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20:
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processes that do not have a threshold. If this evidence is valid, there is no exposure which is absolutely safe and which produces no effect." Three shoe salespersons were identified with rare conditions that might have been associated with their chronic occupational exposure: a severe radiation burn requiring amputation in 1950, a case of
186:
may have been hazardous to the salesmen, who were chronically exposed, and to children, who are about twice as radiosensitive as adults. Monitoring of
American salespersons found dose rates at pelvis height of up to 95 mr/week, with an average of 7.1 mr/week (up to c. 50 mSv/a, average c. 3.7 mSv/a
197:
Years or decades may elapse between radiation exposure and a related occurrence of cancer, and no follow-up studies of customers can be performed for lack of records. According to a 1950 medical article on the machines: "Present evidence indicates that at least some radiation injuries are statistical
185:
Although most of the dose was directed at the feet, a substantial amount would scatter or leak in all directions. Shielding materials were sometimes displaced to improve image quality, to make the machine lighter, or out of carelessness, and this aggravated the leakage. The resulting whole-body dose
92:
There are multiple claims for the invention of the shoe-fitting fluoroscope. The most likely is Jacob Lowe, who demonstrated a modified medical device at shoe retailer conventions in 1920 in Boston and in 1921 in
Milwaukee. Lowe filed a US patent application in 1919, granted in 1927, and assigned it
223:
There were no applicable regulations when shoe-fitting fluoroscopes were introduced. An estimated 10,000 machines were sold in the US, 3,000 in the UK, 1,500 in
Switzerland, and 1,000 in Canada before authorities began discouraging their use. As understanding grew of the long-term health effects of
97:
15,000. Syl Adrian claims that his brother, Matthew Adrian, invented and built the first machine in
Milwaukee; his name is featured in a 1922 advertisement for an X-ray shoe fitter. Clarence Karrer, the son of an X-ray equipment distributor, claims to have built the first unit in 1924 in Milwaukee,
83:
at the top of the fluoroscope down at the X-ray view of the feet and shoes. Two other viewing portholes on either side enabled the parent and a sales assistant to observe the toes being wiggled to show how much room for the toes there was inside the shoe. The bones of the feet were clearly visible,
74:
was the first company to import pedoscopes into
Switzerland from the UK. In the second half of the 20th century, growing awareness of radiation hazards and increasingly stringent regulations forced their gradual phasing out. They were widely used particularly when buying shoes for children, whose
78:
A shoe-fitting fluoroscope was a metal construction covered in finished wood, approximately 4 feet (1.2 m) high in the shape of short column, with a ledge with an opening through which the standing customer (adult or child) would put their feet and look through a viewing
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98:
but had his idea stolen and patented by one of his father's employees. In the meantime, the
British company Pedoscope filed a British patent application in 1924, granted in 1926, and claimed to have been building these machines since 1920.
404:, Eddie Kaspbrak remembers using and being enthralled by a shoe-fitting fluoroscope as a boy. Eddie remembers that this agonized his mother, who orders him to get away from the device because she believes that these machines cause cancer.
156:
Large variations in dose were possible depending on the machine design, displacement of the shielding materials, and the duration and frequency of use. Radiation surveys showed that
American machines delivered an average of 13
214:
Representatives of the shoe retail industry denied claims of potential harm in newspaper articles and opinion pieces. They argued that use of the devices prevented harm to customers' feet from poorly-fitted shoes.
173:
A customer might try several shoes in a day, or return several times in a year, and radiation dose effects may be cumulative. A dose of 300 r can cause growth disturbance in a child, and 600 r can cause
169:
in modern units) to the customer's feet during a typical 20-second viewing, with one capable of delivering 116 r (c. 1 Sv) in 20 seconds. British
Pedoscopes produced about ten times less radiation.
61:
stores from the 1920s until about the 1970s in the United States, Canada, United
Kingdom, Australia, South Africa, Germany and Switzerland. In the UK, they were known as Pedoscopes, after the company based in
113:
An Adrian
Fluoroscope at the Dufferin County Museum, Ontario, Canada (2012). The x-ray tube was removed to render the apparatus harmless before being put on public display, due to the possible risk of
341:
The UK Government requires all machines be fitted with a warning sign advising customers of possible health risks, and that they should not use a machine more than 12 times a year.
1134:
522:
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began to experience the long-term effects of radiation in the late 1940s. The first scientific evaluations of these machines in 1948 immediately sparked concern for
1194:
559:
825:
1548:
August, Melissa; Barovick, Harriet; Derrow, Michelle; Gray, Tam; Levy, Daniel S.; Lofaro, Lina; Spitz, David; Stein, Joel; Taylor, Chris (June 14, 1999).
621:
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The X-ray Shoe Fitter Corporation of Milwaukee and Pedoscope Company became the largest manufacturers of shoe-fitting fluoroscopes in the world.
24:
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Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection and of the International Commission on Radiological Units
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posits that the incidence of cancers due to ionizing radiation increases linearly with effective (i.e. whole-body) dose.
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recommends limiting foot dose to 2 r per 5 second exposure, with a limit of 12 exposures per year for children.
190:). A 2007 paper suggested that even higher doses of 0.5 Sv/a were plausible. The most widely accepted model of
1687:, Lowe, J.J., "Method and Means for Visually Determining the Fit of Footwear.", issued 1927-10-05
1328:. National Bureau of Standards Handbook. Vol. 59. US Department of Commerce. 24 September 1954. p. 56.
802:
191:
187:
109:
582:
1658:
A Guide for Uniform Industrial Hygiene Codes Or Regulations For The Use Of Fluoroscopic Shoe Fitting Devices
439:. Its radionuclide source was found to be so dangerous that it was removed and replaced with a static X-ray.
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129:'s 1895 experiment, but this was a short-term effect with early warning from reddening of the skin (
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850:
756:. In Kufe DW, Pollock RE, Weichselbaum RR, Bast RC Jr, Gansler TS, Holland JF, Frei E III (eds.).
1523:
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in an adult. Hands and feet are relatively resistant to other forms of radiation damage, such as
1493:
1481:
333:
ICRP recommends limiting occupational whole body dose to 50 mSv/a (c. 0.1 r/week)
141:
of the same time period. However, there was not enough data to quantify the level of risk until
126:
469:
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1466:
1435:
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recommends limiting dose to 0.1 r per day (c. 0.5 r/week) in all applications.
1674:, Jean Otis Reineeke, "Design for x-ray shoe fitting cabinet", issued 1948-03-23
1505:
1292:
1167:
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959:
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239:
recommends limiting dose to 0.2 r per day (c. 1 r/week) in all applications.
1554:
803:"Basal Cell Carcinoma of the Sole: Possible Association with the Shoe-Fitting Fluoroscope"
476:
418:
344:
NCRP recommends limiting public whole body dose to 5 mSv/a (c. 0.01 r/week)
166:
158:
1501:
1382:
1253:. National Bureau of Standards Handbook. Vol. 47. US Department of Commerce. 1950.
1084:. Ninth International Congress. Vienna: International Radiation Protection Association.
909:
601:
1431:
972:
947:
729:
704:
673:
656:
249:
1948: Warnings specific to the shoe-fitting fluoroscope start appearing in US journals.
179:
175:
122:
114:
1355:
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Late 1970s: Last recorded sighting of a shoe-fitting fluoroscope in service in Boston.
1700:
1527:
1509:
851:"The 2007 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection"
449:
1130:
1245:
401:
19:
313:
recommends reducing dose limits by a factor of 10 for children, and other changes:
1482:"1990 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection"
1424:
Durchsicht, Einsicht, Vorsicht: Eine Geschichte der Röntgenstrahlen 1896 bis 1963
1076:
1078:
One Hundred Years of X Rays and Radioactivity—Radiation Protection: Then and Now
295:
A definitive recommendation against use on children is published in the journal
54:
1158:
Fredrick, W. G.; Smith, R. G. (1948). "Health Problems of X-Ray Shoe Fitting".
1122:
753:
609:
224:
radiation, a variety of bodies began speaking out and regulating the machines.
133:). The long-term risks from chronic exposure to radiation began to emerge with
1297:
1280:
1171:
891:"The X-ray Shoe Fitter – An Early Application of Roentgen's 'New Kind of Ray'"
396:
278:
260:
199:
71:
63:
1216:
1053:
1024:
995:
287:
adopts the Tripartite recommendations, with some lack of clarity about units.
963:
1281:"When the Solution is the Problem: A Brief History of the Shoe Fluoroscope"
981:
821:
738:
720:
682:
617:
137:'s 1927 paper showing genetic effects, and the incidence of bone cancer in
1306:
84:
as was the outline of the shoe, including the stitching around the edges.
921:
130:
80:
1609:
379:
Occupational whole body dose to 20 mSv/a (c. 0.04 r/week)
162:
917:
442:
A shoe-fitting fluoroscope can be seen near the beginning of the film
705:"Shoe Fitting X-Ray Fluoroscopes: Radiation Measurements and Hazards"
373:
1990: ICRP recommends reducing limits on exposure and other changes:
316:
15.6 mSv/a (c. 0.03 r/week) for whole body bone marrow
452:, when his character uses it to establish the contents of a flask.
382:
Public whole body dose to 1 mSv/a (c. 0.002 r/week)
236:
229:
108:
51:
18:
1611:"American Restoration" Apples and X-Rays (TV Episode 2011) - IMDb
376:
Occupational foot dose to 500 mSv/a (c. 1 r/week)
330:
Pennsylvania is the first US state to ban use of these machines.
284:
58:
1428:
Review, insight, caution: A history of X-rays from 1896 to 1963
367:
1973: The last devices still in use in West Germany are banned.
94:
16:
X-ray fluoroscope machines installed in shoe stores 1920s-1970s
324:
1956: UK Ministry of Health considers regulating the machines.
1460:
Strahlenschutzunterweisung - Arbeitsbereich Isotopenanwendung
429:
A shoe-fitting fluoroscope appeared on a 2011 episode of the
1660:. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
413:, the young protagonist Addie Mills describes these devices.
27:. This machine was manufactured by Adrian Shoe Fitter, Inc.
263:/week (c. 0.3 r/week) for whole body bone marrow
490:"Pedoscope X-ray apparatus, St Albans, England 1930-1955"
266:
1.5 rep/week (c. 1.5 r/week) for the hands
1381:
Inkret, W. C.; Meinhold, C. B.; Taschner, J. C. (1995).
1104:"The History of ICRP and the Evolution of its Policies"
319:
78 mSv/a (c. 0.15 r/week) for the hands
66:
that manufactured them. An example can be seen at the
948:"Radiation Damage Caused by Shoe-Fitting Fluoroscope"
426:
on a list of the 100 worst ideas of the 20th century.
153:
reasons, and found them ineffective at shoe fitting.
1322:
Permissible Doses from External Sources of Radiation
1060:. Perth, Western Australia. 1949-11-26. p. 10.
657:"The Shoe-Fitting Fluoroscope as a Radiation Hazard"
1383:"A Brief History of Radiation Protection Standards"
1191:The Tripartite Conferences on Radiation Protection
302:US Food and Drug Administration bans the machines.
1160:American Industrial Hygiene Association Quarterly
760:(6th ed.). Hamilton, Ontario: B.C. Decker.
117:or other health problems if it were switched on.
1223:. Brisbane, Queensland. 1950-04-16. p. 4.
801:Smullen, Michael J.; Bertler, David E. (2007).
556:Health Physics Historical Instrument Collection
281:, Australia and warned against uncontrolled use
75:shoe size continually changed until adulthood.
31:1938 and used in a Washington, D.C., shoe store
1002:. Melbourne, Victoria. 1951-03-01. p. 5.
359:By 1970, 33 US states have banned the machine.
655:Lewis, Leon; Caplan, Paul E. (January 1950).
254:Tripartite Conference on Radiation Protection
8:
1185:Taylor, Lauriston S., ed. (September 1949).
349:1960: 160 devices are still in use in the
1296:
971:
796:
794:
792:
790:
788:
728:
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370:1989: Switzerland prohibits the machines.
470:Shoe-Fitting Fluoroscope (ca. 1930-1940)
274:Warnings start appearing in UK journals.
884:
882:
698:
696:
694:
692:
650:
648:
646:
644:
642:
581:Muller, Hermann Joseph (22 July 1927).
545:
543:
541:
539:
462:
202:with ulceration in 1957, and a case of
93:to the Adrian Company of Milwaukee for
23:A shoe fluoroscope displayed at the US
1453:
1451:
875:from the original on 16 November 2012.
562:from the original on 26 September 2021
25:National Museum of Health and Medicine
1562:from the original on October 21, 2018
1335:from the original on 8 September 2015
1025:"Ban On Shoe X-ray Machines Resented"
627:from the original on 10 November 2019
558:. Oak Ridge Associated Universities.
256:recommends lowering the dose limits:
7:
1550:"The 100 Worst Ideas Of The Century"
1403:from the original on 29 October 2012
1102:Clarke, R. H.; Valentin, J. (2009).
831:from the original on 2 February 2017
1354:Charlton, Amy (11 September 2012).
1486:Journal of Radiological Protection
1091:from the original on 3 March 2016.
479:Oak Ridge Associated Universities.
410:The House Without a Christmas Tree
14:
1362:from the original on 21 June 2019
1285:American Journal of Roentgenology
889:Lapp, David R. (1 January 2004).
583:"Artificial Mutation of the Gene"
70:. At the beginning of the 1930s,
1585:"100 Worst Ideas of the Century"
1260:from the original on 1 July 2015
1064:from the original on 2022-05-09.
754:"Chapter 14: Ionizing Radiation"
1591:from the original on 2020-07-14
1227:from the original on 2022-05-09
1197:from the original on 9 May 2022
1140:from the original on 2012-05-08
1035:from the original on 2022-05-09
1006:from the original on 2022-05-09
774:from the original on 2016-01-02
525:from the original on 2020-11-11
519:Science Museum Group Collection
496:from the original on 2010-05-22
125:to extremities was known since
1075:Meinhold, C. B. (April 1996).
703:Dyson, E. D. (4 August 1956).
1:
1054:"Shoe Men Say X-ray Harmless"
996:"Good shoe X-ray can't hurt'"
277:A public inquiry was held in
1631:"Readings Are Off the Scale"
946:Kopp, H. (7 December 1957).
38:, also sold under the names
1430:] (in German). ZĂĽrich:
1193:. US Department of Energy.
515:"Pedoscope X-ray apparatus"
1733:
1510:10.1088/0952-4746/11/3/006
1123:10.1016/j.icrp.2009.07.009
610:10.1126/science.66.1699.84
552:"Shoe-Fitting Fluoroscope"
1298:10.2214/ajr.158.6.1590121
1172:10.1080/00968204809344081
1031:. 1957-06-26. p. 4.
810:Wisconsin Medical Journal
36:Shoe-fitting fluoroscopes
1717:Radiation health effects
1422:Dommann, Monika (2003).
1358:Science Museum, London.
857:. ICRP publication 103.
192:radiation-induced cancer
1573:(subscription required)
1488:. ICRP publication 60.
1279:Nedd, C. A. II (1992).
1217:"Inquiry in Queensland"
964:10.1136/bmj.2.5057.1344
952:British Medical Journal
709:British Medical Journal
1465:(Report) (in German).
721:10.1136/bmj.2.4987.269
394:Early on in the novel
210:Shoe industry response
118:
68:Science Museum, London
57:machines installed in
32:
1685:US patent 1614988
1672:US patent D149088
1356:"If the shoe fits..."
206:of the sole in 2004.
143:atomic bomb survivors
135:Hermann Joseph Muller
112:
22:
1480:Vennart, J. (1991).
1458:Bauer, Elke (2019).
445:Billion Dollar Brain
436:American Restoration
204:basal-cell carcinoma
147:radiation protection
139:radium dial painters
1502:1991JRP....11..199V
958:(5057): 1344–1345.
910:2004PhTea..42..354L
898:The Physics Teacher
661:California Medicine
602:1927Sci....66...84M
1390:Los Alamos Science
1111:Annals of the ICRP
855:Annals of the ICRP
752:Little JB (2000).
475:2008-12-17 at the
389:In popular culture
161:(r) (roughly 0.13
119:
33:
1519:978-0-08-041144-6
1467:University of Ulm
927:on March 26, 2010
918:10.1119/1.1790343
868:978-0-7020-3048-2
715:(4987): 269–272.
424:Shoe-Store X Rays
151:electrical safety
40:X-ray Shoe Fitter
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1166:(4): 89–93.
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922:the original
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667:(1): 26–30.
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402:Stephen King
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121:The risk of
120:
100:
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48:Foot-o-scope
47:
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39:
35:
34:
28:
1712:Fluoroscopy
1407:12 November
1396:: 116–123.
1339:14 November
1291:(6): 1270.
1264:14 November
1221:Sunday Mail
1201:14 November
931:13 November
835:13 November
631:13 November
566:14 November
55:fluoroscope
1701:Categories
1640:2023-02-22
1617:2023-02-22
1595:2020-07-14
1231:2020-11-27
1144:2012-11-14
1039:2020-11-27
1010:2020-11-27
778:2017-09-11
529:2022-04-11
500:2010-06-03
457:References
297:Pediatrics
279:Queensland
219:Regulation
200:dermatitis
64:St. Albans
1635:TV Tropes
1528:250822587
448:starring
416:In 1999,
259:0.3
88:Invention
44:Pedoscope
1589:Archived
1566:April 3,
1560:Archived
1398:Archived
1360:Archived
1330:Archived
1255:Archived
1225:Archived
1195:Archived
1135:Archived
1131:71278114
1086:Archived
1062:Archived
1033:Archived
1004:Archived
982:13479715
873:Archived
826:Archived
822:17874675
772:Archived
739:13342467
683:15408494
622:Archived
618:17802387
560:Archived
523:Archived
521:. 2022.
494:Archived
473:Archived
176:erythema
165:(Sv) of
159:roentgen
131:erythema
81:porthole
1665:Patents
1498:Bibcode
1494:199–203
1492:(1–3):
1432:Chronos
1366:21 June
1307:1590121
973:1963031
906:Bibcode
730:2034993
674:1520288
598:Bibcode
590:Science
433:series
431:History
422:placed
356:1970s:
163:sievert
50:, were
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1533:17 May
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1524:S2CID
1463:(PDF)
1426:[
1401:(PDF)
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1127:S2CID
1107:(PDF)
1089:(PDF)
1082:(PDF)
1000:Argus
925:(PDF)
894:(PDF)
829:(PDF)
806:(PDF)
625:(PDF)
586:(PDF)
237:IXRPC
230:ACXRP
72:Bally
52:X-ray
29:circa
1568:2020
1555:Time
1535:2012
1514:ISBN
1436:ISBN
1409:2012
1368:2019
1341:2012
1303:PMID
1266:2012
1203:2012
978:PMID
933:2012
863:ISBN
837:2012
818:PMID
762:ISBN
735:PMID
679:PMID
633:2012
614:PMID
594:LXVI
568:2012
419:Time
311:NCRP
285:ICRP
149:and
95:US$
59:shoe
46:and
1506:doi
1293:doi
1289:158
1168:doi
1119:doi
968:PMC
960:doi
914:doi
814:106
725:PMC
717:doi
669:PMC
606:doi
400:by
261:rep
244:ASA
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
