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heightens mood. Social attention also functions as a means through which individuals can elicit investment from others. Conspecifics may be coaxed into investing in socially attractive individuals, who can then access more resources, form more alliances, secure mates, and affirm group membership. The measure of one's ability to secure attention and elicit investment is known as social attention holding potential (SAHP). With elevated social status, leadership roles, and access to more resources, those with high SAHP benefit from increased evolutionary fitness. On the other hand, individuals with low levels of SAHP tend to display the submissive behaviors characteristic of ISS such as inhibition, withdrawal, and lack of confidence. Estimates of rank and social attractiveness can be internalized. These internal estimates have implications for one's biological state. For instance, depressive brain state patterns may reflect either a primitive defeat-like state which involves loss of feeling and social withdrawal; or a more submissive pattern with various efforts to elicit investment from others; or some combination of the two.
238:, where territory is limited or escape is impossible, this pattern diverges. Upon losing dominance, defeated individuals undergo a change in physical demeanor known as the yielding subroutine of RAB or the involuntary subordinate strategy (ISS). For example, an early study of farmyard fowls found that despite an absence of physical injury, defeated birds seemed to be paralyzed. Furthermore, with their wings and head lowered to the ground, the birds seemed to experience depressive mood. Similarly, another study demonstrated that defeated lizards lost their characteristic bright colors, then died shortly after. Given the proximity to and dependency on conspecifics, group-living animals are perpetually faced with blocked escape scenarios, as a flight response to in-group confrontation would result in both diminished breeding chances as well as heightened threat of
280:, talents, and special abilities. Social approval of these qualities raises self-esteem, while disapproval can result in lowered self-esteem, loss of status, and reduced attractiveness to potential mates. In other words, with the knowledge that one is valued by conspecifics signals reassurance and orients individuals towards affiliation as opposed to agonistic interactions. Hedonistic interactions are also characterized by the formation of alliances and coalitions, which offer another avenue through which to improve status. In building networks of alliances, individuals dedicate a lot of effort towards ensuring that one's self-presentation properly conforms to group mores and standards. As a result, a great deal of social life entails the seeking group approval which acts to both confirm rank and impart a sense of belonging.
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aggressive attention of dominant individuals. Internal inhibition stimulates high states of arousal, and thus, increased levels of tension in subordinates. Internal inhibition can also lead to the loss of energy, depressed mood, retarded movements, reduced information processing capacity, sleep disturbance, poor appetite, loss of confidence, all of which are characteristic of depression. In submitting to dominant individuals and constraining their own reproductive and resource seeking behaviors, subordinates regulate levels of aggression within the group. It is in this context that external and internal inhibitive behaviors are adaptive.
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be able to prevent the provocation of an attack by a dominant conspecific, or, if an attack is elicited, swiftly terminate the attack. Subordinate individuals are able to accomplish this through submissive involuntary body language, which can include screaming, sideways glances, the fear grin, lowering the eyes, crouching to appear smaller, etc.
118:
to administer punishments and rewards within the group. Ranking benefits the group through the implementation of a social framework that lowers the overall energy expenditure of the group where conspecifics are competing for the same resources. For instance, the acknowledgement of differences in rank
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reveal that when they compete for breeding territory, individuals engage in a specific manner of interactional display, known as ritualistic agonistic behavior (RAB). Opponents confront one another and display various power signals which may include standing tall, maintaining eye contact, or puffing
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of internal inhibition. Like the submissive postures and gestures listed above, internal inhibition is involuntary. This inhibitory process is characterized by the suppression of exploratory behavior and an inability to take initiative, both of which may be the consequences of attempts to avoid the
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Among group-living species, regular fighting is prevented through the inhibition and control of RAB. Within these groups, subordinates are largely responsible for acknowledging dominant individuals through overt acts of submission. Individuals who believe themselves to be in a subordinate role must
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Social dominance by means of attractiveness or heritage has been shown to be essential in determining reproductive success. For instance, it is not strength and aggression, but attractiveness that forms the basis of human mate selection. Human females tend to be drawn towards mates who are able to
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The dominance hierarchy is also an attention hierarchy in that well integrated individuals evoke and secure higher levels of positive social attention than less integrated individuals. Not only does positive attention lower defensive arousal, but positive attention from higher ranking individuals
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Conversely, the safety system views the social world not as a competitive space, but instead as a cooperative space where others may extend reassurances and assistance. Thus, the safety system searches for opportunities to cooperate and connect with potential allies. Evaluations of sameness and
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ISS impedes the capability of the subordinate individual to attempt a comeback and signals to their opponent that they are not longer a threat. Thus, ISS is adaptive in that it ensures that when the subordinate individual goes down, they stay down. Meanwhile, it also indicates to the dominant
135:
distinctions. One's level of belonging within the group is often based on the ability to conform to group mores and standards and has been found to be a predictor of group acceptance, popularity, and rank. It has been suggested that the ingroup/outgroup distinctions may have emerged from kin
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Within the last ten million years, hedonistic forms of social competition have emerged. In hedonistic interactions individuals actively attract conspecifics in order to elevate social status. Status is achieved through the demonstration of constructive qualities such as
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advantages of increased protection from predators and adversaries, increased access to resources, and better reproductive success. With the adoption of group living emerged two psychological systems which functioned to preserve the new
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RAB functions as a means of evaluating the strength, fighting capability, and resource holding potential (RHP) of one's opponent. If one determines that their own RHP is inferior to that of their adversary and will likely lose the
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between individuals shifted from struggles for territory to social rank, as dominant individuals have better access to limited resources than their subordinates. Dominant positions can also equate to high status as well as the
222:, they may take flight and escape unscathed. On the other hand, if one determines that their own RHP is stronger than that of their opponent, they are free to initiate the altercation. Thus, an accurate internal evaluative
501:
Gilbert, P.; Cheung, M. S-P.; Grandfield, T.; Campey, F.; Irons, C. (2003). "Recall of threat and submissiveness in childhood: development of a new scale and its relationship with depression, social comparison and shame".
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protect and invest in children. Thus, for women, attractiveness is associated with status. On the other hand, human males are often drawn towards biologically healthy mates which is manifested by natural beauty and youth.
537:
Tse, Wai S.; Wu, Jayne; Poon, Kai-Chung (May 2011). "Motivation for achievement as perceived resource value in social rank theory of depression: A structural equation modeling analysis".
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behavior. Ranking also functions as a channel through which social control and resources are allocated. Thus, the purpose of the social rank system is to remain attuned the social
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Weisman, Ora; Aderka, Idan M.; Marom, Sofi; Hermesh, Haggai; Gilboa-Schechtman, Eva (June 2011). "Social rank and affiliation in social anxiety disorder".
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is crucial not only for evading or prolonging potentially fatal fights, but also for provoking winning situations which may improve one's social rank.
751:
Wright, Jack C.; Giammarino, Mary; Parad, Harry W. (1986). "Social status in small groups: Individual—group similarity and the social "misfit."".
41:. In this context, displays of submission signal to dominant individuals that subordinate group members are not a threat to their rank within the
205:
Agonistic competition spans back as far as 300 million years, and thus is deeply ingrained into the genome. Extensive observational evidence of
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and hedonic. The agonic mode of interaction is typical of hierarchical societies, in which group members concentrate on defending against
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After assessing one's opponent, territorial species usually react with either a fight or flight response. However, in a "blocked escape"
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863:"Knowing what to think by knowing who you are: self-categorization and the nature of norm formation, conformity and group polarization"
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to status. Agonic behavior is focused around aggression as well as the inhibition of aggression, often through either submission or
341:
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Price, John S.; Sloman, Leon. "Depression as yielding behaviour: an animal model based upon
Schjelderup-Ebbe's pecking order".
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Social rank theory predicts that success within agonistic and hedonistic interactions can have the following effects on human
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Price, J.; Sloman, L.; Gardner, R.; Gilbert, P.; Rohde, P. (March 1994). "The social competition hypothesis of depression".
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Sapolsky, R. M. (November 1989). "Hypercortisolism among socially subordinate wild baboons originates at the CNS level".
188:, where cooperative and affiliative behavior is common. Hedonic behavior is more affectional and is distinguished by
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themselves up. This type of behavior can also be found in humans, especially in the context of a physical contest.
345:
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Shively, Carol (1985). "The
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and reconciliation. Both modes of interaction can be found in all societies, to varying degrees.
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Another avenue through which subordinates communicate their submission is through the
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adhere two main forms of group living characterized by opposing interactional styles:
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individual that their opponent has truly yielded, so altercation need not continue.
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Abrams, D.; Wetherell, M.; Cochrane, S.; Hogg, M. A.; Turner, J. C. (June 1990).
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illness and an introverted, inner-directed mode of personality adjustment
184:. On the other hand, the hedonic mode of interaction is characteristic of
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to better compete for rank, and consequently expand resource acquisition.
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97:. Over time, some species began to live in groups, which brought the
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that locates affiliative and ranking structures at the core of many
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106:: a social rank system and a safety system.
85:individually competed for resources such as
830:Depression: the evolution of powerlessness
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914:. Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Ltd.
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1039:The Behavioural Biology of Aggression
409:Evolutionary Approaches to Depression
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1188:Henry, J.P.; Stephens, P.M. (1977).
1008:10.1001/archpsyc.1985.01790270095011
329:Social adjustment and mental health
148:, having important implications for
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364:, dependent personality disorder,
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1192:. New York, NY: Springer Verlag.
1139:The British Journal of Psychiatry
131:difference are crucial to making
1287:. California: Benjamin/Cummings.
950:Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics
230:Involuntary subordinate strategy
81:Three hundred million years ago
1223:Archives of General Psychiatry
1054:Journal of Theoretical Biology
996:Archives of General Psychiatry
579:Behaviour Research and Therapy
201:Ritualistic agonistic behavior
1:
1334:Brain and Behavioral Sciences
910:Chance, Michael R.A. (1988).
790:. California: Addison-Wesley.
671:M., Dunbar, Robin I. (1988).
356:Low self-esteem, feelings of
338:Schizoid personality disorder
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935:The Foundations of Ethology
675:. Boston, MA: Springer US.
77:Social rank in group living
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912:Social fabrics of the mind
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620:P., Barash, David (1977).
591:10.1016/j.brat.2011.03.010
551:10.1016/j.paid.2011.01.019
321:Result on Psychopathology
1347:10.1017/s0140525x00023992
1298:Richards, Graham (1987).
1120:Ethology and Sociobiology
624:Sociobiology and behavior
302:Psychological application
168:Studies demonstrate that
33:provides an evolutionary
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45:. This helps to achieve
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933:Lorenz, Konrad (1981).
832:. New York: Routledge.
334:Failure in Affiliation
326:Successful Affiliation
267:Hedonistic interactions
164:Social ranking behavior
39:psychological disorders
1315:Primate Social Systems
828:Gilbert, Paul (2016).
673:Primate Social Systems
628:. New York: Elsevier.
196:Agonistic interactions
1317:. London: Croom Helm.
1151:10.1192/bjp.164.3.309
1037:Archer, John (1988).
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718:Brown, Roger (1986).
186:egalitarian societies
1107:. Oxford: Blackwell.
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104:social order
99:evolutionary
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67:pathological
65:. It is the
50:
30:
29:
362:humiliation
353:Submission
342:schizotypal
220:altercation
190:reassurance
182:appeasement
150:self-esteem
138:genetically
111:competition
73:disorders.
1362:Categories
1126:: 85s–98s.
635:0444990291
415:References
381:Dominance
370:depression
158:algorithms
121:aggressive
59:depression
27:Ra volg tv
1243:0003-990X
1208:852792281
1159:0007-1250
1082:0022-5193
1016:0003-990X
970:0033-3190
920:911386423
889:0144-6665
848:956521476
773:1939-1315
699:cite book
691:852790506
652:cite book
599:0005-7967
559:0191-8869
524:1063-3995
477:cite book
469:935679992
390:hypomania
374:masochism
240:predation
224:algorithm
154:alliances
125:hierarchy
116:authority
91:territory
1340:: 1–49.
1268:(eds.).
1175:44702973
738:12237533
607:21497793
403:See also
236:scenario
207:reptiles
170:primates
146:security
35:paradigm
1251:2554841
1167:8199784
1090:4477626
1062:Bibcode
1024:3977559
897:2372667
644:2614371
366:anxiety
178:threats
55:anxiety
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394:sadism
274:beauty
174:agonic
119:curbs
93:, and
1171:S2CID
358:shame
211:birds
1247:PMID
1239:ISSN
1204:OCLC
1194:ISBN
1163:PMID
1155:ISSN
1086:PMID
1078:ISSN
1020:PMID
1012:ISSN
974:PMID
966:ISSN
916:OCLC
893:PMID
885:ISSN
844:OCLC
834:ISBN
769:ISSN
734:OCLC
724:ISBN
705:link
687:OCLC
677:ISBN
658:link
640:OCLC
630:ISBN
603:PMID
595:ISSN
555:ISSN
520:ISSN
483:link
465:OCLC
455:ISBN
360:and
209:and
144:and
87:food
57:and
1342:doi
1231:doi
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