Silicon quantum dot - Knowledge (XXG)

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bands that dominate silicon quantum dot properties. Long-lived luminescence excited states (S-band, slow decay rate) are typically associated with size-dependent photoluminescence ranging from yellow/orange to the near-infrared. Short-lived luminescent excited states (F-band, fast decay rate) are typically associated with size-independent blue photoluminescence and in some cases nitrogen impurities have been implicated in these processes. The S-band is typically attributed to the size-dependent band gap of the silicon quantum dots. This emission can be tuned from yellow (600 nm) into the infrared (1000 to 1100 nm) by changing the diameter of the silicon quantum dots from about 2 to 8 nm. Some reports also describe the preparation of green-emitting silicon quantum dots prepared by decreasing the size, however, these materials are challenging to isolate and require further development. Silicon quantum dot luminescence may also be tuned by defining their surface chemistry. Attaching different surface species allows tuning of silicon quantum dot luminescence throughout the visible spectrum while the silicon quantum dot dimensions remain unchanged. This surface tuning is typically accompanied by the appearance of nanosecond lifetimes like those seen for F-band luminescence. Silicon quantum dot photoluminescence

252:. Much of the developed surface chemistry draws on well-established procedures used to modify the surface of porous silicon and silicon wafers. Hydrosilylation, which involves the formal addition of a Si-H bond across a C-C double or triple bond, is commonly used to introduce alkenes and alkynes to silicon quantum dot surfaces and also provides access to useful terminal functional groups (e.g., carboxylic acid, ester, silanes) that can define solvent compatibility and provide locations for further derivatization. The 218:(s). These methods reliably provide high quality SiQDs exhibiting size/band gap dependent (S-band) photoluminescence. Top-down methods, such as laser ablation and ball-milling have also been reported. Several solution-based methods have also been presented that often result in materials exhibiting F-band luminescence. Recently, it has been determined that some of these methods do not provide silicon quantum dots, but rather luminescent 279:

and the luminescence detection, this allows fluorophores with short lifetimes to relax, thus highlighting those with long lifetimes. This type of fluorescence imaging is useful for biological imaging as many tissues exhibit autofluorescence that can interfere with imaging. By using this technique, the signal to background ratio for imaging SiQDs can be increased up to 3x over conventional steady-state imaging techniques.

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biological compatibility of silicon quantum dots enables time-gated biological imaging. The large Stokes shift allows them to convert photons from the ultraviolet range into the visible or infrared range and is particularly beneficial in the design and implementation of luminescent solar concentrators because it limits self-absorption while down converting the light.

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peroxide that quenches luminescence. Another method uses ratiometric sensing, where a fluorescent molecule is used as a control and the relative intensities of the two fluorescent labels are compared. This method was used to detect organophosphate nerve agents visually at a lower concentration than can be observed for SiQD quenching alone.

321:, while making them suitable as replacements for windows in buildings. To do this effectively, the surface of the silicon quantum dots can be modified with various ligands to improve polymer compatibility. It is also desirable to push the absorbance of the SiQDs into the visible to correspond better with the 230:

Defining the size of silicon quantum dots is essential because it influences their optical properties (especially S-band luminescence). Typically, the size of the silicon quantum dots is defined by controlling material synthesis. For example, silicon quantum dot size can be controlled by the reaction

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of the silicon quantum dots. By changing the size of the SiQDs, the LED emission can be tuned from deep red (680 nm) to orange/yellow (625 nm). Despite promising initial results and advances towards improving the external quantum efficiency of the resulting LEDs, future work is required to

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Alternative methods of detection via quenching of the SiQD core have also been explored. By functionalizing the quantum dots with enzymes, various biologically relevant materials can be sensed due to the formation of metabolites. Using this method, glucose can be detected via the formation hydrogen

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of the silicon quantum dots to convert light into electricity. The large Stokes shift allows the SiQDs to convert UV light into red/near infrared light that is effectively absorbed by silicon solar cells, while having limited self absorption. The LSCs are designed to collect light and use the glass

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in biological systems. Due to this promise, silicon quantum dots have been applied for both in vitro and in vivo imaging. While steady-state imaging is traditionally used, the keen advantage of silicon comes into play for time-gated imaging. Time-gated imaging employs a delay between the excitation

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The long-lived excited state of silicon quantum dot S-band luminescence that starkly contrasts photoemission from conventional quantum dots is often attributed to the inherent indirect band gap of silicon and lends itself to unique material applications. Combining long-lived excited states with the

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Silicon quantum dots (SiQDs) possess size-tunable photoluminescence that is similar to that observed for conventional quantum dots. The luminescence is routinely tuned throughout the visible and into the near-infrared region by defining particle size. In general, there are two distinct luminescence

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Silicon quantum dots have been used in prototype applications owing to their biocompatibility and the ubiquitous nature of silicon, compared to other types of quantum dots. In addition to these fundamental properties, the unique optical properties of silicon quantum dots (i.e., long-lived excited

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The synthesis methods used to prepare SiQDs often result in reactive surfaces. Hydride-terminated SiQDs require post synthesis modification because they tend to oxidize under ambient conditions and exhibit limited solution processability. These surfaces are often passivated with organic molecules

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to waveguide the re-emitted light towards the edges of the glass, where the solar cells collect the light and convert it to electricity. By designing the LSC carefully, the silicon quantum dots can be prepared as a transparent film over the glass limiting losses due to

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from freestanding oxidized silicon quantum dots. Recognizing the vast potential of their unique optical properties, many researchers explored, and developed methods to synthesize silicon quantum dots. Once these materials could be prepared reliably, methods to

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states, large Stokes shift and tunable luminescence) can be advantageous for certain applications. Owing to these (and other) properties, the potential applications of SiQDs are diverse, spanning medical, sensing, defense, and energy related fields.

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Clark, Rhett J.; Aghajamali, Maryam; Gonzalez, Christina M.; Hadidi, Lida; Islam, Muhammad Amirul; Javadi, Morteza; Mobarok, Md Hosnay; Purkait, Tapas K.; Robidillo, Christopher Jay T.; Sinelnikov, Regina; Thiessen, Alyxandra N. (2017-01-10).

145:. Many of these surface passivation methods draw inspiration from methods that were first developed for silicon wafers and porous silicon. Currently, silicon quantum dots are being commercialized by Applied Quantum Materials Inc. (Canada). 365:) as the method of quenching. Hazardous high energy materials, such as nitroaromatic compounds (i.e., TNT and DNT), can be detected at nanogram levels via electron transfer. In the electron transfer method, the energy level of 1486:

Pramanik, Sunipa; Hill, Samantha K. E.; Zhi, Bo; Hudson-Smith, Natalie V.; Wu, Jeslin J.; White, Jacob N.; McIntire, Eileen A.; Kondeti, V. S. Santosh K.; Lee, Amani L.; Bruggeman, Peter J.; Kortshagen, Uwe R. (2018).

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between the surface groups and the silicon quantum dot is robust and is not readily exchangeable – this is very different from the ionic bonding commonly used to tether surface groups to other types of quantum dots.

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Mastronardi, Melanie L.; Hennrich, Frank; Henderson, Eric J.; Maier-Flaig, Florian; Blum, Carolin; Reichenbach, Judith; Lemmer, Uli; Kübel, Christian; Wang, Di; Kappes, Manfred M.; Ozin, Geoffrey A. (2011-08-10).

357:. Photochemical sensors based on silicon quantum dots have been used to sense a wide variety of analytes, including pesticides, antibiotics, nerve agents, heavy metals, ethanol, and pH, often employing either 46:, and solution protocols have been used to prepare silicon quantum dots, however it is important to note that some solution-based protocols for preparing luminescent silicon quantum dots actually yield 1141:

Shirahata, Naoto; Nakamura, Jin; Inoue, Jun-ichi; Ghosh, Batu; Nemoto, Kazuhiro; Nemoto, Yoshihiro; Takeguchi, Masaki; Masuda, Yoshitake; Tanaka, Masahiko; Ozin, Geoffrey A. (2020-03-11).

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of the electron hole pair. This also works when the HOMO of the analyte is just above the conduction band of the SiQD, enabling the electron to transfer from the analyte to the SiQD.

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Robidillo, Christopher Jay T.; Islam, Muhammad Amirul; Aghajamali, Maryam; Faramus, Angelique; Sinelnikov, Regina; Zhang, Xiyu; Boekhoven, Job; Veinot, Jonathan G. C. (2018-05-14).

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of the molecule is between the valence and conduction bands of the silicon quantum dots, enabling the transfer of an excited state electron to the LUMO, and, therefore, preventing

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has found extensive use in electronic devices; however, bulk Si has limited optical applications. This is largely due to the vertical optical transition between the

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Other modes of imaging have also been explored for silicon nanomaterials. For example, the silicon core of large silicon nanoparticles has been used for Si

193:) found "no signs of toxicity clearly attributable to SiQDs." In bacteria, SiQDs have been shown to be less toxic than both CdSe and CdSe/ZnS quantum dots. 988:

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248:(e.g., alkyl chains) to render SiQDs resistant to oxidation and compatible with common solvents. This can then be passivated through methods, such as 30:

emission maxima that are tunable through the visible to near-infrared spectral regions. These quantum dots have unique properties arising from their

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The biocompatibility of silicon quantum dots along with their long luminescent lifetimes and near-infrared emission makes them well-suited for

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utilize quantum dots to produce pure monochromatic light. Most of the work designing LEDs based on silicon quantum dots have focused on

1725:"Radical Initiated Hydrosilylation on Silicon Nanocrystal Surfaces: An Evaluation of Functional Group Tolerance and Mechanistic Study" 50:

instead of the reported silicon. The unique properties of silicon quantum dots lend themselves to an array of potential applications:

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Angı, Arzu; Loch, Marius; Sinelnikov, Regina; Veinot, Jonathan G. C.; Becherer, Markus; Lugli, Paolo; Rieger, Bernhard (2018-06-07).

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Silicon quantum dots can be synthesized using a variety of methods, including thermal disproportionation of silicon suboxides (e.g.,

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177:. During in vitro studies, SiQDs have been found to exhibit limited toxicity in concentrations up to 72 μg/mL in 1206:"Air-stable full-visible-spectrum emission from silicon nanocrystals synthesized by an all-gas-phase plasma approach" 3294: 283: 158:

are typically in the range of 10 to 40%, with a handful of synthetic protocols providing values in excess of 70%.

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386: 350: 169:(e.g., cadmium, indium, lead). The biological compatibility of these materials has been carefully studied both 2150:"Time-Gated Imaging on Live Cancer Cells Using Silicon Quantum Dot Nanoparticles with Long-Lived Fluorescence" 565:

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2842:"A Label-Free Silicon Quantum Dots-Based Photoluminescence Sensor for Ultrasensitive Detection of Pesticides" 207: 138: 93:

after being subjected to electrochemical and chemical dissolution. The light emission was attributed to the

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1579:"The structure and property characteristics of amorphous/nanocrystalline silicon produced by ball milling" 509:"The structure and property characteristics of amorphous/nanocrystalline silicon produced by ball milling" 141:

the surfaces were critical to rendering these materials solution processable and minimize the effects of

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in non-thermal plasma methods is a key factor. Alternatively, post-synthetic protocols, such as

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Silicon quantum dots are metal-free biologically compatible quantum dots with photoluminescence.

2581:"Hybrid Silicon Nanocrystals for Color-Neutral and Transparent Luminescent Solar Concentrators" 2246:

Tu, Chuqiao; Ma, Xuchu; House, Adrian; Kauzlarich, Susan M.; Louie, Angelique Y. (2011-01-27).

2181:"Synthesis of Long-T1 Silicon Nanoparticles for Hyperpolarized 29Si Magnetic Resonance Imaging" 3241: 3233: 3194: 3186: 3139: 3097: 3058: 3023: 3015: 2966: 2958: 2916: 2869: 2861: 2814: 2806: 2767: 2759: 2712: 2704: 2665: 2657: 2553: 2545: 2459: 2399: 2381: 2342: 2324: 2285: 2267: 2228: 2210: 2130: 2112: 2065: 2057: 2010: 2002: 1950: 1942: 1903: 1856: 1838: 1799: 1791: 1752: 1744: 1705: 1697: 1662: 1654: 1606: 1516: 1508: 1468: 1460: 1418: 1410: 1371: 1298: 1290: 1241: 1233: 1178: 1170: 1123: 1105: 1009: 970: 923: 876: 829: 821: 767: 740:"Silicon quantum wire array fabrication by electrochemical and chemical dissolution of wafers" 712: 704: 644: 602: 594: 536: 486: 478: 434: 358: 27: 1635:"Preparation of Monodisperse Silicon Nanocrystals Using Density Gradient Ultracentrifugation" 3225: 3178: 3131: 3089: 3050: 3043:"Detection of ethanol and water vapor with silicon quantum dots coupled to an optical fiber" 3005: 2994:"Fluorescent sensor for Cr(VI) based in functionalized silicon quantum dots with dendrimers" 2950: 2908: 2853: 2798: 2751: 2696: 2649: 2600: 2592: 2537: 2498: 2449: 2441: 2389: 2373: 2332: 2316: 2275: 2259: 2218: 2202: 2161: 2120: 2104: 2049: 1992: 1984: 1934: 1895: 1846: 1830: 1783: 1736: 1689: 1646: 1598: 1551: 1500: 1452: 1402: 1361: 1353: 1280: 1225: 1162: 1113: 1097: 1029:"Thermal hydrosilylation of undecylenic acid with porous silicon - NRC Publications Archive" 1001: 962: 915: 895: 868: 855:

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temperature during thermal disproportionation of silsesquioxanes. Similarly, the plasma

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Oliinyk, Bohdan V.; Korytko, Dmytro; Lysenko, Vladimir; Alekseev, Sergei (2019-09-24).

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imaging is also accessible. Further, doping with paramagnetic centers show promise for

232: 211: 190: 98: 94: 3258: 2978: 2826: 2614: 2565: 2510: 2471: 2022: 1618: 1190: 951:"Alkyl Monolayers on Silicon Prepared from 1-Alkenes and Hydrogen-Terminated Silicon" 841: 724: 656: 548: 366: 349:

Photochemical sensors take advantage of the silicon quantum dot photoluminescence by

253: 102: 1563: 935: 1441:"Assessing Clinical Prospects of Silicon Quantum Dots: Studies in Mice and Monkeys" 1253: 950: 857:"A luminescent silicon nanocrystal colloid via a high-temperature aerosol reaction" 856: 313: 166: 133: 132:

The first reports of silicon quantum dots emerged in the early 1990s demonstrating

106: 86: 35: 3213: 3010: 2993: 919: 640: 430: 3229: 2596: 2502: 2165: 1740: 1166: 739: 675:"Critical assessment of wet-chemical oxidation synthesis of silicon quantum dots" 624: 474: 414: 23: 3077: 2580: 2486: 2149: 1142: 286:

in mice models. By modifying the surface with a ligand that can coordinate Cu,

101:. This early work provided a foundation for several different types of silicon 3093: 3054: 625:"Are Fluorescent Silicon Nanoparticles Formed in a One-Pot Aqueous Synthesis?" 458: 318: 3237: 3190: 3143: 3101: 3062: 3019: 2962: 2920: 2865: 2810: 2763: 2708: 2661: 2549: 2463: 2385: 2328: 2271: 2214: 2116: 2061: 2006: 1946: 1907: 1842: 1795: 1748: 1701: 1658: 1610: 1512: 1464: 1414: 1294: 1237: 1174: 1109: 1013: 974: 927: 896:"Quantum Confinement in Size-Selected, Surface-Oxidized Silicon Nanocrystals" 880: 825: 771: 708: 648: 598: 540: 482: 438: 185:). In vivo studies assessing biological compatibility of SiQDs undertaken in 3076:

Feng, Yanling; Liu, Yufei; Su, Chen; Ji, Xinghu; He, Zhike (November 2014).

2787:"Designing Efficient Si Quantum Dots and LEDs by Quantifying Ligand Effects" 2037: 1819:"Biocompatible Luminescent Silicon Quantum Dots for Imaging of Cancer Cells" 1771: 1724: 1205: 114: 43: 3245: 3198: 3027: 2970: 2954: 2873: 2818: 2802: 2771: 2716: 2669: 2557: 2541: 2445: 2403: 2362:"Development of Iron Doped Silicon Nanoparticles as Bimodal Imaging Agents" 2346: 2289: 2232: 2134: 2069: 2014: 1954: 1860: 1803: 1787: 1756: 1709: 1666: 1472: 1422: 1375: 1357: 1302: 1245: 1182: 1127: 833: 716: 606: 490: 1602: 1555: 532: 2938: 2786: 2785:

Ono, Taisei; Xu, Yuping; Sakata, Toshiki; Saitow, Ken-ichi (2022-01-12).

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2197: 239:, can be used to narrow the size distribution through separation. 186: 165:

Importantly, SiQDs are biologically compatible and do not contain

142: 90: 2248:"PET Imaging and Biodistribution of Silicon Quantum Dots in Mice" 3078:"New fluorescent pH sensor based on label-free silicon nanodots" 990:"Lewis Acid Mediated Hydrosilylation on Porous Silicon Surfaces" 894:

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2630:"High-efficiency silicon nanocrystal light-emitting devices" 312:

Luminescent solar concentrators take advantage of the large

34:, including long-lived luminescent excited-states and large 214:

derivative), and laser and plasma-induced decomposition of

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being forbidden because of its indirect band gap. In 1990,

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Canada, Government of Canada National Research Council.

2732:"Multicolor Silicon Light-Emitting Diodes (SiLEDs)" 1966: 1964: 1729:Langmuir: The ACS Journal of Surfaces and Colloids 325:, which can be accomplished by adding a dye. 8: 181:and 30 μg/mL in epithelial-like cells ( 361:or fluorescence resonance energy transfer ( 2887:Lin, Jintai; Wang, Qianming (2015-03-16). 341:overcome the broad luminescence emission. 3009: 2604: 2453: 2393: 2336: 2279: 2222: 2196: 2124: 1996: 1874:Li, Z. F.; Ruckenstein, E. (2004-06-18). 1850: 1365: 1284: 1117: 815: 698: 2309:Journal of the American Chemical Society 1639:Journal of the American Chemical Society 994:Journal of the American Chemical Society 955:Journal of the American Chemical Society 397: 353:photon emission in the presence of the 22:are metal-free biologically compatible 3113: 3111: 2943:ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 2791:ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 2932: 2930: 2415: 2413: 1680:Veinot, Jonathan G. C. (2006-10-09). 1434: 1432: 7: 3047:Sensors & Actuators: B. Chemical 2530:ACS Applied Materials and Interfaces 785: 783: 781: 668: 666: 618: 616: 560: 558: 502: 500: 452: 450: 448: 407: 405: 403: 401: 243:Surface passivation and modification 237:density gradient ultracentrifugation 89:showed that silicon wafers can emit 571:Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 14: 3082:Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 861:The Journal of Physical Chemistry 3124:Journal of Materials Chemistry C 83:conduction band and valence band 2252:ACS Medicinal Chemistry Letters 1536:The European Physical Journal D 1053:"Applied Quantum Materials Inc" 308:Luminescent solar concentrators 56:luminescent solar concentrators 1776:Chemistry - A European Journal 1230:10.1088/0957-4484/19/24/245603 1: 3011:10.1016/j.talanta.2015.07.038 1583:Journal of Materials Research 1317:"Welcome to the Veinot Group" 920:10.1126/science.262.5137.1242 641:10.1021/acs.chemmater.9b01067 513:Journal of Materials Research 431:10.1021/acs.chemmater.6b02667 3290:Nanoparticles by composition 3230:10.1021/acs.langmuir.8b01119 2597:10.1021/acsphotonics.9b00802 2503:10.1021/acsphotonics.8b01346 2166:10.1021/acsphotonics.7b00188 1741:10.1021/acs.langmuir.5b02307 1167:10.1021/acs.nanolett.9b03157 738:Canham, L. 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electronics 3175:2014Nanos...6.2608G 2949:(36): 33478–33488. 2905:2015RSCAd...527458L 2899:(35): 27458–27463. 2852:(23): 11464–11470. 2748:2013NanoL..13..475M 2695:(22): 10337–10342. 2646:2011NanoL..11.1952C 2438:2017NaPho..11..177M 2101:2013NatCo...4.2326G 1892:2004NanoL...4.1463L 1735:(38): 10540–10548. 1645:(31): 11928–11931. 1595:1995JMatR..10..139S 1548:1999EPJD....9..137H 1222:2008Nanot..19x5603P 1159:2020NanoL..20.1491S 1094:2015NatSR...512469W 1000:(49): 11491–11502. 967:10.1021/ja00116a019 912:1993Sci...262.1242W 906:(5137): 1242–1244. 873:10.1021/j100108a019 808:2020FaDi..222...10C 796:Faraday Discussions 756:1990ApPhL..57.1046C 691:2020FaDi..222..149W 679:Faraday Discussions 583:2011PCCP...1320255T 577:(45): 20255–20261. 525:1995JMatR..10..139S 469:(18): 11061–11127. 338:electroluminescence 220:carbon quantum dots 95:quantum confinement 68:lithium-ion battery 48:carbon quantum dots 3183:10.1039/C3NR06271F 3136:10.1039/C6TC01159D 2913:10.1039/C5RA01769F 2701:10.1039/C7NR09525B 2109:10.1038/ncomms3326 1989:10.1039/D0NR00814A 1505:10.1039/c8en00332g 1082:Scientific Reports 817:10.1039/d0fd00018c 700:10.1039/C9FD00099B 591:10.1039/C1CP21366K 270:Biological imaging 105:including silicon 52:biological imaging 40:disproportionation 3295:Silicon photonics 3224:(22): 6556–6569. 3130:(22): 4836–4846. 2858:10.1021/ac403257p 2756:10.1021/nl3038689 2654:10.1021/nl2001692 2378:10.1021/nn301536n 2321:10.1021/ja909303g 2264:10.1021/ml1002844 2207:10.1021/nn305462y 2054:10.1021/nn1018945 1983:(14): 7921–7926. 1939:10.1021/nn101016f 1900:10.1021/nl0492436 1835:10.1021/nn700319z 1782:(15): 4212–4216. 1688:(40): 4160–4168. 1651:10.1021/ja204865t 1457:10.1021/nn4029234 1407:10.1021/nn1018945 1286:10.1021/nn504109a 1102:10.1038/srep12469 1006:10.1021/ja992188w 961:(11): 3145–3155. 750:(10): 1046–1048. 635:(18): 7167–7172. 359:electron transfer 202:Synthesis methods 32:indirect band gap 28:photoluminescence 3302: 3250: 3249: 3209: 3203: 3202: 3169:(5): 2608–2612. 3154: 3148: 3147: 3115: 3106: 3105: 3073: 3067: 3066: 3038: 3032: 3031: 3013: 2989: 2983: 2982: 2934: 2925: 2924: 2884: 2878: 2877: 2837: 2831: 2830: 2797:(1): 1373–1388. 2782: 2776: 2775: 2727: 2721: 2720: 2680: 2674: 2673: 2640:(5): 1952–1956. 2625: 2619: 2618: 2608: 2591:(9): 2303–2311. 2576: 2570: 2569: 2536:(4): 4572–4578. 2521: 2515: 2514: 2482: 2476: 2475: 2457: 2426:Nature Photonics 2417: 2408: 2407: 2397: 2372:(6): 5596–5604. 2357: 2351: 2350: 2340: 2315:(6): 2016–2023. 2300: 2294: 2293: 2283: 2243: 2237: 2236: 2226: 2200: 2191:(2): 1609–1617. 2176: 2170: 2169: 2160:(6): 1306–1315. 2145: 2139: 2138: 2128: 2080: 2074: 2073: 2033: 2027: 2026: 2000: 1968: 1959: 1958: 1933:(9): 5131–5138. 1918: 1912: 1911: 1886:(8): 1463–1467. 1871: 1865: 1864: 1854: 1814: 1808: 1807: 1767: 1761: 1760: 1720: 1714: 1713: 1694:10.1039/B607476F 1677: 1671: 1670: 1629: 1623: 1622: 1574: 1568: 1567: 1542:(1–4): 137–140. 1531: 1525: 1524: 1499:(8): 1890–1901. 1483: 1477: 1476: 1451:(8): 7303–7310. 1436: 1427: 1426: 1386: 1380: 1379: 1369: 1337: 1331: 1330: 1328: 1327: 1313: 1307: 1306: 1288: 1279:(9): 9636–9648. 1264: 1258: 1257: 1201: 1195: 1194: 1153:(3): 1491–1498. 1138: 1132: 1131: 1121: 1073: 1067: 1066: 1064: 1063: 1049: 1043: 1042: 1040: 1039: 1024: 1018: 1017: 985: 979: 978: 946: 940: 939: 891: 885: 884: 867:(6): 1224–1230. 852: 846: 845: 819: 787: 776: 775: 764:10.1063/1.103561 735: 729: 728: 702: 670: 661: 660: 620: 611: 610: 562: 553: 552: 504: 495: 494: 463:Chemical Reviews 454: 443: 442: 409: 304:weighted H MRI. 254:covalent bonding 3310: 3309: 3305: 3304: 3303: 3301: 3300: 3299: 3285:Nanoelectronics 3280:Optoelectronics 3255: 3254: 3253: 3211: 3210: 3206: 3156: 3155: 3151: 3117: 3116: 3109: 3075: 3074: 3070: 3040: 3039: 3035: 2991: 2990: 2986: 2936: 2935: 2928: 2886: 2885: 2881: 2839: 2838: 2834: 2784: 2783: 2779: 2729: 2728: 2724: 2682: 2681: 2677: 2627: 2626: 2622: 2578: 2577: 2573: 2523: 2522: 2518: 2484: 2483: 2479: 2419: 2418: 2411: 2359: 2358: 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A variety of 17: 12: 11: 5: 3308: 3306: 3298: 3297: 3292: 3287: 3282: 3277: 3272: 3267: 3257: 3256: 3252: 3251: 3204: 3149: 3107: 3068: 3033: 2984: 2926: 2879: 2832: 2777: 2742:(2): 475–480. 2722: 2675: 2620: 2571: 2516: 2497:(1): 170–180. 2477: 2432:(3): 177–185. 2409: 2352: 2295: 2258:(4): 285–288. 2238: 2171: 2140: 2075: 2048:(1): 413–423. 2028: 1960: 1913: 1866: 1829:(5): 873–878. 1809: 1762: 1715: 1672: 1624: 1589:(1): 139–148. 1569: 1526: 1478: 1428: 1401:(1): 413–423. 1381: 1352:(1): 105–112. 1332: 1308: 1259: 1216:(24): 245603. 1210:Nanotechnology 1196: 1133: 1068: 1044: 1019: 980: 941: 886: 847: 777: 730: 662: 612: 554: 519:(1): 139–148. 496: 444: 396: 394: 391: 390: 389: 382: 379: 346: 343: 330: 327: 323:solar spectrum 309: 306: 300: 293: 271: 268: 262: 259: 244: 241: 233:residence time 227: 224: 212:silsesquioxane 203: 200: 198: 195: 156:quantum yields 150: 147: 103:nanostructures 99:porous silicon 75: 72: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3307: 3296: 3293: 3291: 3288: 3286: 3283: 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2585:ACS Photonics 2582: 2575: 2572: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2520: 2517: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2491:ACS Photonics 2488: 2481: 2478: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2456: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2416: 2414: 2410: 2405: 2401: 2396: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2356: 2353: 2348: 2344: 2339: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2299: 2296: 2291: 2287: 2282: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2242: 2239: 2234: 2230: 2225: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2199: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2175: 2172: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2154:ACS Photonics 2151: 2144: 2141: 2136: 2132: 2127: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2079: 2076: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2032: 2029: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2004: 1999: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1967: 1965: 1961: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1917: 1914: 1909: 1905: 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Nano 2135:23933660 2095:: 2326. 2070:21138323 2042:ACS Nano 2015:32232243 1955:20738120 1927:ACS Nano 1861:19206483 1823:ACS Nano 1804:24664787 1757:26351966 1710:17031422 1667:21740050 1564:54221721 1473:23841561 1445:ACS Nano 1423:21138323 1395:ACS Nano 1376:35014827 1303:25183018 1273:ACS Nano 1246:21825815 1183:32046494 1128:26198209 936:29770915 834:32478768 717:32104860 607:21993573 491:27550744 381:See also 171:in vitro 123:aerogels 70:anodes. 3171:Bibcode 2998:Talanta 2901:Bibcode 2744:Bibcode 2642:Bibcode 2434:Bibcode 2395:3383901 2338:2836323 2281:3086380 2224:3612549 2126:4154512 2097:Bibcode 1888:Bibcode 1852:2676166 1591:Bibcode 1544:Bibcode 1521:1787951 1367:9721497 1254:8197325 1218:Bibcode 1155:Bibcode 1119:4510486 1090:Bibcode 908:Bibcode 900:Science 804:Bibcode 752:Bibcode 687:Bibcode 579:Bibcode 521:Bibcode 355:analyte 345:Sensing 175:in vivo 79:Silicon 74:History 64:sensors 3244: 3236: 3197: 3189: 3142: 3100: 3061: 3026: 3018: 2977: 2969: 2961: 2919: 2872: 2864: 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