472:, sent a representative to East Africa to look into the current situation and potential futures of gramophone promotion following the merger of HMV, Odeon, Pathe, and Columbia in 1931. The agency suggested a continuous focus on Swahili recording in his report. Siti did record some songs in Arabic, but her Swahili songs received the greatest praise. Although only the relatively well-to-do could afford to buy records, her popularity spread among East Africans of all social classes, and her records played an important role in making taarab music accessible to the general public.
501:. The commercial selling of Siti's voice contributed to the development of the Zanzibari dialect of Kiswahili, which the British later promoted as "standard" Swahili throughout East Africa. Some people praised these recordings for "helping the Swahili language grow can never be matched." Others asserted that the creation of these recordings contributed to educating East Africans about the culture of Zanzibar and its significance on a global scale. The 1956 biography by Shaaban Robert proclaimed the significance of Siti and, consequently, Zanzibar.
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gramophone recordings were widely popular throughout East Africa, data kept by the
Gramophone Company show that her sales were primarily restricted to the coast. Another explanation can be found in the likelihood that listeners in Lumbumbashi or Nakuru were not familiar with the local figures and events that gave these songs their significance. The ability of the music to speak was much diminished without the background to understand the lyrics.
415:(HMV) representative in Zanzibar, encouraged the firm to risk on the creation of Kiswahili records in 1928 and arranged for Siti and the other band members Budda Swedi, Maalim Shaaban, and Mbaruk Alsam to fly to Bombay to record. In the following several years, albums targeted at hitherto untapped markets were promoted globally as international recording corporations began to cautiously recognise the potential purchasing power of
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lyrics, but they did it after soliciting input from the attendees from the local community. Oral sources claim that creation was not a private act, but a communal and collaborative one. Not in the act of recording, where Siti was given exclusive credit as author, but rather in the context of its creation, a process in which everyone participated, was where her music's power lay.
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released on a monthly basis and whose average price was more than twice that of an unskilled urban labourer. The fact that "one of their own" (i.e. poor, black, and
Kiswahili speaking) had been recorded rather than one of the bands from Stonetown that sung in Arabic, the language of the island's despised aristocracy, elevated the stature of even those without a gramophone.
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two of the more volatile flashpoints. Crowds of incensed locals frequently freed neighbours from jail or put a raucous end to court hearings from the 1920s to the 1950s. Residents of Ng'ambo claim that colonial "justice" disregarded the needs of the poor. The interests of the impoverished could only be safeguarded via collective action and advocacy on their behalf.
368:, who loved comfort and luxury. It was an all-male group, as it was seen as indecent for women to join musical groups. Lord Muhsin volunteered to teach Siti to sing, accompanying musical instruments, and Arabic. He then introduced her to the other members of Nadi Ikhwani Safa who without hesitation began to organize various performances for her in the community.
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success. The gossip and arguments happening in the neighborhood where Siti and the other band members lived, worked, and played often found their way into songs. Both the music of Siti's band and the daily lives of the people of Ng'ambo were replete with poverty, the conceited superiority of the ruling class, and the abuses of
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After testifying against Kijiti in court, two ladies who assisted in organising the expedition and providing the booze for it were found guilty of the woman's death (some reports indicate they were condemned to hang). The guilty guy managed to flee from the authorities and make it to the mainland. In
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musical genres were still played and were well-liked. However, commercial taarab manufacturing did frequently assist to enhance local perceptions of
Zanzibar's role as a leader in the Swahili social scene. Siti's recorded voice served as a metaphor for Zanzibar's influence as a modernising force that
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Siti succeeded in elevating the status of
Kiswahili and, by extension, Kiswahili speakers, by recording in the language. One man who frequently visited Siti's family when he was a young man said that these recordings stood for "The importance of Swahili as one of the most advanced African languages."
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100 at the time) that had been spent to advertise and promote these first recordings—HMV invited Siti and her band back to Bombay for another session in March 1929. The 56 songs (28 records) from Siti's first session sold over 23,000 copies by 1931. The group recorded 98 more songs during this second
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Not only are songs from Siti's catalogue concerning colonial courts well-remembered, but I'd argue that these songs stand out in people's recollections specifically because the courts were such an important theatre of conflict during Siti's career's peak. Between 1925 and 1928, as the Ng'ambo ground
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Although vocal requests for "fairness" from the colonial government frequently met with resistance, community discussions of what "justice" meant also found expression in jailbreaks and in Siti's band's music. Numerous of these songs are still well-remembered today, and when they are performed, they
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Older men and women spoke highly of Siti's music in their speeches. However, rather than focusing on professionally made versions, they emphasised the value of her live performances. The majority of
Zanzibaris lived in households that couldn't afford a gramophone, let alone the new records that were
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Although Siti binti Saadi's music has received praise from both oral and written sources, there are noteworthy contrasts in the focus placed on it in the two written sources. All of them emphasise the importance of her recordings, frequently designating the time when she signed her contract with HMV
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perspective that the choice to make music recorded in that language was made. But as Wemer
Graebner has claimed, colonial administrators and missionaries in East Africa, who promoted Swahili taarab as a more "developed" and "civilised" kind of music, also had a significant impact on the practises of
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started to spread throughout Ng'ambo during World War I. Her ability to portray the joys and tragedies of daily life in Ng' ambo through song, as well as her determination to use her performance to denounce acts of injustice that her friends and neighbors were exposed to, were the foundations of her
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Siti binti Saadi may have been a significant historical person, but not because her voice was recorded and sold from
Zanzibar to Kinshasa, but rather because her songs captured the lives, the thoughts, and the problems of their day. Despite statements made in writing by Zanzibar authors that Siti's
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Siti's songs that people have remembered over the past 50 years are either those that echo significant personal experiences or significant events for the Ng'ambo community as a whole. There were many places where the urban poor and the forces of colonial power clashed, but the courts and jails were
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plantations and in the creation of fine pottery. Also, both parents were born in
Zanzibar to enslaved families. Siti disappointed her parents by not being able to master pottery like her mother, but she was still able to assist by selling her mother's masterpieces in town. Zanzibar's population was
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Hard labour was imposed on Mselem in a rare occasion where native and colonial ideas of justice came to converge. The affluent man, whose parents could buy him out, got off more frequently, said one man, "while the poor man went to jail." Court records from these decades have been analysed, and it
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Over 250 songs were recorded by Siti and her band for various labels. Unsurprisingly, not all of her songs were memorable, and not all of her best songs were recorded. One hundred of these song texts were analysed, and the results showed that 20% of the band's songs dealt with social and cultural
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Shaaban's argument was supported by other authors who claimed that "once this voice was heard coming from a gramophone everyone started singing the songs, children, elders, women, and men, everyone was sining Even beni bands started to copy Taarab songs."This author suggests that taarab became a
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had all begun recording in East Africa by 1930. Although the downturn and increased competition caused HMV's sales to decline significantly in 1931, by mid-1931 they had sold over 72,000 records in East Africa, the vast majority of which were recordings by Siti binti Saadi and a few other Taarab
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In the 1920s and 1930s, Siti's residence in Ng'ambo became into a hub of activity where she joked, swapped rumours, assessed local politics, and gathered new lyrics for her songs. The band's rehearsals were public affairs. Siti and the other band members wrote the poetry that made up the songs'
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of
Tanzania during this time, which helped her become well-known outside of Ng'ambo. No ceremony was judged successful, be it a wedding or the celebration of a birth, among Zanzibar's elite, without Siti's performance, according to one author. They received many invitations, especially from the
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described her songs as "the pride of East Africa" and her recordings as "a great light in the darkness" left for future generations. These authors note that the act of recording has the power to preserve spoken words because they are fleeting. They also gave Siti a power as a creator that oral
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of the Arab, Asian, and
European ruling families were situated, by a tidal creek. The population of Ng' ambo more than doubled between 1890 and 1930 as tens of thousands of people, including Siti, left the rural plantations and relocated to the city. Mtumwa binti Saadi, however, left the rural
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When Siti and her band left for their first recording session in Bombay in March 1928, the ground rent strike had almost completely taken over the country. Hundreds of locals turned out for protests as enraged mobs vowed to defend one another from the claws of "justice." They fulfilled their
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frequently serve to reaffirm memories of the bloody conflicts that pitted the African poor against Asian and Arab landowners as well as the colonial government. The conviction of Mselem bin Mohamed el-Khalasi, a wealthy and influential Arab civil official headquartered in Zanzibar Town, was
656:." Tanzanian secondary schools teach this biography, which is regarded as some of the country's best writing. Siti binti Saad died on July 8, 1950, leaving a large void in the taarab community. Many others still sing in her style, even though there is a void that cannot be replaced.
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Her musical career peaked between 1928 and 1939, but she continued to perform until her death in 1950. More female performers started appearing in the previously all-male singing clubs after her passing. Taarab began to be performed more frequently in Swahili than in Arabic.
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Although written versions of Siti's life history frequently portray her as transcending her impoverished background—an icon reflecting the realised hopes of an entire generation—while she is widely hailed by her contemporaries for never forgetting where she came from,
675:" sharply criticized a judge who let a rich wife-murderer go free. She seemed unafraid even of the sultan. Even after her death, her name is still widely used as a model for bravery. The Association of Women Journalists Tanzania (TAMWA) named their party newspaper
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issues made up less than a quarter of her published works, yet they are the ones for which she is most known. There are no company records that would shed more light on the specifics of what was recorded, how the content was chosen, or whether it was subject to
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were significantly decreased, and landlords were prohibited from suing tenants in court. Despite making up less than 0% of the sample of songs I have, those who lived during this time seem to remember songs about the colonial justice system extremely vividly.
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progressively ceased to be considered socially dependent individuals and started to call for acceptance into island society as autonomous individuals. Siti's personal life story echoes many of the most significant changes that took place at this time.
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and Swahili cultural icon of 20th century. She produced over 250 phonograph records throughout her lifetime, becoming the first East African vocalist to release commercial recordings in the 1920s and 1930s. She also added a brand-new dance and
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Mtumwa binti Saadi and others quickly learned, however, that despite the town's limited chances for increased autonomy, prior systems of class, ethnic, and gender oppression continued to shape their lives fundamentally. Siti's reputation as a
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from government accounts in order to pay for his daughter's wedding, many in Ng'ambo believed that God was atoning for the wrongs that he had done against them over the years. For years, Mselem had stolen the property of Zanzibar's poor and
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shows that women were more likely than men to have lawsuits decided against them. Women were routinely advised by European court authorities that their own immoral behaviour was the root of their issues in cases of rape and domestic abuse.
193:," which was inspired by Indian dance. She was a trailblazer as a female performer in the genre during a time when men artists controlled the industry. She performed in a variety of languages, but most significantly in
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Siti's inclusion in the elite and her increasing riches exemplified the era's capacity for change. When she was selected in 1928 to be the first artist from East Africa to make a phonograph recording, her stature as a
562:. During a particularly turbulent time in the late 1920s, when Ng'ambo people organised a ground rent strike that led to multiple conflicts with the state, he was also despised for his role as a government informant.
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grew more intense, the courts were frequently asked to enforce eviction notices against Ng'ambo tenants. Two of Ng'ambo's more infamous landlords delivered more than 500 eviction notices in a single year.
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woman who travelled to Zanzibar to see friends in Ng'ambo. Her death was caused by Kijiti, one of the males in the group who she had been invited by neighbours to spend a night "out on the town" with.
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commitments. Crowds of several hundred men and women liberated friends and neighbours from the control of the police, the courts, and even the jail on at least five different times in 1928.
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tour, which went on to sell 40,666 copies over the following two years. Other recording firms decided to imitate HMV's explosive growth in East Africa in terms of both sales and earnings.
582:. The song gained so much traction that a kanga (cloth worn by coastal ladies), with the name "Mselem's Rock," was printed and featured a picture of Mselem carrying a rock on his head.
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addition to being horrified by the court's decision, this song implies that Ng' ambo locals also had their own theories about what justice would ultimately dole out to Kijiti.
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Many of Siti's songs mirrored the observations of Ng'ambo locals on the resolution of such incidents. The women's taarab group Sahib el-Any occasionally still performs "
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may have perceived her role at these festivities as that of the singing slave girl, in the written folklore she is praised for mixing with the most prominent figures in
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Outside of Zanzibar and even there, Swahili speakers opposed attempts to define the Swahili music for them by comparison. Taarab was a fine type of music, but other
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After more than a year of protests, demonstrations, and assaults on its "justice" institutions, the state ultimately gave in to the public. In years 1929 and 1930,
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thought to be made up of roughly three-fourths slaves or recently manumitted slaves in 1895, the majority of whom worked on clove plantations owned by the island's
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was furthered. Up until the late 1920s, the only commercial recordings offered in East Africa were in Middle Eastern, European, and Indian languages. The
289:, in quest of better employment possibilities, more personal freedom, and a place to start over in life. Siti relocated to a section of the town known as
293:(literally, "the other side"in Swhaili), which was formerly the neighborhood of the urban enslaved and was separated from Stone Town, where the lavish
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387:, and the payment she received for one performance for these affluent guests was more than what the average urban worker would make in a year.
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379:. Most Ng'ambo community members' financial incentives for these performances were much beyond their expectations. She got gifts of
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performers. Given that Kiswahili is and has always been the most commonly spoken language in East Africa, it seems logical from a
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Freeman-Grenville, G.S.P. (1997). "SITI BINTI SAAD". In Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P.; Lecomte, G. (eds.).
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musical language franca that other peoples immediately aspired to acquire through the commercial production of Siti's music.
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Since at that time, education for female children wasn't taken seriously, Siti wasn't able to go to school or attend
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sources did not since they were imbued with the idea of authorship authority that frequently comes with literacy.
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branch. Asian local dealers were chosen to represent, sell, and promote both gramophones and phonograph discs.
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He and many other Zanzibaris saw Siti's records as proof that European and Asian cultures saw them as
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issues, 2% with religion, and 60% with love-related themes. Siti's sharp criticisms of local class and
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not long before she died. He interviewed her for a biography he was writing for a book he called "
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Siti binti Saad rose from the oppressed classes to make taarab music her vehicle, calling for
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named Ali Muhsin. At that time, Nadi Ikhwani Safa was the only taarab group founded by Sultan
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Siti kept up her musical pursuits well into old life. She met the well-known author and poet
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Sultan and the Omani Arab elites, and to perform at various weddings and other celebrations.
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Many of these authors also praised Siti's records for serving as middlemen for Zanzibar's
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individuals, which was a major accomplishment in the colonial era of the 1930s.
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574:. Siti played this song in memory of Mselem's demise after he was condemned to
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Sheikh-Hashim, Leila 1988 "Sitis's magnetic voice" Sauti ya Siti I, I :3-4
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delegated responsibility for the growth of the East African market to its
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Khatib, M S 1992. Taarab Zanzibw Dares Salaam: Tanzania Publishing House
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360:. She had the fortune to meet a member of the taarab group
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as the pinnacle of her career. The well-known Swahili poet
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When the pipes play in Zanzibar, they dance on the lakes
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was the leading exponent up until her death in 2013.
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168:1880– August 1950) was a pioneering
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689:Example on CD anthology recording
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281:Mtumwa binti Saadi relocated to
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853:. Leiden: Brill. p. 685.
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673:The Police has Stopped
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41:Background information
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1033:1880s births
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770:the original
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104:Tanga Region
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1038:1950 deaths
644:Final years
625:rent strike
580:rock quarry
576:hard labour
552:satirically
419:listeners.
373:aristocracy
295:stone homes
1027:Categories
950:2023-09-08
776:2007-02-14
748:2007-03-14
711:References
572:illiterate
515:Tanganyika
463:censorship
391:Recordings
213:Early life
199:Tanganyika
139:Instrument
131:Occupation
47:Birth name
658:Bi Kidude
478:civilised
449:marketing
339:religious
304:performer
266:abolition
187:pantomime
170:Tanzanian
699:See also
590:feminism
440:Columbia
355:Madarasa
343:weddings
234:Nyamwezi
203:Zanzibar
182:feminist
142:Vocalist
134:Musician
108:Tanzania
90:Tanzania
335:whistle
329:" and "
309:British
291:Ng'ambo
259:Wamanga
219:slavery
195:Swahili
67: (
866:18 May
857:
705:Taarab
596:Kijiti
458:gender
442:, and
406:Bombay
317:Mtumwa
238:Tabora
227:Mtumwa
191:natiki
174:taarab
147:Labels
125:Taarab
121:Genres
102:&
96:Origin
52:Mtumwa
851:(PDF)
822:8 Sep
606:of a
604:death
510:Bantu
444:Pathe
436:Odeon
434:HMV,
417:black
381:silks
255:Omani
250:clove
246:Tanga
242:Zigua
75:Fumba
868:2022
855:ISBN
824:2023
602:and
600:rape
331:fife
327:lady
322:Siti
201:and
113:Died
69:1880
65:1880
59:Born
517:to
470:EMI
428:TZS
244:of
236:of
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