813:: These are layers of organic material. Organic material is defined by having a certain minimum content of soil organic carbon. In the WRB, this is 20% (by weight). The H horizon is formed from organic residues that are not incorporated into the mineral soil. The residues may be partially altered by decomposition. Contrary to the O horizons, the H horizons are saturated with water for prolonged periods, or were once saturated but are now drained artificially. In many H horizons, the residues are predominantly mosses. Although these horizons form above the mineral soil surface, they may be buried by mineral soil and therefore be found at greater depth. H horizons may be overlain by O horizons that especially form after drainage.
987:
penetrate C horizons, which provide an important growing medium. Included as C layers are sediments, saprolite, non-indurated bedrock, and other geological materials that commonly slake within 24 hours when air-dry or drier chunks are placed in water, and that, when moist, can be dug with a spade. Some soils form in material that is already highly weathered, and if such material does not meet the requirements of A, E, or B horizons, it is designated C. Changes not considered pedogenic are those not related to overlying horizons. Layers having accumulations of silica, carbonates, or gypsum, even if indurated, may be included in C horizons, unless the layer is obviously affected by pedogenic processes; then it is a B horizon.
2273:). The presence or absence of one or more diagnostic horizons in a required depth is used for the definition of a taxonomic unit. In addition, most classification systems use some other soil characteristics for the definition of taxonomic units. The diagnostic horizons need to be thoroughly defined by a set of criteria. When allocating a soil (a pedon, a soil profile) to a taxonomic unit, one has to check every horizon of this soil and decide, whether or not the horizon fulfils the criteria of a diagnostic horizon. Based on the identified diagnostic horizons, one can proceed with the allocation of the soil to a taxonomic unit. In the following, the diagnostic horizons of two soil classification systems are listed.
819:: These are layers of organic material. Organic material is defined by having a certain minimum content of soil organic carbon. In the WRB, this is 20% (by weight). The O horizon is formed from organic residues that are not incorporated into the mineral soil. The residues may be partially altered by decomposition. Contrary to the H horizons, the O horizons are not saturated with water for prolonged periods and not drained artificially. In many O horizons, the residues are leaves, needles, twigs, moss, and lichens. Although these horizons form above the mineral soil surface, they may be buried by mineral soil and therefore be found at greater depth.
2076:
etc.). While this can add necessary depth to a field description, workers should bear in mind that excessive division of a soil profile into narrow sub-horizons should be avoided. Walking as little as ten metres in any direction and digging another hole can often reveal a very different profile in regards to the depth and thickness of each horizon. Over-precise description can be a waste of time. In the
Australian system, as a rule of thumb, layers thinner than 5 cm (2 inches) or so are best described as pans or segregations within a horizon rather than as a distinct layer.
2007:
2257:: Rock breaks down, weathers and is mixed with other materials, or loose sediments are transformed by weathering. But the process is often far more complicated. For instance, a fully formed profile may have developed in an area only to be buried by wind- or water-deposited sediments which later formed into another soil profile. This sort of occurrence is most common in coastal areas, and descriptions are modified by numerical prefixes. Thus, a profile containing a buried sequence could be structured O, A1, A2, B2, 2A2, 2B21, 2B22, 2C with the buried profile commencing at 2A2.
1958:
2080:
1792:
1028:: These are either water layers in soils or water layers submerging soils. The water is present either permanently or cyclic within the time frame of 24 hours. Some organic soils float on water. In other cases, shallow water (i.e. water not deeper than 1 m) may cover the soil permanently, as in the case of shallow lakes, or cyclic, as in tidal flats. The occurrence of tidal water can be indicated by the letter W in brackets: (W).
4174:
3809:
4163:
4190:
1898:. These are present only in older, well-developed soils, and generally occur between the A and B horizons. In systems where (like in the Australian system) this designation is not employed, leached layers are classified firstly as an A or B according to other characteristics, and then appended with the designation "e" (see the section below on horizon suffixes). In soils that contain
98:
167:: This layer normally has less organic matter than the A horizon, so its colour is mainly derived from iron oxides. Iron oxides and clay minerals accumulate as a result of weathering. In soil, where substances move down from the topsoil, this is the layer where they accumulate. The process of accumulation of clay minerals, iron, aluminum, and organic compounds, is referred to as
2985:
1879:
2613:
80:
underlying loose, but poorly developed horizon is called a C horizon. Hard bedrock is mostly denominated R. Most individual systems defined more horizons and layers than just these five. In the following, the horizons and layers are listed more or less by their position from top to bottom within the soil profile. Not all of them are present in every soil.
2817:
24:
889:, or both; by coarser texture; or by a combination of these properties. An E horizon is commonly near to the surface, below an O or A horizon, and above a B horizon. However, the symbol E may be used without regard to the position in the profile for any horizon that meets the requirements and that has resulted from soil genesis.
64:. Diagnostic horizons are usually indicated with names, e.g. the "cambic horizon" or the "spodic horizon". The WRB lists 40 diagnostic horizons. In addition to these diagnostic horizons, some other soil characteristics may be needed to define a soil type. Some soils do not have a clear development of horizons.
2037:
R horizons denote the layer of partially weathered or unweathered bedrock at the base of the soil profile. Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely comprise continuous masses (as opposed to boulders) of hard rock that cannot be excavated by hand. If there is no lithologic discontinuity between the
997:
underlying the soil. Granite, basalt, quartzite, and indurated limestone or sandstone are examples of bedrock that are designated R. Air-dry or drier chunks of an R layer, when placed in water, will not slake within 24 hours. The R layer is sufficiently coherent when moist to make hand digging with a
986:
and lack properties of H, O, A, E or B horizons. Most are mineral layers, but some siliceous and calcareous layers, such as shells, coral, and diatomaceous earth, are included. The material of C layers may be either like or unlike that from which the overlying solum presumably formed. Plant roots can
768:
If the characteristics of two or more master layers occur in the same depth range, but occupy distinct parts clearly separated from each other, the master symbols are combined with the slash (/), the dominant one first, each one followed by its suffixes. Examples: Bt/E (interfingering of E material
746:
5. If in a B horizon the characteristics of the suffixes g, h, k, l, o, q, s, t, v, or y are strongly expressed, the suffix w is not used, even if its characteristics are present; if the characteristics of the mentioned suffixes are weakly expressed and the characteristics of the suffix w are present
43:
The identified horizons are indicated with symbols, which are mostly used in a hierarchical way. Master horizons (main horizons) are indicated by capital letters. Suffixes, in form of lowercase letters and figures, further differentiate the master horizons. There are many different systems of horizon
975:
Examples of layers that are not B horizons are: layers in which clay films either coat rock fragments or are found on finely stratified unconsolidated sediments, whether the films were formed in place or by illuviation; layers into which carbonates have been illuviated but that are not contiguous to
1752:
covering many heavily vegetated areas, which contains no weathered mineral particles and is not part of the soil itself. O horizons may be divided into O1 and O2 categories, whereby O1 horizons contain undecomposed matter whose origin can be spotted on sight (for instance, fragments of leaves), and
1407:
A horizon that combines the characteristics of two master horizons is indicated with both capital letters, the dominant one written first. Example: AB and BA. If discrete, intermingled bodies of two master horizons occur together, the horizon symbols are combined using a slash (/). Example: A/B and
1036:
A horizon that combines the characteristics of two master horizons is indicated with both capital letters, the dominant one written first. Example: AB and BA. If discrete, intermingled bodies of two master horizons occur together, the horizon symbols are combined using a slash (/). Example: A/B and
2022:
D horizons are not universally distinguished, but in the
Australian system refer to "any soil material below the solum that is unlike the solum in its general character, is not C horizon, and cannot be given reliable horizon designation⊠may be recognized by the contrast in pedologic organization
79:
Many soils have an organic surface layer, which is denominated with a capital letter "O" (letters may differ depending on the system). The mineral soil usually starts with an A horizon. If a well-developed subsoil horizon as a result of soil formation exists, it is generally called a B horizon. An
39:
surface whose physical, chemical and biological characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath. Horizons are defined in many cases by obvious physical features, mainly colour and texture. These may be described both in absolute terms (particle size distribution for texture, for instance)
2075:
In addition to the main descriptors above, several modifiers exist to add necessary detail to each horizon. Firstly, each major horizon may be divided into sub-horizons by the addition of a numerical subscript, based on minor shifts in colour or texture with increasing depth (e.g., B21, B22, B23
1947:
As with the A horizon, the B horizon may be divided into B1, B2, and B3 types under the
Australian system. B1 is a transitional horizon of the opposite nature to an A3 â dominated by the properties of the B horizons below it, but containing some A-horizon characteristics. B2 horizons have a high
1810:
The A horizon is the top layer of the mineral soil horizons, often referred to as 'topsoil'. This layer contains dark decomposed organic matter, which is called "humus". The technical definition of an A horizon may vary between the systems, but it is most commonly described in terms relative to
2057:
L (Limnic) horizons or layers indicate mineral or organic material that has been deposited in water by precipitation or through the actions of aquatic organisms. Included are coprogenous earth (sedimentary peat), diatomaceous earth, and marl; and is usually found as a remnant of past bodies of
880:
is advanced, because the lost substances first have been formed or accumulated there. All or much of the original rock structure is obliterated. An E horizon is usually, but not necessarily, lighter in colour than an underlying B horizon. In some soils, the colour is that of the sand and silt
2066:
A horizon that combines the characteristics of two horizons is indicated with both capital letters, the dominant one written first. Example: AB and BA. If distinct parts have properties of two kinds of horizons, the horizon symbols are combined using a slash (/). Example: A/B and B/A.
1863:. However, since biological activity extends far deeper into the soil, it cannot be used as a chief distinguishing feature of an A horizon. The A horizon may be further subdivided into A1 (dark, maximum biologic activity), A2 (paler), and A3 (transitional to the B horizon).
465:: Accumulation of Fe and/or Mn oxides predominantly inside soil aggregates, if present, and loss of these oxides on aggregate surfaces (A, B, C), or loss of Fe and/or Mn by lateral subsurface flow and pale colours in â„ 50% of the exposed area (E); transport in reduced form .
1932:
of the subsoil to a degree that it can be distinguished from the other horizons. The weathering may be biologically mediated. In addition, the B horizon is defined as having a distinctly different structure or consistency than the horizon(s) above and the horizon(s) below.
275:
consist of organotechnic material: Have ℠35% (by volume, related to the whole soil) artefacts containing ℠20% organic carbon; and < 20% organic carbon, not consisting of artefacts (related to the fine earth plus the dead plant residues of any length and a diameter †5
764:
If the characteristics of two or more master layers are superimposed to each other, the master symbols are combined without anything in between, the dominant one first, each one followed by its suffixes. Examples: AhBw, BwAh, AhE, EAh, EBg, BgE, BwC, CBw, BsC, CBs.
191:: R horizons denote the layer of partially weathered or unweathered bedrock at the base of the soil profile. Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely comprise continuous masses (as opposed to boulders) of hard rock that cannot be excavated by hand. Soils formed
44:
symbols in the world. No one system is more correctâas artificial constructs, their utility lies in their ability to accurately describe local conditions in a consistent manner. Due to the different definitions of the horizon symbols, the systems cannot be mixed.
1313:
Numerical prefixes are used to denote lithic discontinuities. By convention, 1 is not shown. Numerical suffixes are used to denote subdivisions within a horizon. The horizons in a profile are combined using a hyphen (-). Example: Ah-E-Bt1-2Bt2-2BwC-3C1-3C2.
791:
If two or more layers with the same designation occur, the letters are followed by figures. The sequence of figures continues across different strata. Examples: Oi-Oe-Oa-Ah-Bw1-Bw2-2Bw3-3Ahb1-3Eb-3Btb-4Ahb2-4C, Oi-He-Ha-Cr1-2Heb-2Hab-2Cr2-3CrÎł.
1969:", the surface depth of the soil where biologically activity and climate effects drives pedogenesis. The layers below the solum have no collective name but are distinct in that they are noticeably less affected by surface soil-forming processes.
1747:
The "O" stands for organic matter. It is a surface layer, dominated by the presence of large amounts of organic matter in varying stages of decomposition. In the
Australian system, the O horizon should be considered distinct from the layer of
742:
4. If two suffixes belong to the same soil-forming process, they follow each other immediately; in the combination of t and n, the t is written first; rules 1, 2 and 3 have to be followed, if applicable. Examples: Btn, Bhs, Bsh, Bhsm, Bsmh.
233:
is a loose layer that contains > 90% (by volume, related to the fine earth plus all dead plant residues) recognizable dead plant tissues (e.g. undecomposed leaves). Dead plant material still connected to living plants (e.g. dead parts of
517:: Accumulation of Fe and/or Mn in reduced form by upward-moving capillary water with subsequent oxidation: accumulation predominantly at soil aggregate surfaces, if present, and reduction of these oxides inside the aggregates (H, A, B, C).
382:
Consolidated rock; air-dry or drier specimens, when placed in water, will not slake within 24 hours; fractures, if present, occupy < 10% (by volume, related to the whole soil); not resulting from the cementation of a soil horizon.
787:
occur, the strata are indicated by preceding figures, starting with the second stratum. I and W layers are not considered as strata. All layers of the respective stratum are indicated by the figure: Example: Oi-Oe-Ah-E-2Bt-2C-3R.
253:
is a zone in the soil, approximately parallel to the soil surface, with properties different from layers above and/or below it. If at least one of these properties is the result of soil-forming processes, the layer is called a
83:
Soils with a history of human interference, for instance through major earthworks or regular deep ploughing, may lack distinct horizons almost completely. When examining soils in the field, attention must be paid to the local
2821:
895:: These are horizons that formed below an A, E, H, or O horizon, and in which the dominant features are the obliteration of all or much of the original rock structure, together with one or a combination of the following:
375:
Mineral layer; unconsolidated (can be cut with a spade when moist), or consolidated and more fractured than the R layer; no soil formation, or soil formation that does not meet the criteria of the A, E, and B horizon.
317:
that has at least partly been modified in-situ; soil structure and/or structural elements created by cultivation in â„ 50% (by volume, related to the fine earth), i.e. rock structure, if present, in < 50% (by volume).
51:
systems, horizons are used to define soil types. The German system uses entire horizon sequences for definition. Other systems pick out certain horizons, the "diagnostic horizons", for the definition; examples are the
825:: These are mineral horizons that formed at the surface or below an O horizon. All or much of the original rock structure has been obliterated. Additionally, they are characterized by one or more of the following:
1717:
Numerical prefixes are used to denote lithologic discontinuities. By convention, 1 is not shown. Numerical suffixes are used to denote subdivisions within a master horizon. Example: A, E, Bt1, 2Bt2, 2BC, 3C1, 3C2.
1037:
B/A. The master horizon symbols may be followed by the lowercase letters indicating subordinate characteristics (see below). Example: AhBw. The I, L and W symbols are not used in transitional horizon designations.
268:
consist of organic material: Have ℠20% organic carbon, not consisting of artefacts (related to the fine earth plus the dead plant residues of any length and a diameter †5 mm) and do not form part of a litter
1010:: These are sediments deposited in a body of water. They may be organic or mineral. Limnic material is either: (i) deposited by precipitation or through action of aquatic organisms, such as algae, especially
403:
This is the list of suffixes to the master symbols. In brackets is indicated to which master symbols the suffixes can be added. The suffixes e and i have different meanings for organic and mineral layers.
330:
Mineral horizon that has (at least originally) formed below an A or E horizon; rock structure, if present, in < 50% (by volume, related to the fine earth); one or more of the following processes of
307:
Organic horizon or organotechnic layer, not forming part of a litter layer; water saturation †30 consecutive days in most years and not drained; generally regarded as non-peat and non-limnic horizon.
2777:
Wilkinson, M.T. and G.S. Humphreys. 2005. Exploring pedogenesis via nuclide-based soil production rates and OSL-based bioturbation rates. Australian
Journal of Soil Research, v. 43, pp. 767-779.
523:: Pedogenic cementation in â„ 50% of the volume; cementation class: at least moderately cemented; only used if following another suffix (k, l, q, s, v, y, z) that indicates the cementing agent .
1890:"E", being short for eluviated, is most commonly used to label a horizon that has been significantly leached of its mineral and/or organic content, leaving a pale layer largely composed of
2789:
324:
Mineral horizon; has lost by downward movement within the soil (vertically or laterally) one or more of the following: Fe, Al, and/or Mn species; clay minerals; organic matter.
2768:
Johnson, D.L., J.E.J. Domier, and D.N. Johnson. 2005. Reflections on the nature of soil and its biomantle. Annals, Association of
American Geographers, v. 95 (1), pp. 11-31.
2003:. If there is no lithologic discontinuity between the solum and the C horizon and no underlying bedrock present, the C horizon resembles the parent material of the solum.
1773:
These horizons are also heavily organic but are distinct from O horizons in that they form under waterlogged conditions. The "P" designation comes from their common name,
998:
spade impractical. The bedrock may contain cracks, but these are so few and so small that few roots can penetrate. The cracks may be coated or filled with soil material.
733:
1. The c follows the suffix that indicates the substance that forms the concretions or nodules; if this is true for more than one suffix, each one is followed by the c.
2634:
242:(0 cm) is by convention the surface of the soil after removing, if present, the litter layer and, if present, below a layer of living plants (e.g. living mosses). The
3971:
846:
If a surface horizon has properties of both A and E horizons but the dominant feature is an accumulation of humified organic matter, it is designated an A horizon.
152:
is pronounced, a lighter coloured E subsurface soil horizon is apparent at the base of the A horizon. The A horizon may also be the result of a combination of soil
4007:
2883:
736:
2. The m follows the suffix that indicates the substance that is the cementing agent; if this is true for more than one suffix, each one is followed by the m.
2850:
1014:; or (ii) derived from underwater and floating aquatic plants and subsequently modified by aquatic animals. L layers include coprogenous earth or sedimentary
1936:
The B horizon can also accumulate minerals and organic matter that are migrating downwards from the A and E horizons. If so, this layer is also known as the
1753:
O2 horizons contain organic debris in various stages of decomposition, the origin of which is not readily visible. O horizons contain â„ 20% organic carbon.
1948:
concentration of clay minerals or oxides. B3 horizons are transitional between the overlying B layers and the material beneath it, whether C or D horizon.
475:; in A horizons at least partly modified in situ; in B horizons predominantly by illuviation; in C horizons forming part of the parent material (A, B, C).
1004:: These are ice lenses and wedges that contain at least 75 per cent ice (by volume) and that distinctly separate layers (organic or mineral) in the soil.
545:: Modification by cultivation (e.g. ploughing); mineral layers are designated A, even if they belonged to another layer before cultivation (H, O, A).
3981:
2722:
4087:
3243:
1777:. They may be divided into P1 and P2 in the same way as O horizons. P horizons contain â„ 12 to 18% organic carbon, depending on the clay content.
53:
4059:
3520:
1928:, mostly with the formation of iron oxides and clay minerals. It is usually brownish or reddish due to the iron oxides, which increases the
88:
and the historical uses to which the land has been put, in order to ensure that the appropriate names are applied to the observed horizons.
3997:
1045:
This is the list of suffixes to the master horizons. After the hyphen, it is indicated to which master horizons the suffixes can be added.
286:
The designation consists of a capital letter (master symbol), which in most cases is followed by one or more lowercase letters (suffixes).
2662:
739:
3. The Ï follows the suffix that indicates the relict features; if this is true for more than one suffix, each one is followed by the Ï.
4024:
3226:
176:
C) Substratum: Layer of non-indurated poorly weathered or unweathered rocks. This layer may accumulate more soluble compounds like CaCO
3504:
3036:
3509:
2876:
4052:
3992:
3976:
351:
accumulation by illuviation processes of one or more of the following: Fe, Al, and/or Mn species; clay minerals; organic matter;
3514:
297:
Organic or organotechnic layer, not forming part of a litter layer; water saturation > 30 consecutive days in most years or
4030:
2087:
Suffixes describing particular features of a horizon may also be added. The
Australian system provides the following suffixes:
4035:
4019:
3525:
2908:
61:
2638:
1951:
The A3, B1, and B3 horizons are not tightly defined, and their use is generally at the discretion of the individual worker.
1886:â dark surface horizon on a bleached subsurface horizon (an albic horizon) that tongues into a clay illuviation (Bt) horizon
753:
7. The @, f and b are written last, if b occurs together with @ or f (only if other suffixes are present as well): @b, fb.
1387:: A layer of liquid water (W) or permanently frozen water (Wf) within or beneath the soil (excludes water/ice above soil).
3046:
836:, intimately mixed with the mineral fraction, and not displaying properties characteristic of E or B horizons (see below);
4166:
756:
8. Besides that, combinations must be in the sequence of dominance, the dominant one first. Examples: Btng, Btgb, Bkcyc.
2869:
2269:
systems have diagnostic horizons. A diagnostic horizon is a horizon used to define soil taxonomic units (e.g. to define
3987:
3545:
2006:
1957:
2826:
1924:
The B horizon is commonly referred to as "subsoil" and consists of mineral layers which are significantly altered by
4002:
3530:
2969:
2844:
842:
a morphology that is different from the underlying B or C horizon, resulting from processes related to the surface.
258:. In the following, the term layer is used to indicate the possibility that soil-forming processes did not occur.
40:
and in terms relative to the surrounding material, i.e. 'coarser' or 'sandier' than the horizons above and below.
2974:
1799:
2637:(12th ed.). Natural Resources Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Archived from
703:: Relict features (only used if following another suffix (g, k, l, p, r, @) that indicates the relict feature) .
4124:
3918:
3540:
2832:
958:
alteration that forms clay minerals or liberates oxides or both and that forms a granular, blocky or prismatic
721:: Accumulation of Fe and/or Mn in reduced form by lateral subsurface flow with subsequent oxidation (A, B, C).
691:: High bulk density (natural or anthropogenic), so that roots cannot enter, except along cracks (A, E, B, C).
417:: Buried horizon; first, the horizon has formed, and then, it was buried by mineral material (H, O, A, E, B).
4193:
3535:
3498:
3219:
2903:
2079:
140:
minerals are formed and accumulated. It has a pronounced soil structure. But in some soils, clay minerals,
3812:
3186:
2553:
1219:
1202:: Ploughing or other human disturbanceâno restriction; ploughed E, B, or C horizons are referred to as Ap.
881:
particles. An E horizon is most commonly differentiated from an underlying B horizon: by colour of higher
562:
4183:
3867:
2729:
226:
comprises fine earth, coarse fragments, artefacts, cemented parts, and dead plant residues of any size.
571:: Accumulation of Fe oxides, Mn oxides and/or Al by vertical illuviation processes from above . (B, C).
3948:
3842:
3666:
772:
W cannot be combined with other master symbols. H, O, I, and R can only be combined using the slash.
665:(in R layers related to the rock, in all other layers related to the fine earth) (H, A, E, B, C, R).
2023:
between it and the overlying horizons" (National
Committee on Soil and Terrain, 2009, p. 151).
114:
layerâthe upper part is often relatively undecomposed, but the lower part may be strongly humified.
3235:
3176:
3137:
2522:
2357:
2266:
2000:
1824:
48:
4139:
3786:
3419:
3212:
3132:
3075:
3031:
1653:
1245:
588:
539:: Residual accumulation of large amounts of pedogenic oxides in strongly weathered horizons (B).
57:
1791:
389:â„ 75% ice (by volume, related to the whole soil), permanent, below an H, O, A, E, B or C layer.
2666:
4214:
3832:
3701:
3092:
2939:
431:; only used if following another suffix (k, q, v, y) that indicates the accumulated substance.
4013:
3706:
3169:
2105:
1451:
1069:
428:
1987:. Clay illuviation, if present, is not significant. The absence of solum-type development (
4134:
4114:
4109:
3938:
3872:
3857:
3837:
3771:
3756:
3616:
3112:
3041:
3009:
2854:
2039:
1978:
1811:
deeper layers. "A" horizons may be darker in colour than deeper layers and contain more
4143:
4066:
3746:
3691:
3154:
3127:
3107:
3019:
2964:
2959:
2404:
1860:
1812:
1795:
1742:
1673:
1265:
1119:
959:
933:
865:
833:
682:
608:
472:
339:
331:
314:
121:
976:
an overlying genetic horizon; and layers with gleying but no other pedogenic changes.
148:, organic compounds, and other constituents are soluble and move downwards. When this
4208:
4177:
4080:
4073:
3913:
3882:
3791:
3676:
3181:
3058:
3014:
1533:
1301:
652:
85:
982:: These are horizons or layers, excluding hard bedrock, that are little affected by
395:
Permanent water above the soil surface or between layers, may be seasonally frozen.
3933:
3928:
3903:
3776:
3721:
3122:
3097:
3053:
3026:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2934:
2892:
1991:) is one of the defining attributes. The C horizon forms either in deposits (e.g.,
1929:
1903:
1633:
1375:: Little or no pedogenic alteration, unconsolidated earthy material, soft bedrock.
948:
886:
715:: Human-transported natural material (related to the whole soil) ((H, O, A, B, C).
672:
153:
111:
107:
2704:
1823:. The A is a surface horizon, and as such is also known as the zone in which most
1498:: Permanently frozen soil ("dry" permafrost); no continuous ice; not seasonal ice.
839:
properties resulting from cultivation, pasturing, or similar kinds of disturbance;
18:
Soil layer whose physical characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath
4129:
3943:
3877:
3847:
3781:
3761:
3681:
3661:
3641:
3631:
3626:
3159:
3082:
3063:
2193:
1988:
1984:
1925:
1856:
1749:
1129:
983:
965:
921:
877:
488:
169:
71:). Layers that have not undergone such processes may be simply called "layers".
68:
2796:
2617:
1722:
Horizons according to the
Australian Soil and Land Survey Field Handbook (2009)
796:
Horizons and layers according to the FAO Guidelines for Soil
Description (2006)
4119:
3862:
3766:
3716:
3671:
3656:
3621:
3591:
3457:
3364:
3329:
3304:
3144:
3117:
3102:
3004:
2929:
2101:
1907:
1489:
1447:
1065:
424:
149:
129:
4148:
3923:
3908:
3852:
3751:
3696:
3636:
3399:
3394:
3384:
3319:
3289:
3269:
3198:
3087:
2444:
2270:
2155:
2011:
1983:
The C horizon is below the solum horizons. This layer is little affected by
1840:
1836:
1828:
1663:
1427:
1255:
1155:
955:
than overlying and underlying horizons without apparent illuviation of iron;
944:
929:
911:
882:
861:
662:
616:
612:
598:
508:
450:
356:
261:
The following layers are distinguished (see Chapter 3.3 of the WRB Manual):
203:
Horizons and layers according to the World Reference Base for Soil Resources
125:
23:
2836:
1999:. The C horizon may be enriched with carbonates carried below the solum by
1954:
Plant roots penetrate throughout this layer, but it has very little humus.
156:
and surface processes that winnow fine particles from biologically mounded
97:
2984:
2661:
R.F. Isbell; et al. (National Committee on Soil and Terrain) (2016).
1878:
1294:: Pedogenic accumulation of salts more soluble than gypsumâno restriction.
780:
The sequence of the layers is from top to down with a hyphen in between.
769:
into a Bt horizon), C/Bt (Bt horizon forming lamellae within a C layer).
246:
is the upper limit of the uppermost layer consisting of mineral material.
4104:
3953:
3736:
3651:
3606:
3482:
3462:
3452:
3437:
3409:
3404:
3389:
3359:
3354:
3334:
3324:
3309:
3294:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3164:
2924:
2721:
P.J. Schoeneberger; D.A. Wysocki; E.C. Benham; Soil Survey Staff (2012).
2492:
2248:
2219:
2133:
1891:
1848:
1683:
1523:
1275:
1170:: Strong cementation or induration (pedogenic, massive)âmineral horizons.
1145:
1084:: Dense layer (physically root restrictive)âmineral horizons, not with m.
626:
498:
298:
235:
145:
2277:
Diagnostic horizons in the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB)
709:: Permanent water saturation and no redoximorphic features (A, D, B, C)
3898:
3686:
3646:
3611:
3601:
3596:
3586:
3581:
3477:
3447:
3442:
3432:
3427:
3379:
3374:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3314:
3299:
3264:
3259:
3254:
3070:
2612:
2598:
2486:
2032:
1996:
1995:, flood deposits, landslides) or it formed from weathering of residual
1919:
1883:
1873:
1852:
1832:
1786:
1623:
1607:
994:
188:
164:
157:
117:
3204:
2170:: disturbed by ploughing or other tillage practices (A horizons only).
3796:
3731:
3472:
3467:
3369:
2229:
2177:
2052:
1899:
1895:
1693:
1597:
1473:
1285:
1209:
1187:
1091:
1011:
937:
915:
636:
552:
530:
443:: Organic material in an intermediate state of decomposition (H, O).
360:
352:
195:
from bedrock will exhibit strong similarities to this bedrock layer.
133:
972:
All kinds of B horizons are or were originally subsurface horizons.
1196:: Residual accumulation of sesquioxides (pedogenic)âno restriction.
3711:
2078:
2005:
1992:
1966:
1956:
1877:
1844:
1820:
1790:
1762:
900:
852:: These are mineral horizons in which the main feature is loss of
830:
184:
from non-indurated material exhibit similarities to this C layer.
22:
2010:
Soil with broken rock fragments overlying bedrock, Sandside Bay,
1369:; or accumulation of sesquioxides; or subsurface soil structure.
685:
in the fraction between > 0.02 and †2 mm (H, O, A, E, B, C).
481:: Organic material in an initial state of decomposition; (H, O).
411:: Organic material in an advanced state of decomposition (H, O).
313:
Mineral horizon at the mineral soil surface or buried; contains
3741:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3561:
2999:
2516:
2203:
1816:
1803:
1774:
1768:
1643:
1569:
1393:: Root-limiting subsoil layers of human-manufactured materials.
1235:
1177:
1164:: Mottling due to upmoving groundwater (gleying)âno restriction.
1019:
1015:
943:
coatings of oxides that make the horizon conspicuously lower in
925:
904:
873:
869:
857:
853:
578:
345:
141:
137:
36:
3208:
2865:
2861:
2601:(fourth ed.). International Union of Soil Sciences, Vienna
3726:
952:
2756:
Australian soil and land survey field handbook. Third edition
2616:
Text was copied from this source, which is available under a
1018:(mostly organic), diatomaceous earth (mostly siliceous), and
1058:: Buried genetic horizonâmineral horizons, not cryoturbated.
369:
Nota bene: B horizons may show other accumulations as well.
301:; generally regarded as peat layer or organic limnic layer.
238:
mosses) is not regarded to form part of a litter layer. The
160:. In this case, the A horizon is regarded as a "biomantle".
2723:"Field Book for describing and sampling soils. Version 3.0"
2238:: accumulation of salts more soluble than calcium sulfate.
1708:: Pedogenic accumulation of salt more soluble than gypsum.
1482:: Moderately decomposed organic matter (used only with O).
1357:: Subsurface accumulation of clay, Fe, Al, Si, humus, CaCO
1100:: Moderately decomposed organic materialâH and O horizons.
924:
concentration, alone or in combination, of clay minerals,
1351:: Mineral; some loss of Fe, Al, clay, or organic matter.
868:
or some combination of these, leaving a concentration of
1965:
The A/E/B horizons are referred to collectively as the "
1516:: Slightly decomposed organic matter (used only with O).
1138:: Slightly decomposed organic materialâH and O horizons.
962:
if volume changes accompany changes in moisture content;
645:: Presence of readily soluble salts (H, O, A, E, B, C).
1855:
are concentrated here, often in close association with
1616:: Illuvial sesquioxide and organic matter accumulation.
2618:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
1420:: Highly decomposed organic matter (used only with O).
1052:: Highly decomposed organic materialâH and O horizons.
750:
6. In H and O layers, the i, e or a is written first.
67:
A soil horizon is a result of soil-forming processes (
2038:
solum and the R horizon, the R horizon resembles the
1910:
commonly forms near or at the base of the E horizon.
611:
and/or oxides and/or clay minerals (layer silicates,
2083:
Soil horizon taken from a collapsed/exposed hillside
1440:: Buried genetic horizon (not used with C horizons).
4097:
4044:
3964:
3891:
3825:
3554:
3491:
3418:
3242:
3197:
2992:
2917:
1228:: Illuvial accumulation of sesquioxidesâB horizons.
697:: Deposited in a body of water (limnic) (H, A. C).
211:, 4th edition (2022). The chapter starts with some
2415:Diagnostic horizons in the USDA soil taxonomy (ST)
591:or consisting of artefacts (H, O, A, E, B, C, R).
2705:"Guidelines for Soil Description. Fourth Edition"
1859:. Thus, the A horizon may be referred to as the
1584:: Residual sesquioxide accumulation (pedogenic).
1345:: Mineral; organic matter (humus) accumulation.
207:The designations are found in Chapter 10 of the
173:. The B horizon has generally a soil structure.
3972:Australian Society of Soil Science Incorporated
2754:National Committee on Soil and Terrain (2009).
2728:. Lincoln, Nebraska: NRCS, NSSC. Archived from
2253:Soil formation is often described as occurring
1492:); continuous subsurface ice; not seasonal ice.
4008:National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists
1578:: Pedogenic, exchangeable sodium accumulation.
209:World Reference Base for Soil Resources Manual
3220:
2877:
1590:: Plow layer or other artificial disturbance.
1466:: Densic layer (physically root restrictive).
27:A cross section of a soil, revealing horizons
8:
2692:. Stuttgart: Borntraeger Science Publishers.
2688:W.E.H. Blum; P. Schad; S. Nortcliff (2018).
1652:: Presence of human-manufactured materials (
1320:Field Book for Describing and Sampling Soils
222:comprises the soil constituents †2 mm. The
2579:Bodenkundliche Kartieranleitung, 5. Auflage
2108:, perhaps of iron, aluminium, or manganese.
1399:: Bedrock, strongly cemented to indurated.
581:minerals by illuviation processes . (B, C).
4189:
3227:
3213:
3205:
2884:
2870:
2862:
1815:, or they may be lighter but contain less
1318:Horizons and layers according to the USDA
501:and/or schwertmannite (H, O, A, E, B, C).
2599:"World Reference Base for Soil Resources"
1309:Discontinuities and vertical subdivisions
1186:: Pedogenic accumulation of exchangeable
3982:Central Soil Salinity Research Institute
1244:: Urban and other human-made materials (
102:
4088:Soil Science Society of America Journal
2569:
1510:: Illuvial organic matter accumulation.
1460:: Coprogenous earth (used only with L).
1339:: Organic soil materials (not limnic).
54:World Reference Base for Soil Resources
4060:Journal of Soil and Water Conservation
3521:Canadian system of soil classification
1702:: Dominance of gypsum (ââ„50% by vol.).
1106:: Frozen soilânot in I and R horizons.
2665:(2nd ed.). CSIRO. Archived from
2592:
2590:
2588:
2126:: faunal accumulations in A horizons.
1562:: Continuous cementation (pedogenic).
747:as well, the suffixes are combined.
7:
4162:
3998:International Union of Soil Sciences
2628:
2626:
2048:(not used in the Australian system)
1869:(not used in the Australian system)
1642:: Illuvial accumulation of silicate
1112:: Stagnic conditionsâno restriction.
491:and/or wedge-shaped aggregates (B).
4025:Soil and Water Conservation Society
2228:: accumulation of calcium sulfate (
2164:: strong cementation or induration.
1961:Soil profile of a road in Bengaluru
681:: Containing â„ 5% (by grain count)
3505:Unified Soil Classification System
3037:Soil retrogression and degradation
2797:"Soil Horizon letter designations"
1488:: Permanently frozen soil or ice (
120:: Layer of mineral soil with most
14:
3510:AASHTO Soil Classification System
2142:: accumulation of organic matter.
1626:(in mineral or organic horizons).
725:I and W layers have no suffixes.
459:: Permafrost (H, O, A, E, B, C).
4188:
4173:
4172:
4167:Knowledge (XXG):WikiProject Soil
4161:
4053:Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica B
3993:Indian Institute of Soil Science
3977:Canadian Society of Soil Science
3808:
3807:
2983:
2820: This article incorporates
2815:
2663:"Australian Soil Classification"
2611:
1403:Transitional horizons and layers
1032:Transitional horizons and layers
903:(especially iron oxides) and/or
365:removal of carbonates or gypsum.
96:
4031:Soil Science Society of America
2803:. EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica. 2008
2597:IUSS Working Group WRB (2022).
1827:occurs. Soil organisms such as
1546:accumulation (<50% by vol.).
1278:characteristicsâno restriction.
4036:World Congress of Soil Science
4020:Soil Science Society of Poland
3526:Australian Soil Classification
3517:(French classification system)
2801:EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica Online
2462:Diagnostic subsurface horizons
1248:âH, O, A, E, B and C horizons.
1078:: Coprogenous earthâL horizon.
62:Australian Soil Classification
1:
3047:Soil compaction (agriculture)
2158:, commonly calcium carbonate.
1426:: (proposed) Accumulation of
2176:: accumulation of secondary
1676:within B (used only with B).
1556:accumulation (â„50% by vol.).
1284:: Pedogenic accumulation of
1208:: Accumulation of pedogenic
1154:: Accumulation of pedogenic
1148:accumulationâno restriction.
635:: Accumulation of secondary
551:: Accumulation of secondary
507:: Accumulation of secondary
338:formation of soil aggregate
3988:German Soil Science Society
3546:List of vineyard soil types
2581:. Stuttgart: Schweizerbart.
2425:Diagnostic surface horizons
1264:: Development of colour or
1234:: Illuvial accumulation of
1041:Subordinate characteristics
629:characteristics (E, B, C).
533:percentage â„ 6% (E, B, C).
35:is a layer parallel to the
4231:
4003:International Year of Soil
3531:Polish Soil Classification
2970:Environmental soil science
2690:Essentials of soil science
2633:Soil Survey Staff (2014).
2246:
2186:: weathered, digable rock.
2050:
2030:
1976:
1917:
1871:
1798:, a potential pathway for
1784:
1766:
1760:
1740:
1332:Master horizons and layers
1238:mineralsâB and C horizons.
899:residual concentration of
806:Master horizons and layers
4157:
3805:
3555:Non-systematic soil types
2981:
2975:Agricultural soil science
2899:
2792:section on soil horizons.
2120:: conspicuously bleached.
2114:: root restricting layer.
1800:nonpoint source pollution
1476:earth (used only with L).
1381:: Limnic soil materials.
136:(mainly iron oxides) and
92:Examples of soil profiles
4125:Infiltration (hydrology)
3919:Geotechnical engineering
3541:List of U.S. state soils
2833:United States Government
2577:Ad-hoc-AG Boden (2005).
2261:Diagnostic soil horizons
2148:: sporadically bleached.
1596:: Secondary (pedogenic)
993:: These consist of hard
936:, carbonates, gypsum or
729:Combination of suffixes:
471:: Significant amount of
4194:List of soil scientists
3536:1938 USDA soil taxonomy
3515:Référentiel pédologique
3499:FAO soil classification
2853:April 16, 2022, at the
2635:"Keys to Soil Taxonomy"
1802:, from a farm field in
1713:Other horizon modifiers
910:evidence of removal of
128:. Additionally, due to
3965:Societies, Initiatives
3187:Soil water (retention)
2835:. 1993. Archived from
2822:public domain material
2554:Archaeological horizon
2100:: presence of mineral
2084:
2014:
1962:
1887:
1847:, and many species of
1807:
1552:: Major pedogenic CaCO
785:lithic discontinuities
661:: Presence of primary
348:minerals and/or oxides
28:
4184:Category soil science
3868:Soil salinity control
2530:Petroplinthic horizon
2443:Mollic epipedon (see
2368:Petroplinthic horizon
2082:
2062:Transitional horizons
2009:
1960:
1881:
1794:
1022:(mostly calcareous).
282:are all other layers.
108:Organic surface layer
26:
3949:Agricultural science
3843:Soil guideline value
3667:Calcareous grassland
3244:World Reference Base
2641:on November 28, 2018
2371:Pisoplinthic horizon
1606:: Weathered or soft
980:C horizons or layers
876:particles. However,
817:O horizons or layers
811:H horizons or layers
653:cryogenic alteration
273:Organotechnic layers
244:mineral soil surface
4045:Scientific journals
3236:Soil classification
3177:Soil organic matter
3138:Pore water pressure
2839:on August 23, 2003.
2758:. CSIRO, Melbourne.
2527:Petrogypsic horizon
2523:Petrocalcic Horizon
2383:Protovertic horizon
2365:Petrogypsic horizon
2358:Petrocalcic horizon
2267:soil classification
2212:: weak development.
1825:biological activity
1806:during a rain storm
1572:(used only with L).
984:pedogenic processes
829:an accumulation of
760:Transitional layers
675:†0.9 kg dm-3 (B).
655:(H, O, A, E, B, C).
511:(H, O, A, E, B, C).
213:general definitions
49:soil classification
4140:Impervious surface
3420:USDA soil taxonomy
3246:for Soil Resources
3133:Pore space in soil
3076:Soil acidification
3032:Soil contamination
2846:Soil Survey Manual
2828:Soil Survey Manual
2735:on August 29, 2017
2431:Anthropic epipedon
2362:Petroduric horizon
2291:Anthraquic horizon
2202:: accumulation of
2154:: accumulation of
2085:
2015:
1963:
1888:
1808:
1692:: Accumulation of
1132:âmineral horizons.
1122:âmineral horizons.
1118:: Accumulation of
1072:âmineral horizons.
577:: Accumulation of
497:: Accumulation of
58:USDA soil taxonomy
29:
4202:
4201:
3833:Soil conservation
3819:
3818:
3093:Soil biodiversity
2940:Soil microbiology
2843:Current version:
2669:on April 16, 2019
2434:Folistic epipedon
2336:Hydragric horizon
2094:: buried horizon.
1365:; or loss of CaCO
200:
199:
124:accumulation and
4222:
4192:
4191:
4176:
4175:
4165:
4164:
4014:OPAL Soil Centre
3811:
3810:
3707:Hydrophobic soil
3229:
3222:
3215:
3206:
3170:Soil respiration
2987:
2886:
2879:
2872:
2863:
2840:
2819:
2818:
2812:
2810:
2808:
2778:
2775:
2769:
2766:
2760:
2759:
2751:
2745:
2744:
2742:
2740:
2734:
2727:
2718:
2712:
2711:
2709:
2700:
2694:
2693:
2685:
2679:
2678:
2676:
2674:
2658:
2652:
2650:
2648:
2646:
2630:
2621:
2615:
2610:
2608:
2606:
2594:
2583:
2582:
2574:
2477:Argillic horizon
2474:Anhydric horizon
2456:Umbric epidpedon
2453:Plaggen epipedon
2440:Melanic epipedon
2401:Tsitelic horizon
2377:Plinthic horizon
2339:Irragric horizon
2315:Ferralic horizon
2071:Horizon suffixes
2058:standing water.
1902:, due to animal
1835:(enchytraeids),
1686:characteristics.
1672:: Weak color or
1542:: Pedogenic CaCO
1412:Horizon suffixes
1304:âno restriction.
1288:âno restriction.
1258:âno restriction.
1254:: Occurrence of
1222:âno restriction.
1212:âno restriction.
1190:âno restriction.
1158:âno restriction.
1094:earthâL horizon.
683:volcanic glasses
103:
100:
75:Horizon sequence
4230:
4229:
4225:
4224:
4223:
4221:
4220:
4219:
4205:
4204:
4203:
4198:
4153:
4135:Crust (geology)
4115:Land management
4110:Land conversion
4093:
4040:
3960:
3939:Earth materials
3887:
3873:Erosion control
3858:Soil governance
3838:Soil management
3821:
3820:
3815:
3801:
3772:Subaqueous soil
3757:Serpentine soil
3617:Parent material
3550:
3487:
3414:
3245:
3238:
3233:
3193:
3113:Soil resilience
3042:Soil compaction
3010:Soil morphology
2988:
2979:
2913:
2895:
2890:
2855:Wayback Machine
2825:
2816:
2806:
2804:
2795:
2786:
2784:General sources
2781:
2776:
2772:
2767:
2763:
2753:
2752:
2748:
2738:
2736:
2732:
2725:
2720:
2719:
2715:
2707:
2702:
2701:
2697:
2687:
2686:
2682:
2672:
2670:
2660:
2659:
2655:
2644:
2642:
2632:
2631:
2624:
2604:
2602:
2596:
2595:
2586:
2576:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2562:
2550:
2545:
2539:Sombric horizon
2498:Glossic horizon
2459:
2450:Ochric epipedon
2437:Histic epipedon
2417:
2412:
2398:Thionic horizon
2389:Sombric horizon
2374:Plaggic horizon
2354:Panpaic horizon
2342:Limonic horizon
2306:Cohesic horizon
2303:Chernic horizon
2279:
2263:
2251:
2245:
2073:
2064:
2055:
2040:parent material
2035:
1981:
1979:Parent material
1922:
1876:
1789:
1771:
1765:
1745:
1734:
1724:
1715:
1555:
1545:
1433:
1414:
1405:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1334:
1324:
1311:
1043:
1034:
951:, or redder in
808:
798:
778:
776:Layer sequences
762:
607:: Formation of
529:: Exchangeable
437:: Drained (H).
401:
292:
205:
180:. Soils formed
179:
94:
77:
19:
12:
11:
5:
4228:
4226:
4218:
4217:
4207:
4206:
4200:
4199:
4197:
4196:
4186:
4180:
4169:
4158:
4155:
4154:
4152:
4151:
4146:
4144:Surface runoff
4137:
4132:
4127:
4122:
4117:
4112:
4107:
4101:
4099:
4095:
4094:
4092:
4091:
4084:
4077:
4070:
4067:Plant and Soil
4063:
4056:
4048:
4046:
4042:
4041:
4039:
4038:
4033:
4028:
4022:
4017:
4011:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3990:
3985:
3979:
3974:
3968:
3966:
3962:
3961:
3959:
3958:
3957:
3956:
3946:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3926:
3921:
3916:
3911:
3906:
3901:
3895:
3893:
3892:Related fields
3889:
3888:
3886:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3829:
3827:
3823:
3822:
3817:
3816:
3806:
3803:
3802:
3800:
3799:
3794:
3789:
3784:
3779:
3774:
3769:
3764:
3759:
3754:
3749:
3747:Prime farmland
3744:
3739:
3734:
3729:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3704:
3702:Fuller's earth
3699:
3694:
3692:Expansive clay
3689:
3684:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3659:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3609:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3584:
3579:
3574:
3569:
3564:
3558:
3556:
3552:
3551:
3549:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3518:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3495:
3493:
3489:
3488:
3486:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3424:
3422:
3416:
3415:
3413:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3257:
3251:
3249:
3240:
3239:
3234:
3232:
3231:
3224:
3217:
3209:
3203:
3201:
3195:
3194:
3192:
3191:
3190:
3189:
3179:
3174:
3173:
3172:
3162:
3157:
3155:Soil biomantle
3152:
3147:
3142:
3141:
3140:
3135:
3128:Soil structure
3125:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3108:Soil fertility
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3079:
3078:
3068:
3067:
3066:
3056:
3051:
3050:
3049:
3039:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3023:
3022:
3020:Soil formation
3017:
3012:
3002:
2996:
2994:
2990:
2989:
2982:
2980:
2978:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2965:Soil chemistry
2962:
2960:Soil mechanics
2957:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2921:
2919:
2915:
2914:
2912:
2911:
2906:
2900:
2897:
2896:
2891:
2889:
2888:
2881:
2874:
2866:
2860:
2859:
2858:
2857:
2813:
2793:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2779:
2770:
2761:
2746:
2713:
2695:
2680:
2653:
2622:
2584:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2557:
2556:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2543:
2542:Spodic horizon
2540:
2537:
2534:
2533:Placic horizon
2531:
2528:
2525:
2520:
2514:
2513:Ortstein layer
2511:
2508:
2507:Natric horizon
2505:
2504:Kandic horizon
2502:
2501:Gypsic horizon
2499:
2496:
2490:
2484:
2483:Cambic horizon
2481:
2480:Calcic horizon
2478:
2475:
2472:
2469:
2465:
2464:
2463:
2458:
2457:
2454:
2451:
2448:
2441:
2438:
2435:
2432:
2428:
2427:
2426:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2410:
2409:Vertic horizon
2407:
2405:Umbric horizon
2402:
2399:
2396:
2395:Terric horizon
2393:
2392:Spodic horizon
2390:
2387:
2384:
2381:
2380:Pretic horizon
2378:
2375:
2372:
2369:
2366:
2363:
2360:
2355:
2352:
2349:
2348:Natric horizon
2346:
2345:Mollic horizon
2343:
2340:
2337:
2334:
2333:Hortic horizon
2331:
2330:Histic horizon
2328:
2327:Gypsic horizon
2325:
2324:Fragic horizon
2322:
2319:
2318:Ferric horizon
2316:
2313:
2310:
2307:
2304:
2301:
2300:Cambic horizon
2298:
2297:Calcic horizon
2295:
2292:
2289:
2285:
2278:
2275:
2262:
2259:
2247:Main article:
2244:
2241:
2240:
2239:
2233:
2223:
2213:
2207:
2197:
2187:
2181:
2171:
2165:
2159:
2149:
2143:
2137:
2127:
2121:
2115:
2109:
2095:
2072:
2069:
2063:
2060:
2051:Main article:
2042:of the solum.
2031:Main article:
1977:Main article:
1918:Main article:
1872:Main article:
1813:organic matter
1796:Surface runoff
1785:Main article:
1761:Main article:
1743:Organic matter
1741:Main article:
1733:
1730:
1723:
1720:
1714:
1711:
1710:
1709:
1703:
1697:
1687:
1677:
1667:
1657:
1647:
1637:
1627:
1622:: Presence of
1617:
1611:
1601:
1591:
1585:
1579:
1573:
1563:
1557:
1553:
1547:
1543:
1537:
1532:: Evidence of
1527:
1517:
1511:
1505:
1504:: Strong gley.
1499:
1493:
1483:
1477:
1467:
1461:
1455:
1441:
1435:
1431:
1421:
1413:
1410:
1404:
1401:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1333:
1330:
1323:
1316:
1310:
1307:
1306:
1305:
1300:: Evidence of
1295:
1289:
1279:
1269:
1259:
1249:
1239:
1229:
1223:
1213:
1203:
1197:
1191:
1181:
1171:
1165:
1159:
1149:
1139:
1133:
1123:
1120:organic matter
1113:
1107:
1101:
1095:
1085:
1079:
1073:
1059:
1053:
1042:
1039:
1033:
1030:
970:
969:
963:
956:
941:
934:organic matter
919:
908:
866:organic matter
844:
843:
840:
837:
834:organic matter
807:
804:
797:
794:
777:
774:
761:
758:
723:
722:
716:
710:
704:
698:
692:
686:
676:
666:
656:
646:
640:
630:
620:
609:soil structure
602:
592:
582:
572:
566:
556:
546:
540:
534:
524:
518:
512:
502:
492:
482:
476:
473:organic matter
466:
460:
454:
444:
438:
432:
418:
412:
400:
397:
367:
366:
363:
349:
342:
332:soil formation
315:organic matter
291:
290:Master symbols
288:
284:
283:
280:Mineral layers
277:
270:
266:Organic layers
204:
201:
198:
197:
177:
122:organic matter
93:
90:
76:
73:
17:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4227:
4216:
4213:
4212:
4210:
4195:
4187:
4185:
4181:
4179:
4178:Category soil
4170:
4168:
4160:
4159:
4156:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4102:
4100:
4096:
4090:
4089:
4085:
4083:
4082:
4081:Soil Research
4078:
4076:
4075:
4074:Pochvovedenie
4071:
4069:
4068:
4064:
4062:
4061:
4057:
4055:
4054:
4050:
4049:
4047:
4043:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4015:
4012:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3969:
3967:
3963:
3955:
3952:
3951:
3950:
3947:
3945:
3942:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3927:
3925:
3922:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3914:Geomorphology
3912:
3910:
3907:
3905:
3902:
3900:
3897:
3896:
3894:
3890:
3884:
3883:Liming (soil)
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3830:
3828:
3824:
3814:
3813:Types of soil
3804:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3792:Tropical peat
3790:
3788:
3785:
3783:
3780:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3740:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3677:Dry quicksand
3675:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3663:
3660:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3615:
3613:
3610:
3608:
3605:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3563:
3560:
3559:
3557:
3553:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3500:
3497:
3496:
3494:
3492:Other systems
3490:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3461:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3425:
3423:
3421:
3417:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3241:
3237:
3230:
3225:
3223:
3218:
3216:
3211:
3210:
3207:
3202:
3200:
3196:
3188:
3185:
3184:
3183:
3182:Soil moisture
3180:
3178:
3175:
3171:
3168:
3167:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3130:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3077:
3074:
3073:
3072:
3069:
3065:
3062:
3061:
3060:
3059:Soil salinity
3057:
3055:
3052:
3048:
3045:
3044:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3015:Pedodiversity
3013:
3011:
3008:
3007:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2997:
2995:
2991:
2986:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2922:
2920:
2916:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2901:
2898:
2894:
2887:
2882:
2880:
2875:
2873:
2868:
2867:
2864:
2856:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2842:
2841:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2829:
2823:
2814:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2791:
2788:
2787:
2783:
2774:
2771:
2765:
2762:
2757:
2750:
2747:
2731:
2724:
2717:
2714:
2706:
2699:
2696:
2691:
2684:
2681:
2668:
2664:
2657:
2654:
2640:
2636:
2629:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2614:
2600:
2593:
2591:
2589:
2585:
2580:
2573:
2570:
2564:
2559:
2555:
2552:
2551:
2547:
2541:
2538:
2536:Salic horizon
2535:
2532:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2518:
2515:
2512:
2510:Nitic horizon
2509:
2506:
2503:
2500:
2497:
2494:
2491:
2488:
2485:
2482:
2479:
2476:
2473:
2471:Albic horizon
2470:
2468:Agric horizon
2467:
2466:
2461:
2460:
2455:
2452:
2449:
2446:
2442:
2439:
2436:
2433:
2430:
2429:
2424:
2423:
2422:
2421:
2414:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2400:
2397:
2394:
2391:
2388:
2386:Salic horizon
2385:
2382:
2379:
2376:
2373:
2370:
2367:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2353:
2351:Nitic horizon
2350:
2347:
2344:
2341:
2338:
2335:
2332:
2329:
2326:
2323:
2321:Folic horizon
2320:
2317:
2314:
2312:Duric horizon
2311:
2309:Cryic horizon
2308:
2305:
2302:
2299:
2296:
2294:Argic horizon
2293:
2290:
2288:Albic horizon
2287:
2286:
2284:
2283:
2276:
2274:
2272:
2268:
2260:
2258:
2256:
2250:
2242:
2237:
2234:
2231:
2227:
2224:
2221:
2217:
2214:
2211:
2208:
2205:
2201:
2198:
2196:accumulation.
2195:
2191:
2188:
2185:
2182:
2179:
2175:
2172:
2169:
2166:
2163:
2160:
2157:
2153:
2150:
2147:
2144:
2141:
2138:
2135:
2131:
2128:
2125:
2122:
2119:
2116:
2113:
2110:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2096:
2093:
2090:
2089:
2088:
2081:
2077:
2070:
2068:
2061:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2047:
2043:
2041:
2034:
2029:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2019:
2013:
2008:
2004:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1980:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1968:
1959:
1955:
1952:
1949:
1945:
1943:
1939:
1934:
1931:
1927:
1921:
1916:
1915:
1911:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1868:
1864:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1819:or pedogenic
1818:
1814:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1788:
1783:
1782:
1778:
1776:
1770:
1764:
1759:
1758:
1754:
1751:
1744:
1739:
1738:
1731:
1729:
1728:
1721:
1719:
1712:
1707:
1704:
1701:
1698:
1695:
1691:
1688:
1685:
1681:
1678:
1675:
1671:
1668:
1665:
1661:
1658:
1655:
1651:
1648:
1645:
1641:
1638:
1635:
1631:
1628:
1625:
1621:
1618:
1615:
1612:
1609:
1605:
1602:
1600:accumulation.
1599:
1595:
1592:
1589:
1586:
1583:
1580:
1577:
1574:
1571:
1567:
1564:
1561:
1558:
1551:
1548:
1541:
1538:
1535:
1534:cryoturbation
1531:
1528:
1526:accumulation.
1525:
1521:
1518:
1515:
1512:
1509:
1506:
1503:
1500:
1497:
1494:
1491:
1487:
1484:
1481:
1478:
1475:
1471:
1468:
1465:
1462:
1459:
1456:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1442:
1439:
1436:
1429:
1425:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1415:
1411:
1409:
1402:
1400:
1398:
1394:
1392:
1388:
1386:
1382:
1380:
1376:
1374:
1370:
1356:
1352:
1350:
1346:
1344:
1340:
1338:
1331:
1329:
1328:
1321:
1317:
1315:
1308:
1303:
1302:cryoturbation
1299:
1296:
1293:
1290:
1287:
1283:
1280:
1277:
1273:
1270:
1267:
1263:
1260:
1257:
1253:
1250:
1247:
1243:
1240:
1237:
1233:
1230:
1227:
1224:
1221:
1217:
1214:
1211:
1207:
1204:
1201:
1198:
1195:
1192:
1189:
1185:
1182:
1179:
1175:
1172:
1169:
1166:
1163:
1160:
1157:
1153:
1150:
1147:
1143:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1127:
1124:
1121:
1117:
1114:
1111:
1108:
1105:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1089:
1086:
1083:
1080:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1060:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1048:
1047:
1046:
1040:
1038:
1031:
1029:
1027:
1023:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1003:
999:
996:
992:
988:
985:
981:
977:
973:
967:
964:
961:
957:
954:
950:
946:
942:
939:
935:
931:
927:
923:
920:
917:
913:
909:
906:
902:
898:
897:
896:
894:
890:
888:
884:
879:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
841:
838:
835:
832:
828:
827:
826:
824:
820:
818:
814:
812:
805:
803:
802:
795:
793:
789:
786:
781:
775:
773:
770:
766:
759:
757:
754:
751:
748:
744:
740:
737:
734:
731:
730:
726:
720:
717:
714:
711:
708:
705:
702:
699:
696:
693:
690:
687:
684:
680:
677:
674:
670:
667:
664:
660:
657:
654:
650:
647:
644:
641:
639:(A, E, B, C).
638:
634:
631:
628:
624:
621:
618:
614:
610:
606:
603:
600:
596:
593:
590:
587:: Containing
586:
583:
580:
576:
573:
570:
567:
565:(A, E, B, C).
564:
560:
557:
555:(A, E, B, C).
554:
550:
547:
544:
541:
538:
535:
532:
528:
525:
522:
519:
516:
513:
510:
506:
503:
500:
496:
493:
490:
486:
483:
480:
477:
474:
470:
467:
464:
461:
458:
455:
452:
448:
445:
442:
439:
436:
433:
430:
426:
422:
419:
416:
413:
410:
407:
406:
405:
398:
396:
394:
390:
388:
384:
381:
377:
374:
370:
364:
362:
358:
354:
350:
347:
344:formation of
343:
341:
337:
336:
335:
333:
329:
325:
323:
319:
316:
312:
308:
306:
302:
300:
296:
289:
287:
281:
278:
274:
271:
267:
264:
263:
262:
259:
257:
252:
247:
245:
241:
237:
232:
227:
225:
221:
216:
214:
210:
202:
196:
194:
190:
185:
183:
174:
172:
171:
166:
161:
159:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
113:
109:
105:
104:
101:
99:
91:
89:
87:
86:geomorphology
81:
74:
72:
70:
65:
63:
59:
55:
50:
45:
41:
38:
34:
25:
21:
16:
4086:
4079:
4072:
4065:
4058:
4051:
3934:Biogeography
3929:Hydrogeology
3904:Geochemistry
3826:Applications
3722:Martian soil
3150:Soil horizon
3149:
3123:Soil texture
3098:Soil quality
3054:Soil sealing
3027:Soil erosion
2955:Soil physics
2950:Soil ecology
2945:Soil zoology
2935:Soil biology
2893:Soil science
2848:(March 2017)
2845:
2837:the original
2827:
2805:. Retrieved
2800:
2773:
2764:
2755:
2749:
2737:. Retrieved
2730:the original
2716:
2710:. FAO, Rome.
2703:FAO (2006).
2698:
2689:
2683:
2673:February 11,
2671:. Retrieved
2667:the original
2656:
2643:. Retrieved
2639:the original
2605:November 21,
2603:. Retrieved
2578:
2572:
2419:
2418:
2281:
2280:
2264:
2254:
2252:
2243:Buried soils
2235:
2225:
2215:
2209:
2199:
2189:
2183:
2173:
2167:
2161:
2151:
2145:
2139:
2129:
2123:
2117:
2111:
2097:
2091:
2086:
2074:
2065:
2056:
2045:
2044:
2036:
2026:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2016:
1982:
1972:
1971:
1964:
1953:
1950:
1946:
1941:
1937:
1935:
1923:
1913:
1912:
1904:bioturbation
1889:
1866:
1865:
1809:
1780:
1779:
1772:
1756:
1755:
1746:
1736:
1735:
1726:
1725:
1716:
1705:
1699:
1689:
1679:
1669:
1659:
1649:
1639:
1634:Slickensides
1629:
1619:
1613:
1603:
1593:
1587:
1581:
1575:
1565:
1559:
1549:
1539:
1529:
1519:
1513:
1507:
1501:
1495:
1485:
1479:
1474:Diatomaceous
1469:
1463:
1457:
1443:
1437:
1423:
1417:
1406:
1396:
1395:
1390:
1389:
1384:
1383:
1378:
1377:
1372:
1371:
1354:
1353:
1348:
1347:
1342:
1341:
1336:
1335:
1326:
1325:
1319:
1312:
1297:
1291:
1281:
1271:
1268:âB horizons.
1261:
1251:
1241:
1231:
1225:
1215:
1205:
1199:
1193:
1183:
1173:
1167:
1161:
1151:
1141:
1135:
1130:Slickensides
1125:
1115:
1109:
1103:
1097:
1092:Diatomaceous
1087:
1081:
1075:
1061:
1055:
1049:
1044:
1035:
1025:
1024:
1007:
1006:
1001:
1000:
990:
989:
979:
978:
974:
971:
947:, higher in
892:
891:
849:
848:
845:
822:
821:
816:
815:
810:
809:
800:
799:
790:
784:
782:
779:
771:
767:
763:
755:
752:
749:
745:
741:
738:
735:
732:
728:
727:
724:
718:
712:
706:
700:
694:
688:
678:
673:Bulk density
668:
658:
648:
642:
632:
622:
604:
594:
584:
574:
568:
558:
548:
542:
536:
526:
520:
514:
504:
494:
489:Slickensides
484:
478:
468:
462:
456:
446:
440:
434:
420:
414:
408:
402:
392:
391:
386:
385:
379:
378:
372:
371:
368:
327:
326:
321:
320:
310:
309:
304:
303:
294:
293:
285:
279:
272:
265:
260:
256:soil horizon
255:
250:
248:
243:
240:soil surface
239:
231:litter layer
230:
228:
223:
219:
217:
212:
208:
206:
192:
186:
181:
175:
168:
162:
154:bioturbation
118:Surface soil
115:
112:Plant litter
95:
82:
78:
66:
46:
42:
33:soil horizon
32:
30:
20:
15:
4130:Groundwater
3944:Archaeology
3878:Agroecology
3848:Soil survey
3787:Terra rossa
3782:Terra preta
3762:Spodic soil
3682:Duplex soil
3662:Brown earth
3642:Alkali soil
3632:Rhizosphere
3627:Laimosphere
3501:(1974â1998)
3458:Inceptisols
3365:Plinthosols
3330:Kastanozems
3160:Soil carbon
3083:Soil health
3064:Alkali soil
2993:Soil topics
2918:Main fields
2807:February 2,
2194:sesquioxide
2102:concretions
1989:pedogenesis
1985:pedogenesis
1926:pedogenesis
1857:plant roots
1750:leaf litter
1448:Concretions
1180:âL horizon.
1066:Concretions
966:brittleness
878:pedogenesis
425:Concretions
170:illuviation
69:pedogenesis
56:(WRB), the
4120:Vegetation
3863:Soil value
3767:Stagnogley
3717:Lunar soil
3672:Dark earth
3657:Brickearth
3622:Pedosphere
3592:Soil crust
3400:Technosols
3385:Solonchaks
3305:Ferralsols
3270:Anthrosols
3145:Soil crust
3118:Soil color
3103:Soil value
3005:Pedosphere
2930:Edaphology
2739:August 11,
2560:References
2271:soil types
2156:carbonates
1938:illuviated
1908:stonelayer
1837:arthropods
1829:earthworms
1767:See also:
1490:permafrost
1156:carbonates
912:carbonates
893:B horizons
856:minerals,
850:E horizons
823:A horizons
663:carbonates
617:imogolites
613:allophanes
509:carbonates
357:carbonates
251:soil layer
224:whole soil
220:fine earth
150:eluviation
130:weathering
4149:Petrichor
3924:Hydrology
3909:Petrology
3853:Soil test
3752:Quicksand
3697:Fill dirt
3637:Bulk soil
3483:Vertisols
3473:Spodosols
3463:Mollisols
3453:Histosols
3438:Aridisols
3410:Vertisols
3405:Umbrisols
3395:Stagnosol
3360:Planosols
3355:Phaeozems
3335:Leptosols
3320:Gypsisols
3310:Fluvisols
3290:Chernozem
3285:Cambisols
3280:Calcisols
3275:Arenosols
3199:Soil type
3088:Soil life
2565:Citations
2445:Mollisols
2206:minerals.
2046:L horizon
2027:R horizon
2018:D horizon
2012:Caithness
1973:C horizon
1944:horizon.
1914:B horizon
1892:silicates
1867:E horizon
1861:biomantle
1841:nematodes
1781:A horizon
1757:P horizon
1737:O horizon
1674:structure
1664:Plinthite
1654:artifacts
1428:anhydrite
1266:structure
1256:plinthite
1246:artefacts
1220:reduction
1218:: Strong
960:structure
930:aluminium
907:minerals;
885:or lower
862:aluminium
599:Plinthite
589:artefacts
563:reduction
561:: Strong
451:Saprolite
340:structure
126:soil life
4215:Pedology
4209:Category
4105:Land use
4098:See also
3954:Agrology
3737:Paleosol
3652:Blue goo
3607:Gypcrust
3478:Ultisols
3448:Gelisols
3443:Entisols
3433:Andisols
3428:Alfisols
3390:Solonetz
3380:Retisols
3375:Regosols
3350:Nitisols
3345:Luvisols
3340:Lixisols
3325:Histosol
3315:Gleysols
3300:Durisols
3295:Cryosols
3265:Andosols
3255:Acrisols
3165:Soil gas
2925:Pedology
2851:Archived
2790:Soil-Net
2548:See also
2493:Fragipan
2249:Paleosol
2220:fragipan
2136:horizon.
2001:leaching
1942:illuvial
1849:bacteria
1833:potworms
1732:Horizons
1684:Fragipan
1624:sulfides
1524:Jarosite
1276:Fragipan
1146:Jarosite
1026:W layers
1008:L layers
1002:I layers
991:R layers
922:illuvial
831:humified
499:jarosite
399:Suffixes
236:Sphagnum
146:aluminum
60:and the
47:In most
4182:
3984:(India)
3899:Geology
3687:Eluvium
3647:Bay mud
3612:Caliche
3602:Hardpan
3597:Claypan
3587:Subsoil
3582:Topsoil
3468:Oxisols
3370:Podzols
3260:Alisols
3248:(1998â)
3071:Soil pH
2904:History
2519:horizon
2487:Duripan
2420:Source:
2282:Source:
2255:in situ
2106:nodules
2033:Bedrock
1997:bedrock
1920:Subsoil
1900:gravels
1884:Luvisol
1874:Eluvium
1853:archaea
1787:topsoil
1727:Source:
1608:bedrock
1452:nodules
1327:Source:
1070:nodules
1012:diatoms
995:bedrock
801:Source:
619:) (B).
615:and/or
601:(B, C).
429:nodules
427:and/or
299:drained
193:in situ
189:Bedrock
182:in situ
165:Subsoil
158:topsoil
4171:
3797:Yedoma
3732:Muskeg
2645:May 2,
2230:gypsum
2178:silica
2134:gleyed
2053:Limnic
1930:chroma
1896:silica
1882:Albic
1821:oxides
1694:gypsum
1598:silica
1361:, CaSO
1322:(2012)
1286:gypsum
1210:silica
1188:sodium
949:chroma
938:silica
916:gypsum
901:oxides
887:chroma
637:gypsum
627:Fragic
553:silica
531:sodium
361:gypsum
353:silica
269:layer.
134:oxides
3777:Takir
3712:Loess
2909:Index
2824:from
2733:(PDF)
2726:(PDF)
2708:(PDF)
2495:layer
2489:layer
2265:Many
1993:loess
1967:solum
1845:fungi
1775:peats
1763:Humus
1430:(CaSO
1408:B/A.
945:value
883:value
4027:(US)
4016:(UK)
4010:(US)
3742:Peat
3577:Loam
3572:Clay
3567:Silt
3562:Sand
3000:Soil
2809:2008
2741:2023
2675:2016
2647:2023
2607:2022
2517:Oxic
2204:clay
1906:, a
1851:and
1817:clay
1804:Iowa
1769:Peat
1644:clay
1570:Marl
1236:clay
1178:Marl
1020:marl
1016:peat
926:iron
905:clay
874:silt
872:and
870:sand
858:iron
854:clay
579:clay
453:(C).
346:clay
276:mm).
218:The
142:iron
138:clay
37:soil
3727:Mud
2104:or
1940:or
1894:or
1450:or
1068:or
953:hue
914:or
783:If
215::
187:R)
163:B)
116:A)
106:O)
4211::
2831:.
2799:.
2625:^
2587:^
2232:).
2218::
2192::
2132::
1843:,
1839:,
1831:,
1700:yy
1682::
1662::
1656:).
1632::
1630:ss
1620:se
1568::
1566:ma
1550:kk
1530:jj
1522::
1496:ff
1472::
1470:di
1458:co
1446::
1434:).
1424:aa
1274::
1176::
1144::
1128::
1090::
1064::
932:,
928:,
864:,
860:,
671::
651::
625::
597::
487::
449::
423::
393:W:
387:I:
380:R:
373:C:
359:;
355:;
334::
328:B:
322:E:
311:A:
305:O:
295:H:
249:A
229:A
144:,
132:,
110::
31:A
4142:/
3228:e
3221:t
3214:v
2885:e
2878:t
2871:v
2811:.
2743:.
2677:.
2651:,
2649:.
2620:.
2609:.
2447:)
2236:z
2226:y
2222:.
2216:x
2210:w
2200:t
2190:s
2184:r
2180:.
2174:q
2168:p
2162:m
2152:k
2146:j
2140:h
2130:g
2124:f
2118:e
2112:d
2098:c
2092:b
1706:z
1696:.
1690:y
1680:x
1670:w
1666:.
1660:v
1650:u
1646:.
1640:t
1636:.
1614:s
1610:.
1604:r
1594:q
1588:p
1582:o
1576:n
1560:m
1554:3
1544:3
1540:k
1536:.
1520:j
1514:i
1508:h
1502:g
1486:f
1480:e
1464:d
1454:.
1444:c
1438:b
1432:4
1418:a
1397:R
1391:M
1385:W
1379:L
1373:C
1367:3
1363:4
1359:3
1355:B
1349:E
1343:A
1337:O
1298:@
1292:z
1282:y
1272:x
1262:w
1252:v
1242:u
1232:t
1226:s
1216:r
1206:q
1200:p
1194:o
1184:n
1174:m
1168:m
1162:l
1152:k
1142:j
1136:i
1126:i
1116:h
1110:g
1104:f
1098:e
1088:d
1082:d
1076:c
1062:c
1056:b
1050:a
968:.
940:;
918:;
719:Ï
713:Ï
707:Ï
701:Ï
695:λ
689:ÎŽ
679:Îł
669:ÎČ
659:α
649:@
643:z
633:y
623:x
605:w
595:v
585:u
575:t
569:s
559:r
549:q
543:p
537:o
527:n
521:m
515:l
505:k
495:j
485:i
479:i
469:h
463:g
457:f
447:e
441:e
435:d
421:c
415:b
409:a
178:3
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