399:
80:
702:
595:) will be capable of condensation, so relatively little branching will occur. The mechanisms of hydrolysis and condensation, and the factors that bias the structure toward linear or branched structures are the most critical issues of sol–gel science and technology. This reaction is favored in both basic and acidic conditions.
940:
Furthermore, microscopic pores in sintered ceramic nanomaterials, mainly trapped at the junctions of microcrystalline grains, cause light to scatter and prevented true transparency. The total volume fraction of these nanoscale pores (both intergranular and intragranular porosity) must be less than 1%
282:
The sol–gel process is a wet-chemical technique used for the fabrication of both glassy and ceramic materials. In this process, the sol (or solution) evolves gradually towards the formation of a gel-like network containing both a liquid phase and a solid phase. Typical precursors are metal alkoxides
774:
It would therefore appear desirable to process a material in such a way that it is physically uniform with regard to the distribution of components and porosity, rather than using particle size distributions which will maximize the green density. The containment of a uniformly dispersed assembly of
825:
synthesis. Other elements (metals, metal oxides) can be easily incorporated into the final product and the silicate sol formed by this method is very stable. Semi-stable metal complexes can be used to produce sub-2 nm oxide particles without thermal treatment. During base-catalyzed synthesis,
928:
can be made by the sol–gel route. In the processing of high performance ceramic nanomaterials with superior opto-mechanical properties under adverse conditions, the size of the crystalline grains is determined largely by the size of the crystalline particles present in the raw material during the
292:
is used primarily to describe a broad range of solid-liquid (and/or liquid-liquid) mixtures, all of which contain distinct solid (and/or liquid) particles which are dispersed to various degrees in a liquid medium. The term is specific to the size of the individual particles, which are larger than
858:
or dip-coating. Protective and decorative coatings, and electro-optic components can be applied to glass, metal and other types of substrates with these methods. Cast into a mold, and with further drying and heat-treatment, dense ceramic or glass articles with novel properties can be formed that
794:
colloidal solid which results from aggregation. The degree of order appears to be limited by the time and space allowed for longer-range correlations to be established. Such defective polycrystalline structures would appear to be the basic elements of nanoscale materials science, and, therefore,
770:
process, yielding heterogeneous densification. Some pores and other structural defects associated with density variations have been shown to play a detrimental role in the sintering process by growing and thus limiting end-point densities. Differential stresses arising from heterogeneous
891:
and crystalline, have found use in various forms from bulk solid-state components to high surface area forms such as thin films, coatings and fibers. Also, thin films have found their application in the electronic field and can be used as sensitive components of a resistive gas sensors.
679:
systems, the concept of steric immobilisation becomes relevant. To avoid the formation of multiple phases of binary oxides as the result of differing hydrolysis and condensation rates, the entrapment of cations in a polymer network is an effective approach, generally termed the
337:, which are affected both by sedimentation and forces of gravity. Stabilized suspensions of such sub-micrometre spherical particles may eventually result in their self-assembly—yielding highly ordered microstructures reminiscent of the prototype colloidal crystal: precious
103:, the volume fraction of particles (or particle density) may be so low that a significant amount of fluid may need to be removed initially for the gel-like properties to be recognized. This can be accomplished in any number of ways. The simplest method is to allow time for
1821:
Mokrushin, Artem S.; Fisenko, Nikita A.; Gorobtsov, Philipp Yu; Simonenko, Tatiana L.; Glumov, Oleg V.; Melnikova, Natalia A.; Simonenko, Nikolay P.; Bukunov, Kirill A.; Simonenko, Elizaveta P.; Sevastyanov, Vladimir G.; Kuznetsov, Nikolay T. (January 2021).
688:
agent is used, most often citric acid, to surround aqueous cations and sterically entrap them. Subsequently, a polymer network is formed to immobilize the chelated cations in a gel or resin. This is most often achieved by poly-esterification using
283:
and metal chlorides, which undergo hydrolysis and polycondensation reactions to form a colloid. The basic structure or morphology of the solid phase can range anywhere from discrete colloidal particles to continuous chain-like polymer networks.
305:. But if they are small enough to be colloids, then their irregular motion in suspension can be attributed to the collective bombardment of a myriad of thermally agitated molecules in the liquid suspending medium, as described originally by
1622:
Curran, Christopher D., et al. "Ambient temperature aqueous synthesis of ultrasmall copper doped ceria nanocrystals for the water gas shift and carbon monoxide oxidation reactions." Journal of
Materials Chemistry A 6.1 (2018):
717:
condition, a highly porous and extremely low density material called aerogel is obtained. Drying the gel by means of low temperature treatments (25–100 °C), it is possible to obtain porous solid matrices called
1869:
Ciriminna, Rosaria; Fidalgo, Alexandra; Pandarus, Valerica; Béland, François; Ilharco, Laura M.; Pagliaro, Mario (2013). "The Sol–Gel Route to
Advanced Silica-Based Materials and Recent Applications".
1782:
Gorobtsov, Philipp Yu.; Fisenko, Nikita A.; Solovey, Valentin R.; Simonenko, Nikolay P.; Simonenko, Elizaveta P.; Volkov, Ivan A.; Sevastyanov, Vladimir G.; Kuznetsov, Nikolay T. (July 2021).
149:. One of the distinct advantages of using this methodology as opposed to the more traditional processing techniques is that densification is often achieved at a much lower temperature.
368:). Formation of a metal oxide involves connecting the metal centers with oxo (M-O-M) or hydroxo (M-OH-M) bridges, therefore generating metal-oxo or metal-hydroxo polymers in solution.
591:
is tetrafunctional (can branch or bond in 4 different directions). Alternatively, under certain conditions (e.g., low water concentration) fewer than 4 of the OR or OH groups (
200:). The sol–gel approach is a cheap and low-temperature technique that allows the fine control of the product's chemical composition. Even small quantities of dopants, such as
795:
provide the first step in developing a more rigorous understanding of the mechanisms involved in microstructural evolution in inorganic systems such as sintered ceramic
375:
glass or micro-crystalline ceramic. Subsequent thermal treatment (firing) may be performed in order to favor further polycondensation and enhance mechanical properties.
1470:
Lange, F. F. & Metcalf, M. (1983). "Processing-Related
Fracture Origins: II, Agglomerate Motion and Cracklike Internal Surfaces Caused by Differential Sintering".
929:
synthesis or formation of the object. Thus a reduction of the original particle size well below the wavelength of visible light (~500 nm) eliminates much of the
571:. This type of reaction can continue to build larger and larger silicon-containing molecules by the process of polymerization. Thus, a polymer is a huge molecule (or
2610:
821:, used in a variety of finishing operations, are made using a sol–gel type process. One of the more important applications of sol–gel processing is to carry out
274:
in the form of fibers and monoliths. Sol–gel research grew to be so important that in the 1990s more than 35,000 papers were published worldwide on the process.
2489:
842:
The applications for sol gel-derived products are numerous. For example, scientists have used it to produce the world's lightest materials and also some of its
693:. The resulting polymer is then combusted under oxidising conditions to remove organic content and yield a product oxide with homogeneously dispersed cations.
371:
In both cases (discrete particles or continuous polymer network), the drying process serves to remove the liquid phase from the gel, yielding a micro-porous
356:
exhibits certain advantages with regard to physical properties in the formation of high performance glass and glass/ceramic components in 2 and 3 dimensions.
805:
can be formed by precipitation. These powders of single and multiple component compositions can be produced at a nanoscale particle size for dental,
641:
during sol–gel process. The product is a molecular-scale composite with improved mechanical properties. Sono-Ormosils are characterized by a higher
2041:
1537:
Whitesides, G. M.; et al. (1991). "Molecular Self-Assembly and
Nanochemistry: A Chemical Strategy for the Synthesis of Nanostructures".
1122:
1068:
1307:
141:
process, is often necessary in order to favor further polycondensation and enhance mechanical properties and structural stability via final
134:
of the final component will clearly be strongly influenced by changes imposed upon the structural template during this phase of processing.
297:. If the particles are large enough, then their dynamic behavior in any given period of time in suspension would be governed by forces of
1222:
Nishio, Keishi; Tsuchiya, Tsuchiya (2004-12-17). "Chapter 3 Sol–Gel
Processing of Thin Films with Metal Salts". In Sakka, JSumio (ed.).
667:, hydrolysis and condensation processes naturally give rise to homogenous compositions. For systems involving multiple cations, such as
449:
are ideal chemical precursors for sol–gel synthesis because they react readily with water. The reaction is called hydrolysis, because a
645:
than classic gels as well as an improved thermal stability. An explanation therefore might be the increased degree of polymerization.
317:, with sedimentation being a possible long-term result. This critical size range (or particle diameter) typically ranges from tens of
91:" (a colloidal solution) is formed that then gradually evolves towards the formation of a gel-like diphasic system containing both a
1664:
1231:
887:
fibers can be drawn which are used for fiber optic sensors and thermal insulation, respectively. Thus, many ceramic materials, both
1249:"Enhancement of Ce/Cr Codopant Solubility and Chemical Homogeneity in TiO2 Nanoparticles through Sol–Gel versus Pechini Syntheses"
771:
densification have also been shown to result in the propagation of internal cracks, thus becoming the strength-controlling flaws.
2514:
2310:
971:
2625:
747:
Differential stresses that develop as a result of non-uniform drying shrinkage are directly related to the rate at which the
249:
1659:
Brinker, C. J. and
Scherer, G. W., Sol-Gel Science: The Physics and Chemistry of Sol-Gel Processing, (Academic Press, 1990)
1248:
2620:
2615:
2426:
2403:
1137:
Klein, L.C. and Garvey, G.J., "Kinetics of the Sol-Gel
Transition" Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, Vol. 38, p.45 (1980)
830:
which is strong enough to prevent reaction in the hydroxo regime but weak enough to allow reaction in the oxo regime (see
584:
157:
976:
2590:
2259:
1384:
706:
1676:
German Patent 736411 (Granted 6 May 1943) Anti-Reflective
Coating (W. Geffcken and E. Berger, Jenaer Glasswerk Schott).
1203:, "The Sol-Gel Transition: Formation of Glass Fibers & Thin Films", J. Non-Crystalline Solids, Vol. 48, p.31 (1982)
2034:
1347:
Evans, A. G. & Davidge, R. W. (1969). "The strength and fracture of fully dense polycrystalline magnesium oxide".
755:. Such stresses have been associated with a plastic-to-brittle transition in consolidated bodies, and can yield to
714:
263:
The interest in sol–gel processing can be traced back in the mid-1800s with the observation that the hydrolysis of
2290:
2211:
2101:
941:
for high-quality optical transmission, i.e. the density has to be 99.99% of the theoretical crystalline density.
387:
1320:
Franks, G. V. & Lange, F. F. (1996). "Plastic-to-Brittle
Transition of Saturated, Alumina Powder Compacts".
126:
and densification. The rate at which the solvent can be removed is ultimately determined by the distribution of
2605:
2191:
411:
264:
386:, respectively. In addition, uniform ceramic powders of a wide range of chemical composition can be formed by
1650:
Phalippou, J., Sol-Gel: A Low temperature
Process for the Materials of the New Millennium, solgel.com (2000).
1382:
Evans, A. G.; Davidge, R. W. (1970). "Strength and fracture of fully dense polycrystalline magnesium oxide".
1212:
Rosa-Fox, N. de la; Pinero, M.; Esquivias, L. (2002): Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Materials from Sonogels. 2002.
2554:
2421:
2295:
2027:
99:
phase whose morphologies range from discrete particles to continuous polymer networks. In the case of the
775:
strongly interacting particles in suspension requires total control over particle-particle interactions.
2595:
2363:
2171:
1427:
Evans, A. G.; Davidge, R. W. (1970). "The strength and oxidation of reaction-sintered silicon nitride".
966:
153:
60:
473:
Depending on the amount of water and catalyst present, hydrolysis may proceed to completion to silica:
786:
silica, for example, may therefore be stabilized sufficiently to ensure a high degree of order in the
208:, can be introduced in the sol and end up uniformly dispersed in the final product. It can be used in
2519:
2393:
2141:
2131:
1984:
1913:
1589:
1546:
1436:
1393:
1356:
1025:
934:
854:
One of the largest application areas is thin films, which can be produced on a piece of substrate by
68:
2186:
1824:"Pen plotter printing of ITO thin film as a highly CO sensitive component of a resistive gas sensor"
2539:
2461:
2383:
2358:
1784:"Microstructure and local electrophysical properties of sol-gel derived (In2O3-10%SnO2)/V2O5 films"
1768:, (2000) "Transparent ceramics for armor and EM window applications", Proc. SPIE, Vol. 4102, p. 1,
1308:
Structure development of resorcinol-formaldehyde gels: microphase separation or colloid aggregation
613:
forces, which stretch out and break the chain in a non-random process, result in a lowering of the
568:
209:
185:
123:
313:. Einstein concluded that this erratic behavior could adequately be described using the theory of
2446:
2368:
2116:
2106:
1929:
1851:
1823:
1803:
1783:
1747:
1452:
1409:
1289:
1263:
1041:
1015:
884:
668:
383:
213:
205:
1695:
Yakovlev, Aleksandr V. (22 March 2016). "Inkjet Color Printing by Interference Nanostructures".
629:
over conventional stirring and results in higher molecular weights with lower polydispersities.
1187:
Allman III, R.M. and Onoda, G.Y., Jr. (Unpublished work, IBM T.J. Watson Research Center, 1984)
2559:
2524:
2494:
2451:
2388:
2373:
2285:
2176:
1886:
1843:
1712:
1660:
1605:
1562:
1281:
1227:
1118:
1064:
787:
756:
506:
407:
348:), the interparticle forces have sufficient strength to cause considerable aggregation and/or
253:
20:
579:. The number of bonds that a monomer can form is called its functionality. Polymerization of
2315:
2305:
2300:
2070:
1956:
1921:
1878:
1835:
1795:
1739:
1704:
1597:
1554:
1506:
1479:
1444:
1401:
1364:
1329:
1273:
1093:
1033:
930:
831:
614:
580:
112:
398:
27:
is a method for producing solid materials from small molecules. The method is used for the
2509:
2504:
2353:
2249:
2221:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2156:
2126:
1150:, "Sol-Gel Transition in Simple Silicates", J. Non-Crystalline Solids, Vol.48, p.47 (1982)
961:
860:
791:
762:
In addition, any fluctuations in packing density in the compact as it is prepared for the
734:
727:
690:
681:
654:
314:
306:
294:
268:
2226:
1632:
Wright, J. D. and Sommerdijk, N. A. J. M., Sol-Gel Materials: Chemistry and Applications.
1527:, Aksay, I. A., Adv. Ceram., Vol. 9, p. 94, Proc. Amer. Ceramic Soc. (Columbus, OH 1984).
43:(Ti). The process involves conversion of monomers in solution into a colloidal solution (
1917:
1593:
1550:
1440:
1397:
1360:
1224:
Handbook of Sol-Gel Science and Technology, Processing Characterisation and Applications
1029:
701:
2471:
2441:
2436:
1960:
1730:
Yakovlev, Aleksandr V. (December 2015). "Sol-Gel Assisted Inkjet Hologram Patterning".
1510:
1483:
1333:
956:
626:
617:
and poly-dispersity. Furthermore, multi-phase systems are very efficient dispersed and
557:
257:
131:
108:
79:
64:
1601:
998:
Hanaor, D. A. H.; Chironi, I.; Karatchevtseva, I.; Triani, G.; Sorrell, C. C. (2012).
364:
evolves then towards the formation of an inorganic network containing a liquid phase (
352:
prior to their growth. The formation of a more open continuous network of low density
2600:
2584:
2378:
2335:
2241:
2216:
2111:
1933:
1855:
1807:
1751:
1456:
1413:
925:
921:
880:
796:
572:
382:
and refractory ceramic fiber can be drawn which are used for fiber optic sensors and
361:
302:
104:
88:
83:
Schematic representation of the different stages and routes of the sol–gel technology
45:
28:
1293:
1045:
900:
Sol-gel technology has been applied for controlled release of fragrances and drugs.
2544:
2499:
2456:
2146:
2121:
2075:
1641:
Aegerter, M. A. and Mennig, M., Sol-Gel Technologies for Glass Producers and Users.
1037:
855:
810:
802:
776:
741:
610:
349:
310:
197:
181:
165:
146:
1839:
1685:
Klein, L. C., Sol-Gel Optics: Processing and Applications, Springer Verlag (1994).
1277:
722:. In addition, a sol–gel process was developed in the 1950s for the production of
1799:
1112:
2569:
2534:
2254:
2136:
917:
723:
502:
229:
193:
161:
32:
1904:
Yoldas, B. E. (1979). "Monolithic glass formation by chemical polymerization".
859:
cannot be created by any other method. Other coating methods include spraying,
378:
With the viscosity of a sol adjusted into a proper range, both optical quality
2564:
2529:
2398:
2166:
2161:
1368:
950:
913:
806:
676:
622:
607:
603:
514:
510:
494:
379:
322:
1497:
Evans, A. G. (1987). "Considerations of Inhomogeneity Effects in Sintering".
224:
for various purposes. Sol–gel derived materials have diverse applications in
172:
into a suitable container with the desired shape (e.g., to obtain monolithic
2431:
2330:
1708:
1558:
876:
843:
818:
814:
767:
685:
446:
372:
217:
142:
1947:
Prochazka, S.; Klug, F. J. (1983). "Infrared-Transparent Mullite Ceramic".
1890:
1847:
1743:
1716:
1609:
1285:
402:
Simplified representation of the condensation induced by hydrolysis of TEOS
1566:
709:. This type of disordered morphology is typical of many sol–gel materials.
560:
is associated with the formation of a 1-, 2-, or 3-dimensional network of
2549:
2320:
2096:
2091:
999:
752:
618:
567:
By definition, condensation liberates a small molecule, such as water or
561:
521:
498:
450:
410:
is a well-studied example of polymerization of an alkoxide, specifically
318:
245:
127:
40:
1097:
509:. Intermediate species including or may result as products of partial
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2019:
1925:
1448:
1405:
909:
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783:
748:
642:
630:
576:
517:
435:
298:
288:
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189:
173:
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100:
56:
36:
1882:
1159:
Einstein, A., Ann. Phys., Vol. 19, p. 289 (1906), Vol. 34 p.591 (1911)
360:
In either case (discrete particles or continuous polymer network) the
2345:
2151:
864:
827:
638:
634:
592:
233:
225:
92:
826:
hydroxo (M-OH) bonds may be avoided in favor of oxo (M-O-M) using a
1268:
751:
can be removed, and thus highly dependent upon the distribution of
122:
process, which is typically accompanied by a significant amount of
2264:
2231:
2181:
2065:
2050:
1580:
Dubbs D. M, Aksay I. A.; Aksay (2000). "Self-Assembled Ceramics".
1020:
888:
705:
Nanostructure of a resorcinol-formaldehyde gel reconstructed from
700:
431:
237:
221:
177:
96:
78:
1999:. Plinio Innocenzi. Springer Briefs in Materials. Springer. 2016.
497:
often requires an excess of water and/or the use of a hydrolysis
1061:
Sol-Gel Science: The Physics and Chemistry of Sol-Gel Processing
763:
564:
bonds accompanied by the production of H−O−H and R−O−H species.
338:
2023:
953:, small spheroidal droplet of colloidal particles in suspension
719:
365:
201:
51:
912:
elements and active optical components as well as large area
1004:
Powders Prepared by Excess Hydrolysis of Titanium Alkoxide"
621:, so that very fine mixtures are provided. This means that
118:
Removal of the remaining liquid (solvent) phase requires a
49:) that acts as the precursor for an integrated network (or
2014:
587:
of the polymer, because a fully hydrolyzed monomer Si(OH)
513:
reactions. Early intermediates result from two partially
16:
Method for producing solid materials from small molecules
1084:
Hench, L. L.; J. K. West (1990). "The Sol-Gel Process".
606:
is an efficient tool for the synthesis of polymers. The
2009:
1525:
Microstructural Control Through Colloidal Consolidation
333:), the particles may grow to sufficient size to become
267:(TEOS) under acidic conditions led to the formation of
453:
ion becomes attached to the silicon atom as follows:
575:) formed from hundreds or thousands of units called
2480:
2412:
2344:
2278:
2240:
2084:
2058:
744:, without generation of large quantities of dust.
633:(organically modified silicate) are obtained when
107:to occur, and then pour off the remaining liquid.
414:. The chemical formula for TEOS is given by Si(OC
1993:, Zarzycki. J., Cambridge University Press, 1991
344:Under certain chemical conditions (typically in
329:Under certain chemical conditions (typically in
713:If the liquid in a wet gel is removed under a
293:atomic dimensions but small enough to exhibit
111:can also be used to accelerate the process of
2490:Conservation and restoration of glass objects
2035:
8:
1788:Colloid and Interface Science Communications
879:of a sol adjusted into a proper range, both
1173:Structural Variations in Colloidal Crystals
1114:Sol-Gel Optics: Processing and Applications
2042:
2028:
2020:
216:material, or as a means of producing very
55:) of either discrete particles or network
1267:
1019:
397:
192:), or used to synthesize powders (e.g.,
1949:Journal of the American Ceramic Society
1499:Journal of the American Ceramic Society
993:
991:
987:
2611:Glass coating and surface modification
1772:, Marker, A.J. and Arthurs, E.G., Eds.
1195:
1193:
1059:Brinker, C. J.; G. W. Scherer (1990).
803:Ultra-fine and uniform ceramic powders
933:, resulting in a translucent or even
759:in the unfired body if not relieved.
67:. Sol–gel process is used to produce
7:
1183:
1181:
1167:
1165:
583:, for instance, can lead to complex
137:Afterwards, a thermal treatment, or
1226:. Kluwer Academic. pp. 59–66.
1961:10.1111/j.1151-2916.1983.tb11004.x
1511:10.1111/j.1151-2916.1982.tb10340.x
1484:10.1111/j.1151-2916.1983.tb10069.x
1334:10.1111/j.1151-2916.1996.tb08091.x
659:For single cation systems like SiO
14:
1602:10.1146/annurev.physchem.51.1.601
1306:Gommes, C. J., Roberts A. (2008)
779:colloids provide this potential.
697:Nanomaterials, aerogels, xerogels
156:sol can be either deposited on a
1310:. Physical Review E, 77, 041409.
2560:Radioactive waste vitrification
2515:Glass fiber reinforced concrete
972:Random graph theory of gelation
766:are often amplified during the
87:In this chemical procedure, a "
1991:Glasses and the Vitreous State
1770:Inorganic Optical Materials II
1247:Chen, W.; et al. (2018).
1038:10.1179/1743676111Y.0000000059
1:
2427:Chemically strengthened glass
2010:International Sol–Gel Society
1840:10.1016/j.talanta.2020.121455
1732:Advanced Functional Materials
1278:10.1021/acs.inorgchem.8b00926
2260:Glass-ceramic-to-metal seals
1906:Journal of Materials Science
1800:10.1016/j.colcom.2021.100452
1385:Journal of Materials Science
1008:Advances in Applied Ceramics
707:small-angle X-ray scattering
1000:"Single and Mixed Phase TiO
867:printing, or roll coating.
35:, especially the oxides of
2642:
1175:, M.S. Thesis, UCLA (1983)
652:
2291:Chemical vapor deposition
2212:Ultra low expansion glass
2102:Borophosphosilicate glass
1997:The Sol to Gel Transition
1369:10.1080/14786436908228708
160:to form a film (e.g., by
130:in the gel. The ultimate
2530:Glass-reinforced plastic
2192:Sodium hexametaphosphate
977:Liquid–liquid extraction
782:Monodisperse powders of
637:is added to gel-derived
265:tetraethyl orthosilicate
256:, and separation (e.g.,
212:and manufacturing as an
2422:Anti-reflective coating
2296:Glass batch calculation
2177:Photochromic lens glass
1709:10.1021/acsnano.5b06074
1559:10.1126/science.1962191
250:controlled drug release
1744:10.1002/adfm.201503483
710:
625:increases the rate of
403:
278:Particles and polymers
84:
2626:Transparent materials
2555:Prince Rupert's drops
2404:Transparent materials
2364:Gradient-index optics
2172:Phosphosilicate glass
1977:Colloidal Dispersions
1582:Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem
1523:Allman III, R. M. in
967:Mechanics of gelation
871:Thin films and fibers
817:applications. Powder
704:
684:. In this process, a
401:
321:(10 m) to a few
145:, densification, and
82:
69:ceramic nanoparticles
2621:Thin film deposition
2616:Industrial processes
2520:Glass ionomer cement
2394:Photosensitive glass
2321:Liquidus temperature
2142:Fluorosilicate glass
1985:Cambridge University
935:transparent material
2591:Ceramic engineering
2540:Glass-to-metal seal
2462:Self-cleaning glass
2384:Optical lens design
2015:The Sol–Gel Gateway
1918:1979JMatS..14.1843Y
1594:2000ARPC...51..601D
1551:1991Sci...254.1312W
1441:1970JMatS...5..314E
1398:1970JMatS...5..314E
1361:1969PMag...20..373E
1256:Inorganic Chemistry
1117:. Springer Verlag.
1098:10.1021/cr00099a003
1030:2012AdApC.111..149H
850:Protective coatings
548:−Si−OR + HO−Si−(OR)
532:−Si−OH + HO−Si−(OR)
346:acid-catalyzed sols
331:base-catalyzed sols
210:ceramics processing
206:rare-earth elements
2525:Glass microspheres
2447:Hydrogen darkening
2369:Hydrogen darkening
2117:Chalcogenide glass
2107:Borosilicate glass
1926:10.1007/BF00551023
1449:10.1007/BF02397783
1406:10.1007/BF02397783
1171:Allman III, R.M.,
1111:Klein, L. (1994).
1063:. Academic Press.
896:Controlled release
885:refractory ceramic
711:
669:strontium titanate
404:
384:thermal insulation
214:investment casting
85:
2578:
2577:
2495:Glass-coated wire
2467:sol–gel technique
2452:Insulated glazing
2389:Photochromic lens
2374:Optical amplifier
2326:sol–gel technique
1979:, Russel, W. B.,
1883:10.1021/cr300399c
1738:(47): 7375–7380.
1472:J. Am. Ceram. Soc
1328:(12): 3161–3168.
1322:J. Am. Ceram. Soc
1262:(12): 7279–7289.
1124:978-0-7923-9424-2
1070:978-0-12-134970-7
788:colloidal crystal
757:crack propagation
507:hydrochloric acid
254:reactive material
21:materials science
2633:
2316:Ion implantation
2071:Glass transition
2044:
2037:
2030:
2021:
1965:
1964:
1944:
1938:
1937:
1912:(8): 1843–1849.
1901:
1895:
1894:
1877:(8): 6592–6620.
1871:Chemical Reviews
1866:
1860:
1859:
1818:
1812:
1811:
1779:
1773:
1762:
1756:
1755:
1727:
1721:
1720:
1703:(3): 3078–3086.
1692:
1686:
1683:
1677:
1674:
1668:
1657:
1651:
1648:
1642:
1639:
1633:
1630:
1624:
1620:
1614:
1613:
1577:
1571:
1570:
1545:(5036): 1312–9.
1534:
1528:
1521:
1515:
1514:
1494:
1488:
1487:
1467:
1461:
1460:
1424:
1418:
1417:
1379:
1373:
1372:
1355:(164): 373–388.
1344:
1338:
1337:
1317:
1311:
1304:
1298:
1297:
1271:
1253:
1244:
1238:
1237:
1219:
1213:
1210:
1204:
1197:
1188:
1185:
1176:
1169:
1160:
1157:
1151:
1144:
1138:
1135:
1129:
1128:
1108:
1102:
1101:
1086:Chemical Reviews
1081:
1075:
1074:
1056:
1050:
1049:
1023:
995:
931:light scattering
832:Pourbaix diagram
615:molecular weight
581:silicon alkoxide
113:phase separation
2641:
2640:
2636:
2635:
2634:
2632:
2631:
2630:
2606:Glass chemistry
2581:
2580:
2579:
2574:
2510:Glass electrode
2505:Glass databases
2482:
2476:
2414:
2408:
2340:
2274:
2250:Bioactive glass
2236:
2222:Vitreous enamel
2207:Thoriated glass
2202:Tellurite glass
2187:Soda–lime glass
2157:Gold ruby glass
2127:Cranberry glass
2080:
2054:
2048:
2006:
1973:
1971:Further reading
1968:
1955:(12): 874–880.
1946:
1945:
1941:
1903:
1902:
1898:
1868:
1867:
1863:
1820:
1819:
1815:
1781:
1780:
1776:
1763:
1759:
1729:
1728:
1724:
1694:
1693:
1689:
1684:
1680:
1675:
1671:
1658:
1654:
1649:
1645:
1640:
1636:
1631:
1627:
1621:
1617:
1579:
1578:
1574:
1536:
1535:
1531:
1522:
1518:
1505:(10): 497–501.
1496:
1495:
1491:
1469:
1468:
1464:
1426:
1425:
1421:
1381:
1380:
1376:
1346:
1345:
1341:
1319:
1318:
1314:
1305:
1301:
1251:
1246:
1245:
1241:
1234:
1221:
1220:
1216:
1211:
1207:
1198:
1191:
1186:
1179:
1170:
1163:
1158:
1154:
1146:Brinker, C.J.,
1145:
1141:
1136:
1132:
1125:
1110:
1109:
1105:
1083:
1082:
1078:
1071:
1058:
1057:
1053:
1003:
997:
996:
989:
985:
962:Freeze gelation
947:
906:
904:Opto-mechanical
898:
873:
861:electrophoresis
852:
840:
792:polycrystalline
738:
731:
699:
691:ethylene glycol
682:Pechini process
674:
666:
662:
657:
655:Pechini process
651:
649:Pechini process
601:
590:
551:
547:
535:
531:
488:
484:
480:
468:
464:
460:
443:
439:
429:
425:
421:
417:
396:
315:Brownian motion
307:Albert Einstein
295:Brownian motion
280:
272:
77:
65:metal alkoxides
25:sol–gel process
17:
12:
11:
5:
2639:
2637:
2629:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2583:
2582:
2576:
2575:
2573:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2486:
2484:
2478:
2477:
2475:
2474:
2472:Tempered glass
2469:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2442:DNA microarray
2439:
2437:Dealkalization
2434:
2429:
2424:
2418:
2416:
2410:
2409:
2407:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2350:
2348:
2342:
2341:
2339:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2311:Glass modeling
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2282:
2280:
2276:
2275:
2273:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2246:
2244:
2242:Glass-ceramics
2238:
2237:
2235:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2189:
2184:
2182:Silicate glass
2179:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2088:
2086:
2082:
2081:
2079:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2062:
2060:
2056:
2055:
2053:science topics
2049:
2047:
2046:
2039:
2032:
2024:
2018:
2017:
2012:
2005:
2004:External links
2002:
2001:
2000:
1994:
1988:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1966:
1939:
1896:
1861:
1813:
1774:
1757:
1722:
1687:
1678:
1669:
1652:
1643:
1634:
1625:
1615:
1572:
1529:
1516:
1489:
1478:(6): 398–406.
1462:
1435:(4): 314–325.
1419:
1392:(4): 314–325.
1374:
1339:
1312:
1299:
1239:
1232:
1214:
1205:
1189:
1177:
1161:
1152:
1139:
1130:
1123:
1103:
1076:
1069:
1051:
1014:(3): 149–158.
1001:
986:
984:
981:
980:
979:
974:
969:
964:
959:
957:Freeze-casting
954:
946:
943:
926:beam splitters
905:
902:
897:
894:
872:
869:
851:
848:
839:
836:
736:
729:
698:
695:
672:
664:
660:
653:Main article:
650:
647:
627:polymerisation
600:
597:
588:
558:polymerization
554:
553:
549:
545:
538:
537:
533:
529:
520:linked with a
491:
490:
486:
482:
478:
471:
470:
466:
462:
458:
441:
437:
427:
423:
419:
415:
408:Stöber process
395:
394:Polymerization
392:
358:
357:
342:
279:
276:
270:
260:) technology.
258:chromatography
132:microstructure
109:Centrifugation
76:
73:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2638:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
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2609:
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2602:
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2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2379:Optical fiber
2377:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2351:
2349:
2347:
2343:
2337:
2336:Vitrification
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2306:Glass melting
2304:
2302:
2301:Glass forming
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2283:
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2258:
2256:
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2247:
2245:
2243:
2239:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2217:Uranium glass
2215:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2198:
2197:Soluble glass
2195:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
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2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
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2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2112:Ceramic glaze
2110:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2089:
2087:
2083:
2077:
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2016:
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2011:
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2003:
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1995:
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1962:
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1907:
1900:
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1884:
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1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
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1825:
1817:
1814:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1778:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1764:Patel, P.J.,
1761:
1758:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1726:
1723:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1691:
1688:
1682:
1679:
1673:
1670:
1666:
1665:9780121349707
1662:
1656:
1653:
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1629:
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1434:
1430:
1429:J. Mater. Sci
1423:
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1261:
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1233:9781402079696
1229:
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1202:
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1027:
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1005:
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992:
988:
982:
978:
975:
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968:
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895:
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857:
849:
847:
845:
837:
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829:
824:
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808:
804:
800:
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797:nanomaterials
793:
789:
785:
780:
778:
772:
769:
765:
760:
758:
754:
750:
745:
743:
742:nuclear fuels
739:
732:
725:
721:
716:
715:supercritical
708:
703:
696:
694:
692:
687:
683:
678:
670:
656:
648:
646:
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
609:
605:
598:
596:
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586:
582:
578:
574:
573:macromolecule
570:
565:
563:
559:
543:
542:
541:
527:
526:
525:
523:
519:
516:
512:
508:
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476:
475:
474:
465:O → HO−Si(OR)
456:
455:
454:
452:
448:
444:
433:
413:
409:
400:
393:
391:
389:
388:precipitation
385:
381:
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374:
369:
367:
363:
355:
351:
347:
343:
340:
336:
332:
328:
327:
326:
325:(10 m).
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
303:sedimentation
300:
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106:
105:sedimentation
102:
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81:
74:
72:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
53:
48:
47:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
2596:Dosage forms
2545:Porous glass
2500:Safety glass
2466:
2457:Porous glass
2415:modification
2325:
2227:Wood's glass
2147:Fused quartz
2122:Cobalt glass
2076:Supercooling
1996:
1990:
1987:Press (1989)
1980:
1976:
1952:
1948:
1942:
1909:
1905:
1899:
1874:
1870:
1864:
1831:
1827:
1816:
1791:
1787:
1777:
1769:
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1760:
1735:
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1389:
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1377:
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1342:
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1302:
1259:
1255:
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1200:
1172:
1155:
1147:
1142:
1133:
1113:
1106:
1089:
1085:
1079:
1060:
1054:
1011:
1007:
939:
918:cold mirrors
908:Macroscopic
907:
899:
874:
856:spin coating
853:
841:
838:Applications
811:agrochemical
801:
781:
777:Monodisperse
773:
761:
746:
712:
658:
608:cavitational
602:
599:Sono-Ormosil
566:
555:
539:
492:
472:
430:, where the
405:
377:
370:
359:
353:
350:flocculation
345:
334:
330:
311:dissertation
287:
285:
281:
262:
202:organic dyes
194:microspheres
166:spin coating
151:
147:grain growth
138:
136:
119:
117:
86:
50:
44:
33:metal oxides
24:
18:
2570:Glass fiber
2535:Glass cloth
2279:Preparation
2255:CorningWare
2137:Flint glass
2132:Crown glass
2085:Formulation
914:hot mirrors
726:powders of
724:radioactive
503:acetic acid
426:, or Si(OR)
380:glass fiber
323:micrometres
230:electronics
198:nanospheres
162:dip-coating
29:fabrication
2585:Categories
2565:Windshield
2399:Refraction
2359:Dispersion
2167:Milk glass
2162:Lead glass
1834:: 121455.
1794:: 100452.
1588:: 601–22.
1269:2203.11507
1199:Sakka, S.
983:References
951:Coacervate
846:ceramics.
807:biomedical
677:perovskite
675:and other
623:ultrasound
619:emulsified
604:Sonication
536:→ + H−O−H
515:hydrolyzed
511:hydrolysis
495:hydrolysis
434:group R =
218:thin films
95:phase and
61:precursors
59:. Typical
2432:Corrosion
2331:Viscosity
2286:Annealing
1934:137347665
1856:224811369
1808:237762446
1752:138778285
1457:137539240
1414:137539240
1349:Phil. Mag
1092:: 33–72.
1021:1410.8255
877:viscosity
875:With the
819:abrasives
815:catalytic
784:colloidal
768:sintering
686:chelating
585:branching
552:→ + R−OH
493:Complete
447:Alkoxides
373:amorphous
319:angstroms
286:The term
220:of metal
186:membranes
158:substrate
154:precursor
143:sintering
124:shrinkage
39:(Si) and
2550:Pre-preg
2354:Achromat
2097:Bioglass
2092:AgInSbTe
1983:, Eds.,
1891:23782155
1848:33076078
1717:26805775
1697:ACS Nano
1623:244-255.
1610:11031294
1294:44149390
1286:29863346
1046:98265180
945:See also
844:toughest
753:porosity
720:xerogels
631:Ormosils
577:monomers
562:siloxane
522:siloxane
518:monomers
501:such as
499:catalyst
489:+ 4 R−OH
451:hydroxyl
354:polymers
335:colloids
246:medicine
190:aerogels
174:ceramics
128:porosity
57:polymers
41:titanium
2481:Diverse
2413:Surface
2270:Zerodur
1914:Bibcode
1828:Talanta
1590:Bibcode
1567:1962191
1547:Bibcode
1539:Science
1437:Bibcode
1394:Bibcode
1357:Bibcode
1026:Bibcode
910:optical
881:optical
823:zeolite
749:solvent
671:, SrTiO
663:and TiO
643:density
593:ligands
569:alcohol
485:O → SiO
309:in his
299:gravity
289:colloid
248:(e.g.,
242:sensors
240:, (bio)
178:glasses
101:colloid
37:silicon
2483:topics
2346:Optics
2152:GeSbTe
2059:Basics
1981:et al.
1932:
1889:
1854:
1846:
1806:
1766:et al.
1750:
1715:
1663:
1608:
1565:
1455:
1412:
1292:
1284:
1230:
1201:et al.
1148:et al.
1121:
1067:
1044:
924:, and
922:lenses
889:glassy
865:inkjet
828:ligand
639:silica
635:silane
556:Thus,
524:bond:
477:Si(OR)
469:+ R−OH
457:Si(OR)
234:energy
226:optics
222:oxides
182:fibers
139:firing
120:drying
93:liquid
75:Stages
23:, the
2265:Macor
2232:ZBLAN
2066:Glass
2051:Glass
1930:S2CID
1852:S2CID
1804:S2CID
1748:S2CID
1453:S2CID
1410:S2CID
1290:S2CID
1264:arXiv
1252:(PDF)
1042:S2CID
1016:arXiv
813:, or
611:shear
481:+ 2 H
432:alkyl
238:space
97:solid
2601:Gels
1887:PMID
1844:PMID
1713:PMID
1661:ISBN
1606:PMID
1563:PMID
1282:PMID
1228:ISBN
1119:ISBN
1065:ISBN
883:and
764:kiln
740:for
733:and
544:(OR)
528:(OR)
412:TEOS
406:The
339:opal
301:and
204:and
170:cast
152:The
63:are
1957:doi
1922:doi
1879:doi
1875:113
1836:doi
1832:221
1796:doi
1740:doi
1705:doi
1598:doi
1555:doi
1543:254
1507:doi
1480:doi
1445:doi
1402:doi
1365:doi
1330:doi
1274:doi
1094:doi
1034:doi
1012:111
834:).
790:or
735:ThO
540:or
505:or
461:+ H
366:gel
362:sol
269:SiO
252:),
168:),
164:or
89:sol
52:gel
46:sol
31:of
19:In
2587::
1953:66
1951:.
1928:.
1920:.
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1908:.
1885:.
1873:.
1850:.
1842:.
1830:.
1826:.
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1790:.
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1736:25
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1584:.
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1476:66
1474:.
1451:.
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1431:.
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1388:.
1363:.
1353:20
1351:.
1326:79
1324:.
1288:.
1280:.
1272:.
1260:57
1258:.
1254:.
1192:^
1180:^
1164:^
1090:90
1088:.
1040:.
1032:.
1024:.
1010:.
1006:.
990:^
937:.
920:,
916:,
863:,
809:,
799:.
728:UO
445:.
390:.
244:,
236:,
232:,
228:,
196:,
188:,
184:,
180:,
176:,
115:.
71:.
2043:e
2036:t
2029:v
1963:.
1959::
1936:.
1924::
1916::
1893:.
1881::
1858:.
1838::
1810:.
1798::
1754:.
1742::
1719:.
1707::
1667:.
1612:.
1600::
1592::
1569:.
1557::
1549::
1513:.
1509::
1486:.
1482::
1459:.
1447::
1439::
1433:5
1416:.
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1396::
1390:5
1371:.
1367::
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1336:.
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1100:.
1096::
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1028::
1018::
1002:2
737:2
730:2
673:3
665:2
661:2
589:4
550:3
546:3
534:3
530:3
487:2
483:2
479:4
467:3
463:2
459:4
442:5
440:H
438:2
436:C
428:4
424:4
422:)
420:5
418:H
416:2
341:.
271:2
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