1148:(both of whom based their accounts on interviews with participants) state that the cannibalism happened during the siege and suggest that it was a public spectacle rather than a shameful, hidden episode. Ralph states that "a lack of food compelled them to make a meal of human flesh, that adults were put in the stewpot, and that were skewered on spits. Both were cooked and eaten." He asserts that he heard this "from the very perpetrators of this shame", that is, from some of the cannibals themselves. Albert writes "that the Christians, in the face of the scarcity about which you have heard, did not fear to eat ... the bodies, cooked in fire, not only of the Saracens or Turks they had killed, but also of the dogs that they had caught", thus cynically implying that eating dogs was worse than eating Muslims. Fulcher states that many crusaders "savagely filled their mouths" with cooked "pieces from the buttocks of the Saracens" which they had cut from the bodies of enemies while the siege was still ongoing.
1237:
argumentative sleight of hand", pointing out that it was
Christian rather than Arab chroniclers who recorded and documented the cannibalism – and that it was some of them, not Arabs, who specifically blamed the Tafurs. Carine Bourget agrees with Maalouf that the tendency of major 20th-century accounts of the crusades to downplay or altogether omit the cannibal episode is problematic, but she reproaches him for engaging in a "rewriting of history" of another kind, by not mentioning the single Arab source that mentions the cannibalism and explains it as due to hunger, to strengthen his "fanaticism" conjecture.
1096:
1189:– presumably, desperate starving people would not have cared much about the religion of those they consumed. He concludes that Ma'arra was probably only "the most memorable instance of what was likely a periodic response to famine", namely cannibalism, and that it went "beyond poor and hungry people eating from the dead" in secret. He rather supposes that "some of the soldiers must have recognized its potential utility and, hoping to drive the defenders into a quick surrender, made a spectacle of the eating, and made sure that Muslims were the only ones eaten."
1133:, who seems to have been present at Ma'arra, likewise states that the cannibalism happened after the siege and "in the midst of famine", but adds that human flesh was consumed in public and "with gusto" rather than secretly and shamefully. He adds that these spectacles shocked the Muslims who were terrified by the resolution and cruelty of the crusaders – which is somewhat at odds with his account that these events happened after the fall of the city when all Muslims in the vicinity were either dead or enslaved.
1213:, however, the Tafurs reappear as fanatics who "roast Saracen bodies on spits just outside Antioch's walls", shocking the defenders. Rubenstein concludes that a desire of some chroniclers "to blame the poor for the cannibalism ... led them to create the Tafur mythology" and that this mythology flourished in later times because it helped isolate the unpleasant memories of the crusader cannibalism from the armed, heroic crusaders themselves, instead squarely blaming it on a group of poor, unarmed helpers.
196:
1067:, launched an unsuccessful assault on Ma'arra. Bohemond joined them that afternoon and attempted a second unproductive attack. The citizens were initially unconcerned since Raymond Pilet's expedition had failed, and they taunted the Crusaders. The Crusaders could also not afford to conduct a lengthy siege, as winter was approaching and they had few supplies, but they were also unable to break through the city's defences, consisting of a deep ditch and strong walls.
1209:, a group of crusaders who followed strict oaths of poverty. In recent times, several scholars have continued to identify the Tafurs as the chief perpetrators of cannibalism. Guibert of Nogent was the first to attribute cannibal acts specifically to the Tafurs, at the same time downplaying their significance and declaring that they happened – if at all – only in secret. In the later
203:
1233:
probably been less than ten thousand, it indicates an amount of violence that deeply shocked the Muslim world, while the "barely imaginable fate" of the bodies of victims – to serve as food for the conquerors – was an even more profound shock. After these events, the "Franj" frequently appear in Arab and
Turkish sources as brutal "beasts" and "anthropophagi".
50:
1188:
notes that the chroniclers felt discomfort and tried to downplay what had happened, hence tending to give only part of the facts (but without agreeing on which part and interpretation to give). He also notes that the fact that only
Muslims were eaten is at odds with hunger as a sole or primary motive
1196:
states that, while the "cannibalism at Marrat is among the most infamous of all the atrocities perpetrated by the First
Crusaders", it nevertheless had "some positive effects on the crusaders' short-term prospects". Reports and rumours of their brutality in Ma'arra and Antioch convinced "many Muslim
1070:
The defenders of the city, mostly an urban militia and inexperienced citizens, managed to hold off the attacks for about two weeks. The
Crusaders repeatedly sent envoys offering terms of surrender that included security of the Arab population's lives and properties in return for the establishment of
1111:
After the city's fall, the
Crusaders stayed there for about a month before continuing their march to Jerusalem while their leaders debated how to divide the lands they had conquered. One group of chronicles suggests that the cannibalism occurred after the end of the siege and was entirely motivated
1103:
During or after the siege, some of the starving crusaders resorted to cannibalism, feeding on the bodies of
Muslims. This fact itself is not seriously in doubt, as it is acknowledged by nearly a dozen Christian chronicles written during the twenty years after the Crusade, all of which are based at
1078:
The
Crusaders used the siege tower to destroy a wall on December 11 and began pillaging. The fighting subsided for the night but resumed in a brutal plunder the following morning. Some Muslims negotiated a surrender to Bohemond; these men were killed, and the women and children were enslaved and
1232:
Maalouf also notes that the events at Ma'arra helped shape a negative image of the
Crusaders in Arab eyes. "For three days they put people to the sword, killing more than a hundred thousand people", one Arab chronicler wrote. While this was widely exaggerated, as the whole city's population had
1151:
While multiple sources concur on the fact of the cannibalism, both its timing and its motives are thus in doubt. Another issue is whether such acts were limited to Ma'arra or happened also elsewhere during the First
Crusade, as several accounts suggest. Some sources describe cannibalism several
1107:
There is conflicting evidence on when exactly and why the cannibalism happened. Some sources state that enemies were eaten during the siege, while others (a slight majority) state that it happened after the city had been conquered. Another source of tension exists regarding its motives – was it
1236:
Maalouf's argument has come under criticism by other scholars. Rubenstein agrees with him that "Arab historians do remember Ma'arra as the scene of a horrific massacre", but he criticizes Maalouf's claim that "oral tradition" preserved the cannibalistic horrors among the Arabs as "probably an
1181:, interpret it as a deliberate act of psychological warfare, "intended to strike fear in the enemy". This implies it must have happened during rather than after the siege, "while there were still Muslims alive to witness it and to feel the horror that was its intended by-product".
1197:
commanders and garrisons that the crusaders were bloodthirsty barbarians, invincible savages who could not be resisted". Accordingly, many of them decided to "accept costly and humiliating truces with the Franks rather than face them in battle".
1126:
include similar accounts, likewise stating that only Muslims or "Turks" were consumed. Only one of them says that "human flesh was being traded openly", while the others imply that it was only eaten discreetly, out of sight.
1054:
garrison in the town, and they were utterly routed with many casualties. For the rest of the summer, the Crusaders continued their march south, captured many other small towns, and arrived again at Ma'arra in November.
318:
246:
1228:, the Tafurs, roam through the country-side openly proclaiming that they would chew the flesh of the Saracens and gathering around their nocturnal camp-fires to devour their prey.
1104:
least to some degree on eyewitness accounts. The crusaders' cannibalism is also briefly mentioned in an Arab source, which explains it as due to hunger ("racked by dearth").
1079:
sold. Meanwhile, Bohemond seized most of the loot. However, Raymond's army had largely secured the city, resulting in the latter claiming the fortification for the
1224:
The inhabitants of the Ma'arra region witnessed behaviour during that sinister winter that could not be accounted for by hunger. They saw, for example, fanatical
1075:, which allowed them to pour over the walls of the city, while at the same time, a group of knights scaled the undefended walls on the other side of the city.
1924:
1164:, and describes it in a way similar to Ralph of Caen: "they cut in pieces some of the babies, impaled others on wooden spits, and roasted them over a fire".
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practised secretly due to famine and lack of food, as some sources suggest, or publicly in front of the enemies to shock and frighten them, as others imply?
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1122:'s chronicle gives a similar description, though adding that only Muslims were eaten. Several other works that are partially based on the
1118:, states that because of great deprivations after the siege, "Some cut the flesh of dead bodies into strips and cooked them for eating."
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led 20,000 men to forage and plunder the surrounding countryside of food, opening Raymond IV to counterattack by
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1367:(2017). "Knowing the Enemy: Latin Relations with Islam at the Time of the First Crusade". In Housley, Norman (ed.).
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Knighthoods of Christ: Essays on the History of the Crusades and the Knights Templar, Presented to Malcolm Barber
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The History of the Crusades Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem
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a Frankish governor of the city. These terms were rejected. The crusaders spent this time building a
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Capture of the fortress of Ma'arra in the province of Antioch in 1098 by 19th-century painter
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Some chroniclers, as well as various later sources, blamed the cannibalism at Ma'arra on the
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In concluding his discussion of the various accounts of the cannibalism, historian
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1798:
1140:(who was a participant of the Crusade though not personally present at Ma'arra),
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17:
1848:
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1167:
Several medieval interpretations of cannibalism during the Crusade, by
1879:
Empire of Magic: Medieval Romance and the Politics of Cultural Fantasy
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1206:
1051:
260:
1099:
Crusaders cutting up victims for consumption (13th-century painting)
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The Chanson D'Antioche: An Old French Account of the First Crusade
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49:
1031:. The crusaders were suffering widespread hunger by early 1098.
1289:
228:
1597:
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1426:
1424:
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is probably the best known who upheld the Tafur thesis:
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by hunger. The earliest text in this tradition, the
1063:
On the morning of November 28, 1098, Raymond IV and
1771:
1270:Edgington, Susan; Sweetenham, Carol, eds. (2011).
1300:. Vol. 4 (11th ed.). pp. 135–136.
1222:
34:
1046:, an important city on the road south towards
991:. It is infamous for the claims of widespread
1807:Studies in 20th & 21st Century Literature
1019:in October 1097. That December, Bohemond and
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8:
1799:"The Rewriting of History in Amin Maalouf's
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1160:ascribes it to an even earlier period, the
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1201:Controversy about the role of the Tafurs
1094:
892:End of the Crusader states in the Levant
1888:Les Croisades, origines et consequences
1751:
1727:
1430:
1262:
1881:. New York: Columbia University Press.
1707:. London: Al Saqi Books. p. 39.
979:occurred in late 1098 in the city of
7:
1925:Battles involving the Seljuk Empire
1835:(2008). "Cannibals and Crusaders".
1827:from the original on 19 July 2018.
25:
1940:11th century in the Seljuk Empire
1774:The First Crusade: A New History
1754:, pp. 268 and 282 (note 4).
1247:List of incidents of cannibalism
201:
194:
1050:. His troops met a much larger
1027:commander and Antioch governor
1801:The Crusades Through Arab Eyes
1704:The Crusades Through Arab Eyes
1:
1865:. Cambridge University Press.
185:About 20,000 civilians killed
1920:Battles of the First Crusade
1371:. London: Routledge. Ch. 2.
1065:Robert II, Count of Flanders
1042:, led an expedition against
995:committed by the Crusaders.
1152:months earlier, during the
27:Battle of the First Crusade
1966:
1252:List of massacres in Syria
551:Period post-Second Crusade
175:Local militia and garrison
1890:. Éditions Ouest-France.
1849:10.1215/00161071-2008-005
1837:French Historical Studies
1813:(2, Article 3): 263–287.
1457:, pp. 533, 535, 541.
1274:. Routledge. p. 391.
1216:Among modern historians,
1156:. The Byzantine princess
1136:Three other accounts, by
762:Period post-Third Crusade
335:Period post-First Crusade
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143:
127:
100:35.6433306°N 36.6683306°E
61:
47:
39:
1915:Incidents of cannibalism
1886:Lebedev, Claude (2006).
1877:Heng, Geraldine (2003).
1797:Bourget, Carine (2006).
1688:, pp. 540, 551–552.
983:, in what is modern-day
1780:Oxford University Press
1297:Encyclopædia Britannica
1930:Sieges of the Crusades
1820:10.4148/2334-4415.1633
1230:
1100:
1040:Raymond IV's army
1009:Raymond IV of Toulouse
150:Raymond IV of Toulouse
144:Commanders and leaders
105:35.6433306; 36.6683306
69:November–December 1098
1098:
1021:Robert II of Flanders
939:Lord Edward's Crusade
215:Location within Syria
180:Casualties and losses
158:Robert II of Flanders
136:City in the realm of
1418:, pp. 526, 537.
1036:Raymond Pilet d'Alès
212:class=notpageimage|
1652:, pp. 539–540.
1640:, pp. 526–527.
1628:, pp. 274–275.
1589:, pp. 539–542.
1577:, pp. 538–539.
1565:, pp. 537–538.
1517:, pp. 534–536.
1505:, pp. 534–535.
1493:, pp. 532–533.
1481:, pp. 530–531.
1406:, pp. 260–261.
1394:, pp. 259–260.
1337:, pp. 248–249.
1325:, pp. 220–223.
1138:Fulcher of Chartres
1131:Raymond of Aguilers
1013:Bohemond of Taranto
929:Krak des Chevaliers
154:Bohemond of Taranto
96: /
1950:Massacres in Syria
1211:Chanson d'Antioche
1178:Chanson d'Antioche
1101:
797:3rd Constantinople
792:2nd Constantinople
697:2nd Belvoir Castle
657:1st Belvoir Castle
520:1st Constantinople
1935:Conflicts in 1098
1789:978-0-19-517823-4
1730:, pp. 38–39.
1378:978-1-351-92392-7
1169:Guibert of Nogent
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259:: battles in the
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1154:siege of Antioch
1142:Albert of Aachen
1081:bishop of Albara
1017:siege of Antioch
977:siege of Ma'arra
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1833:Rubenstein, Jay
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1194:Thomas Asbridge
1173:William of Tyre
1124:Gesta Francorum
1115:Gesta Francorum
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1061:
1015:, launched the
1005:First Crusaders
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981:Ma'arrat Nu'man
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868:Seventh Crusade
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1843:(4): 525–552.
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1742:, p. 527.
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1676:, p. 530.
1666:
1664:, p. 541.
1654:
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1616:, p. 529.
1606:
1604:, p. 550.
1591:
1579:
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1553:, p. 534.
1543:
1541:, p. 535.
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1529:, p. 536.
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1471:
1469:, p. 526.
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1445:, p. 537.
1435:
1433:, p. 269.
1420:
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1396:
1384:
1377:
1356:
1354:, p. 259.
1339:
1327:
1315:
1313:, p. 248.
1303:
1286:Barker, Ernest
1277:
1261:
1259:
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1254:
1249:
1242:
1239:
1202:
1199:
1186:Jay Rubenstein
1120:Peter Tudebode
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1057:
1038:, a knight in
1034:In July 1098,
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924:Eighth Crusade
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1025:Seljuk Empire
1022:
1018:
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989:First Crusade
987:, during the
986:
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324:1st Jerusalem
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294:1st Dorylaeum
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273:First Crusade
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88:35°38′35.99″N
80:
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42:First Crusade
38:
33:
30:
19:
1945:1098 in Asia
1887:
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1810:
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1778:. New York:
1773:
1761:Bibliography
1752:Bourget 2006
1747:
1735:
1728:Maalouf 1984
1723:
1703:
1693:
1681:
1669:
1657:
1645:
1633:
1621:
1609:
1582:
1570:
1558:
1546:
1534:
1522:
1510:
1498:
1486:
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1462:
1450:
1438:
1431:Bourget 2006
1411:
1399:
1387:
1368:
1359:
1330:
1318:
1306:
1295:
1280:
1271:
1265:
1235:
1231:
1223:
1218:Amin Maalouf
1215:
1210:
1204:
1191:
1183:
1176:
1166:
1158:Anna Komnene
1150:
1135:
1129:
1123:
1113:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1077:
1069:
1062:
1033:
1007:, including
1002:
976:
974:
890:
889:
885:2nd Fariskur
880:2nd Mansurah
875:3rd Damietta
866:
865:
836:
835:
831:1st Mansurah
826:1st Fariskur
821:2nd Damietta
802:
801:
778:
777:
761:
760:
727:
726:
642:Jacob's Ford
607:1st Damietta
550:
549:
540:Mount Cadmus
511:
510:
361:2nd Heraclea
356:1st Heraclea
334:
333:
313:
271:
128:Belligerents
91:36°40′5.99″E
40:Part of the
29:
1091:Cannibalism
1073:siege tower
1029:Yaghi-Siyan
993:cannibalism
954:3rd Tripoli
934:2nd Tripoli
919:2nd Antioch
861:3rd Ascalon
811:Mount Tabor
741:Philomelion
602:2nd Bilbeis
592:1st Bilbeis
567:2nd Ascalon
501:Edessa 1146
496:Edessa 1144
491:2nd Shaizar
416:Al-Sannabra
411:1st Shaizar
376:1st Tripoli
329:1st Ascalon
309:2nd Antioch
299:1st Antioch
263:(1096–1303)
103: /
1909:Categories
1258:References
1192:Historian
999:Background
712:Al-Shughur
637:Marj Ayyun
622:Montgisard
617:Alexandria
572:Lake Huleh
486:2nd Aleppo
461:al-Atharib
446:1st Aleppo
279:Xerigordos
1085:Jerusalem
899:2nd Arsuf
816:Machghara
768:2nd Jaffa
756:1st Jaffa
751:1st Arsuf
677:2nd Kerak
667:1st Kerak
597:al-Babein
582:al-Buqaia
476:Qinnasrin
466:Rafaniyya
391:3rd Ramla
371:2nd Ramla
366:1st Ramla
133:Crusaders
1859:(1951).
1825:Archived
1770:(2004).
1701:(1984).
1288:(1911).
1241:See also
1048:Damascus
959:4th Acre
904:Caesarea
736:3rd Acre
702:Laodicea
692:3rd Tyre
647:2nd Acre
545:Damascus
381:1st Acre
351:Mersivan
346:Melitene
304:Samosata
257:Crusades
167:Strength
74:Location
1044:Ma'arra
746:Iconium
717:Bourzey
672:Cresson
662:Al-Fule
652:Red Sea
577:Butaiha
530:Ephesus
471:Antioch
314:Ma'arra
284:Civetot
172:Unknown
162:Unknown
1894:
1786:
1711:
1375:
1207:Tafurs
1052:Muslim
949:Margat
856:Forbie
707:Sahyun
682:Hattin
632:Banias
562:Aintab
481:Ba'rin
441:Yibneh
421:Sarmin
401:Beirut
386:Harran
289:Nicaea
261:Levant
116:Result
1226:Franj
1059:Siege
985:Syria
914:Safed
909:Haifa
773:Toron
722:Safed
587:Harim
506:Bosra
406:Sidon
396:Artah
341:Arsuf
1892:ISBN
1784:ISBN
1709:ISBN
1373:ISBN
1144:and
1011:and
1003:The
975:The
964:Ruad
944:Homs
846:Gaza
787:Zara
627:Hama
612:Ayla
557:Inab
451:Azaz
319:Arqa
66:Date
1845:doi
1815:doi
431:Hab
1911::
1841:31
1839:.
1823:.
1811:30
1809:.
1805:.
1782:.
1594:^
1423:^
1342:^
1294:.
1171:,
1087:.
1900:.
1851:.
1847::
1817::
1803:"
1792:.
1717:.
1381:.
248:e
241:t
234:v
20:)
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