyrolysis
35:oil shale
27:Shale oil
21:Tight oil
2585:20618493
2265:16517679
1636:17779848
1534:35224850
1484:73546863
1234:31 March
1209:22 April
789:Archived
628:See also
541:cracking
533:jet fuel
529:kerosene
527:such as
498:diluents
427:nitrogen
367:pourable
359:nitrogen
347:aromatic
343:olefinic
323:Petrosix
276:cracking
272:solvents
194:and the
173:Scotland
82:nitrogen
76:such as
70:hydrogen
63:refinery
61:to meet
59:upgraded
2620:22 June
2593:7367995
2256:1393234
2235:Bibcode
2086:5749060
1901:29 June
1718:30 June
1644:2875906
1608:Bibcode
1599:Science
1576:6697587
1426:Estonia
1422:Tallinn
512:Before
475:Phenols
447:Olefins
435:arsenic
429:create
394:. The
339:mixture
315:VKG Oil
292:in situ
260:in-situ
204:Estonia
148:Austria
116:History
53:) into
51:kerogen
2670:9 July
2591:
2583:
2575:
2531:
2402:
2394:
2338:
2330:
2263:
2253:
2202:
2134:
2084:
2050:
2016:
1969:
1939:2 June
1930:
1888:Jordan
1686:
1642:
1634:
1626:
1574:
1566:
1532:
1524:
1482:
1474:
1439:9 June
1380:
1329:9 July
1325:: 1–42
1273:
1128:2 June
1119:
1090:5 June
1081:
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