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Lantian was other than a relatively humble one, "he would have attracted the attention of the rapacious myrmidons of the court, and the place would have been confiscated" (Ferguson, 73). Not that the place was not congenial enough or lacking in sufficient natural beauty for the poet, devout
Buddhist, nature lover, and landscape painter Wang Wei, who had in fact erected a Buddhist chapel in memory to his mother there, and certainly had a studio sufficient for his writing and painting needs and comfortable enough dwelling quarters. What Secretary So of the Board of Concern had to say of the matter is not recorded. Wang did continue to possess his retirement home, to read, write, paint, and to receive his invited guests there. The poem reaches its conclusion with the sparse sounds of a local temple bell; and, from somewhere out in the night, the sound of a gibbon.
543:(藍田/蓝田, literally, Indigo Field) home to an imperial inspector in charge of royal acquisitions of parks and forests who had traveled out to Lantian, "Composed in reply to Secretary So of the Board of Concern who passed by the villa at Indigo Field but did not stay" (Stimson, 39). This is remarkable for a couple of reasons. For one, this poem deprecates (though in the tradition of polite Chinese humility) the quality of Wang's Lantian estate, describing it in this poem as a "poor dwelling", located so far from civilization that it is characterized by the occasional fire from camping hunters, the occasional fishing boat frozen to the icy shore, sparsely sounding temple bells, and the sounds of gibbons howling in the night (and thus, obviously unsuitable for inclusion into the royal domains): this is in marked contrast to the playful exaggerations of Wang's and
875:"Monkey", 192). Generally, the Chinese terms for non-human primates are translated as "monkey", "ape", or "gibbon", in English. However, as used historically and traditionally in English, both "monkey" and "ape" are used in taxonomically vague and inconsistent ways, and often with such an overlap in meaning as to be virtually synonymous; "Gibbon" seems to be a relative newcomer; and, "primate" and "anthropoid" together with similar terms have been mostly reserved for use in the less popular and more technical and scientifically specialized literature. The word "simian" has roots in Latin which extend back to ancient Greek, and thus is part of a tradition which predates and defies modern biological taxonomic classification, except in the broadest terms.
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Other examples include life in the environs of the heavily restricted confinement areas often made as habitats for concubines or wives, and the poorly supplied and frequently violent fortified mountain passes and frontier fortresses, cases in which themes of human-environmental dissonance developed into their own genres. In contrast are the natural human environments such as groves of trees or bamboo, pine clad mountains and hills, or upon the surface or by the shores or islands of lakes and streams, which are frequently depicted in the most beautiful words and phrases; and, nature poetry also developed as a major independent genre.
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893:(See, Schafer, 208–210, 234, and note 12 page 328). The use of this imagery imparted an exotic dimension to the poetry in which it appeared, since it implied the importation of dyed textiles of rare and mysterious color from distant lands the fantastic qualities of which could only be imagined, including the dye source for the spectacular red color of unknown origin.
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822:(712–770) in his 200 line "Autumn Day in Kui Prefecture..." makes explicit reference to this. Du's actual term for the chain-forming monkeys (on line 22) is "獼猴" (míhóu), referring to macaque monkeys (Murck, 172 and 279). Du Fu was originally from northern China, and lived in the metropolis of Chang'an. However, this area was devastated in the
623:(also known as Li Po and Li Bo) uses the term 猿猱 (yuán náo), in his famous poem "The Shu Road is Hard" (Stimson, 83). This line (14) is an example of the sophisticated use of simians in Chinese poetry, by a great poet. In this case the difficulty and sorrow of the situation extends even to the monkeys facing the journey on the
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Tang and Song poetry may vary from the way the same words or characters are defined today. And, the modern vocabulary is often not what is encountered in classical poetry, for example the modern term 長臂猿/chángbìyuán for "gibbon". Modern 猩/xīng is used for orangutans, which were relatively unknown in ancient China.
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and the rest of what were then the other more populated areas of China was most frequently done by boat trips during which the poets or other passengers experienced the difficulties of navigating dangerous waterways, above which soared the dramatically scenic heights of Wushan, while their ears were
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references are very obscure. Even many of the great deities and other beings prominently mentioned were barely known or no longer remembered at the time of its first publication. Some of the poems date back an unknown number of thousands of years, originated outside of the central cultural area from
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collection. In terms of geography, sometimes names have changed and it is unknown what specific geographical feature or area is being referred to by a proper name no longer in use; and, in other cases the proper name is still in use, but may erroneously be thought to still refer to what or where it
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Various vocabulary terms for simians are encountered in
Chinese poetry. Besides a certain pre-modern lack of modern bioscientific taxonomic precision, records of Chinese language usage in references to various simian species show evidence of variability over the ages. The terms for simians used in
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bearing the title "The
Mountain Spirit" ("Shan Gui") describes such a being; but, one known only by means of this poem, although various scholarly research plausibly suggests a relationship with the modernly named Wushan, famous for its cloud and rain, and simian sounds (Hawkes 1985, 115). Wushan
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Du Fu uses the image of a hanging chain of monkeys in his poetry, but the image often appears in pictorial art. Painted or brushed in ink, the image of a hanging chain of monkeys linked together by use of their tails typically involves the monkeys (or other simians) hanging over a body of water,
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often invokes images which idealize humans existing in their natural habitat versus the defects inherent in various artificial environments which humans are known to frequently construct, such as ones located in densely populated walled cities or those particularly related to the imperial court.
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collection, in which the pair of poets depict Wang's country home as being replete with a royal hunting park for deer, a gold dust spring, and various other fabulous establishments (Wangchuan was a poetic term used for Wang's abode in
Lantian). As John C. Ferguson puts it, if Wang Wei's home in
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literally means "shaman", and the manifest spirit of its
Goddess was commonly believed to persist there, although perhaps not exactly being the Mountain Spirit of the poem. Typical attributes of mountain goddesses include her transportation by riding a chariot pulled by large members of the cat
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The gibbon type of simian was widespread in
Central and Southern China, until at least the Song Dynasty; later deforestation and other habitat reduction severely curtailed their range. The macaque has the greatest range of any primate other than humans. Scientifically, humans do fall under the
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family, as does the
Mountain Spirit of the poem—simian accompaniment being one of the more particularly distinctive features of this specific spirit or deity. The poet invokes the sound and image of simians while singing to his muse, in the poem's concluding lines (Hawkes translation, 116):
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within that genus. Their range has included all of China (by definition) from thousands of years ago, through medieval times, and into the present; although, with greater population densities near ocean coasts and river banks. In poetry, humans may be metaphorically alluded to by implicitly
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basin. Many of the
Chinese poems from the Tang and Song dynasty emphasize the presence of simian beings, in part, like Du Fu in "Autumn Day in Kui Prefecture", to emphasize the exotic and uncivilized nature which they perceived and associated with the Xiaoxiang area, including the local
319:猩猩 (Hanyu Pinyin: xīngxīng, Tang: *shræng-shræng, Schafer: hsing-hsing) is used to refer to a simian which Edward Schafer believes to refer to gibbons of various species, whose (somewhat mythologized) blood was referenced in relationship to describing a vivid red-coloured dye (the term
391:, thus being both more toward the ranges of various simian species than Northern China but also chronologically from a time when certain simians ranged to a greater extent than in later times. The classical tradition of the poet-in-exile originates with the archetypal protagonist
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was adopted by many other poets over the following ages, and the typical use as a poetic allusion to this theme of exile, loneliness, and under-appreciated virtue and talent developed into one of the major
Classical Chinese poetic genres. However, many of the other
106:", among them being various genetic groups, which although distinguished by modern biology into distinct family, genus, and species, are not so clearly defined either by traditional Chinese language usage, nor by common usage within the modern English vocabulary.
68:, and more. Various poetic concepts could be communicated by the inclusion of simian imagery in a poem, and the use of simian allusions can help provide key insights into the poems. The use of simians in Chinese poetry is part of a broader appearance of
153:, but their range extended considerably north of their current habitat during the times of medieval China. Gibbons are predominantly arboreal, with a specialized ball-and-socket wrist structure. They are also known for their extensive vocalizations.
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Non-human primates have an extensive role in
Chinese culture, including the simian motif in Chinese poetry, which is related to its use in mythology. Also, and in relationship, Chinese symbology holds a special place for the monkey (Eberhard,
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singing sad stanzas of poetry while wandering in the wilderness of Chu, lamenting his fate. The motif of the chorus of monkeys and apes crying in the background to emphasize the poetic mood which appears several times in the
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often at night, and often by the light of the full moon, shown reflected in the water below. Although encountered in Buddhist-influenced Chinese imagery, this motif is more often encountered in Japanese sources.
826:(755–763) and following disturbances. Du Fu ended up dislocated far to the south, in what was then largely an undeveloped area of China. He felt himself essentially in exile, far from home, and in the role of a
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Mountain Goddesses frequently appear in poetry, in the Classical Chinese tradition many of the best known ones being associated with certain specific well-known mountains. One of the poems of the
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577:. This is far to the north of the area in which range gibbons today, but it is evidence that the range of gibbons extended that far north into central China at least through the mid-
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During the Tang dynasty, "Gibbons blood red" was a term used for certain vivid red dye colorings. Several Tang poets used the term in poetic imagery, including a couple of poems by
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which later Chinese culture for the most part developed, and in some cases little or nothing is known about them except for what is found about them in the various verses of the
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impressed by the loud sounds of the indigenous population of gibbons and/or other simians. Wushan is sometimes translated as "Witch Mountain":
302:) tended to refer to gibbons. However, the mainstream of Classical Chinese poetry was not primarily concerned with simian species distinctions.
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The sounds of gibbons, especially at night are often used to contrast uncontrolled wilderness with ordered, human-civilized areas.
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did in the distant past, as name transfers between locations have occurred often, and sometimes repeatedly for the same name.
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Another remarkable thing about this poem has to do with the location of Lantian itself. Lantian is quite the same as modern
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Many mythological simians were also alleged to exist in medieval China. Some of their taxonomical descriptions defy modern
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650:'s aftermath. After being pardoned and recalled from exile, in 756, returning down the Yangzi River, Li Bo stopped at
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also confusedly encountered in this context: 狒狒 (Hanyu Pinyin: fèifèi, Tang: bhiə̀i-bhiə̀i or *b'jʷe̯i-b'jʷe̯i).
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One common image of monkeys in poetry (as well as in painting) is of a chain of monkeys hanging from a tree.
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1154:. Cambridge (Massachusetts) and London: Harvard University Asia Center for the Harvard-Yenching Institute.
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category of simians, and sometimes humans may be the subject of a literary reference to "simians".
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John C. H. Wu (1972:75) has another version of the translation of the third line, which goes:
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comparative reference to other simians: this is generally a pejorative allusion. The popular
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The Songs of the South: An Ancient Chinese Anthology of Poems by Qu Yuan and Other Poets
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incomprehensible languages, unfamiliar Chinese dialects, and rural subsistence culture.
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refers to this (using the character 猿, , for "gibbon"), in a poem describing his
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would prove be an enduring one in Chinese literature through the ensuing ages.
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A Dictionary of Chinese Symbols: Hidden Symbols in Chinese Life and Thought
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Simian, with Chinese character "猴", meaning monkey, ape, primate, or so on.
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Various types of primates are native to the area of what is now known as "
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Text of Wang Wei's "Composed in reply to Secretary So..." at Ctext.org
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From both banks, the steady sound of shrieking monkeys fills the air.
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Li Bai was accused by his detractors of treason for his role in the
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Our little boat has already carried me past thousands of hilltops.
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Poetry and Painting in Song China: The Subtle Art of Dissent
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One common character for monkey is 猴, representing the word
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poems refer to various simians, using a varied vocabulary.
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Sunflower Splendor: Three Thousand Years of Chinese Poetry
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of real or mythological nature) are an important motif in
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One of the earliest collections of Chinese Poetry is the
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Leaving at dawn the White Emperor crowned with cloud,
1029:, imperial consort who met tragedy on the way to Shu.
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Simians in Chinese poetry are a frequent theme. Many
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The gibbon in China: An essay in Chinese animal lore
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I've sailed a thousand li through canyons in a day.
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The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature
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771:My skiff has left ten thousand mountains far away.
768:With the monkeys' adieus the riverbanks are loud,
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774:(NOTE: "Baidi" literally means "White Emperor")
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922:, discusses some of the genres mentioned above.
806:. Kuimen (literally, "Kui gate") refers to the
1140:. New York: US International Publishing, Inc.
964:, a stone monkey who became a living immortal.
503:I think of my lady and stand alone in sadness.
491:The monkeys chatter; apes scream in the night:
278:), meaning "monkey, ape; monkey-like". In the
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1190:. Far Eastern Publications: Yale University.
916:mentioning macaque monkeys hanging in chains.
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1172:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
1136:Lin, Man-Li Kuo and Robert L. Lin. (2000).
497:The wind soughs sadly and the trees rustle.
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1247:Gibbon Research Lab with van Gulik summary
798:A modern macaque monkey at the Gateway of
515:Wang Wei and the sound of the night gibbon
485:The thunder rumbles; rain darkens the sky:
1049:. (New York: Columbia University Press).
631:In Baidicheng, back from the way to exile
387:. It is particularly associated with the
379:anthology, which contains poems from the
80:and sometimes monkey-like creatures from
316:), referring to simians of yellow hair,
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1207:. Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle.
1112:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
305:Other vocabulary distinctions include:
790:Du Fu and the monkeys of the Xiaoxiang
860:Non-human primates in Chinese culture
7:
1235:Journal #4 at gibbonconservation.org
851:Hanging chains of monkeys in imagery
327:is now used as a term for a baboon.
1047:Chinese Literature 2: Nature Poetry
946:, sinologist and gibbon enthusiast.
739:This morning, I depart the town of
641:Wikisourced, in Chinese and English
637:Departing from Baidi in the Morning
1138:214 Radicals of Chinese Characters
290:) tended to refer to macaques and
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759:Another version of translation:
30:of various sorts (including the
1397:New Songs from the Jade Terrace
1205:The Four Seasons of Tang Poetry
1170:The Golden Peaches of Samarkand
1098:. London, New York: Routledge.
920:Classical Chinese poetry genres
1080:. Feltham: Hamlyn Publishing.
743:, engulfed by vibrant clouds.
733:qīngzhōu yǐ guò wàn chóngshān
565:(then the major metropolis of
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1507:Chinese poems (category list)
1035:, Chinese painter of monkeys.
992:, Chinese painter of monkeys.
722:liǎng àn yuán shēng tí búzhù
167:Macaques constitute a genus,
1062:and Michael Bullock (1960).
910:Autumn Day in Kui Prefecture
667:in the Morning (早發白帝城)," by
56:poets through poets such as
1579:Primates in popular culture
1239:Van Gulik, Robert. (1967).
1066:. London: Abelard-Schuman.
838:was located in what is now
711:qiānlǐ Jiānglíng yīrì huán
76:as well as the monkey-like
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1584:Monkeys in popular culture
1255:poem with monkey reference
1108:Ferguson, John C. (1927).
1076:Christie, Anthony (1968).
1023:, genre of Chinese poetry.
974:Monkey (Chinese mythology)
885:Monkeys in Chinese culture
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866:Monkeys in Chinese culture
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700:zhāo cí Báidì cǎiyún jiān
654:(also known as Po Ti), in
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585:Li Bai: monkeys all around
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241:, shanxiao, and xiaoyang.
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74:monkeys in Chinese culture
1126:. London: Penguin Books.
466:flow. Travel between the
280:Classical Chinese lexicon
1574:Chinese poetry allusions
1418:Three Hundred Tang Poems
1305:Classical Chinese poetry
982:, about the Year of the
932:Emperor Xuanzong of Tang
608:Emperor Xuanzong of Tang
531:, Southern Song dynasty.
523:Buddhist advanced adept
433:and commentary from the
1512:List of poems (article)
1150:Murck, Alfreda (2000).
1001:Wang Wei (Tang dynasty)
16:Motif in Chinese poetry
1188:Fifty-five T'ang Poems
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635:Further information: "
575:Qinling mountain range
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441:The Illustrated Li Sao
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205:, and the only extant
149:and north to southern
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1500:Individual poems list
1310:Modern Chinese poetry
1045:Chang, H. C. (1977).
883:Further information:
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750:within a single day!
746:I return to far away
594:Further information:
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381:Warring States period
335:Further information:
274:(Tang reconstruction
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223:Further information:
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1456:Antithetical couplet
1339:Six Dynasties poetry
891:Zhang Ji of Jiangnan
590:On the hard Shu Road
219:Mythological simians
1521:Modern compilations
1411:Complete Tang Poems
1225:Chinese Etymology 夒
1017:, mythical simians.
1011:, poetry anthology.
957:Journey to the West
824:An Lushan Rebellion
678:Traditional Chinese
648:An Lushan Rebellion
612:An Lushan Rebellion
212:nature poetry genre
1404:Nineteen Old Poems
1166:Schafer, Edward H.
976:, general article.
879:Gibbon blood (red)
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683:Simplified Chinese
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187:Humans are of the
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1383:Classic of Poetry
1213:978-0-8048-0197-3
1178:978-0-520-05462-2
1132:978-0-14-044375-2
1092:Eberhard, Wolfram
1078:Chinese Mythology
1072:978-0-85331-260-4
1064:Poems of Solitude
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415:"Mountain Spirit"
308:猱 (Hanyu Pinyin:
175:of the subfamily
173:Old World monkeys
82:Chinese mythology
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1008:Wangchuan ji
1006:
1003:, Tang poet.
990:Muqi Fachang
955:
952:, Sung poet.
928:, Tang poet.
888:
872:
869:
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844:Yangzi River
817:
812:Yangzi River
808:Qutang Gorge
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43:
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38:, and other
35:
31:
27:
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1449:Major forms
1364:Qing poetry
1359:Ming poetry
1354:Yuan poetry
1349:Song poetry
1344:Tang poetry
1027:Yang Guifei
960:. Features
600:Yang Guifei
385:Han Dynasty
345:Song poetry
341:Tang poetry
294:(猿, Tang: *
139:Hylobatidae
1568:Categories
1439:Zhuying ji
1329:Han poetry
1319:Poetry by
1298:Major eras
1040:References
962:Sun Wukong
652:Baidicheng
561:, part of
450:Nine Songs
426:Nine Songs
389:Chu region
286:(獼, Tang:
245:Vocabulary
88:Background
72:and other
1094:(2003 ),
1033:Yi Yuanji
938:Gao Lishi
903:An Lushan
842:, in the
840:Chongqing
832:Xiaoxiang
804:Chongqing
748:Jiangling
625:Shu roads
616:Shu Roads
596:Gao Lishi
203:Hominidae
147:Indonesia
1432:Wen Xuan
1203:(1972).
1186:(1976).
897:See also
567:Chang'an
537:Wang Wei
462:and the
460:Wu River
312:, Tang:
196:primates
157:Macaques
70:macaques
62:Wang Wei
40:primates
1589:Simians
1321:dynasty
1253:Shijing
1168:(1963)
810:of the
800:Kuizhou
730:轻舟已过万重山
727:輕舟已過萬重山
719:两岸猿声啼不住
716:兩岸猿聲啼不住
708:千里江陵一日还
705:千里江陵一日還
697:朝辞白帝彩云间
694:朝辭白帝彩雲間
656:Kuizhou
541:Lantian
393:Qu Yuan
321:fei-fei
231:zoology
207:species
198:in the
163:Macaque
137:of the
133:in the
119:Gibbons
110:Species
94:Primate
78:gibbons
28:Simians
1390:Chu Ci
1211:
1194:
1176:
1158:
1144:
1130:
1120:et al.
1102:
1084:
1070:
1053:
984:Monkey
968:Li Bai
688:Pinyin
669:Li Bai
621:Li Bai
614:, and
571:Shǎnxī
569:), in
545:Pei Di
525:Luohan
509:Chu Ci
455:Chu Ci
436:Chu Ci
429:verse
408:Chu Ci
403:Chu Ci
398:Chu Ci
376:Chu Ci
369:Chu Ci
362:Chu Ci
343:, and
331:Poetry
200:family
183:Humans
169:Macaca
135:family
125:Gibbon
98:Simian
58:Li Bai
53:Chu Ci
36:gibbon
32:monkey
1490:yuefu
996:Qiupu
926:Du Fu
914:Du Fu
820:Du Fu
741:Baidi
665:Baidi
563:Xi'an
296:hiuæn
189:genus
171:, of
151:China
143:India
104:China
66:Du Fu
1209:ISBN
1192:ISBN
1174:ISBN
1156:ISBN
1142:ISBN
1128:ISBN
1100:ISBN
1082:ISBN
1068:ISBN
1051:ISBN
423:The
353:and
300:iuæn
292:yuán
239:xiao
192:Homo
131:apes
96:and
1476:shi
873:sub
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325:Fèi
314:nɑu
310:náo
298:or
288:miɛ
276:hou
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643:)
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