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a minister's lectern. Noise gates are also used to process the microphones placed near the drums of a drum kit in many hard rock and metal bands. Without a noise gate, the microphone for a specific instrument such as the floor tom will also pick up signals from nearby drums or cymbals. With a noise gate, the threshold of sensitivity for each microphone on the drum kit can be set so that only the direct strike and subsequent decay of the drum will be heard, not the nearby sounds.
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provide an appropriate space for sound technicians and the racks of audio equipment. Audio engineers will also provide advice on which audio components would best suit the space and its intended use, and on the correct placement and installation of these components. During the installation phase, audio engineers ensure that high-power electrical components are safely installed and connected and that ceiling or wall-mounted speakers are properly mounted (or "flown") onto
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with monitor speakers, the in-ear monitors of one performer cannot be heard by the other musicians. A downside of this isolation is that the performer cannot hear the crowd or the comments from other performers on stage that do not have microphones (e.g., if the bass player wishes to communicate to the drummer). This has been remedied in larger productions by setting up microphones facing the audience that can be mixed into the in-ear monitor sends.
1271:. In contrast, a live music club needs a mixing board designed for live sound, an onstage monitor system, and a multicore snake cable running from the stage to the mixer. Clubs that feature both types of shows may face challenges providing the desired equipment and set-up for both uses. Clubs can be a hostile environment for sound gear, in that the air may be hot, humid, and smoky. In some clubs, keeping power amplifiers cool may be a challenge.
1533:, which allows an engineer to view not only frequency response information that an RTA provides, but also in the time domain. This provides the engineer with much more meaningful data than an RTA alone. Dual FFT analysis allows one to compare the source signal with the output signal. A system can be calibrated using normal program material instead of pink noise or other special test signals. Calibration can be monitored during a performance.
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too loud. A compressor accomplishes this by reducing the gain of a signal that is above a defined level (the threshold) by a defined amount determined by the ratio setting. Most compressors available are designed to allow the operator to select a ratio within a range typically between 1:1 and 20:1, with some allowing settings of up to ∞:1. A compressor with high compression ratio is typically referred to as a
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1464:- and splash-resistant speakers in swimming pools. Another challenge with sports sound reinforcement setups is that in many arenas and stadiums, the spectators are on all four sides of the playing field. This requires 360-degree sound coverage. This is very different from the norm with music festivals and music halls, where the musicians are on stage and the audience is seated in front of the stage.
600:
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traditional, Broadway-style sound reinforcement, in which most if not all singers are equipped with radio microphones mixed to a series of unsightly loudspeakers scattered throughout the theatre." Instead, most opera houses use the sound reinforcement system for acoustic enhancement, and for subtle boosting of offstage voices, onstage dialogue, and sound effects (e.g., church bells in
1322:. Tour sound systems are often designed with substantial redundancy features, so that in the event of equipment failure or amplifier overheating, the system will continue to function. Touring systems for bands performing for crowds of a few thousand people and up are typically set up and operated by a team of technicians and engineers who travel with the performers to every show.
1009:-shaped enclosures became popular as this shape allowed many of them to be easily arrayed together. This period also saw the introduction of inexpensive molded plastic speaker enclosures mounted on tripod stands. Many feature built-in power amplifiers which made them practical for non-professionals to set up and operate successfully. The sound quality available from these simple
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some mixing consoles designed for houses of worship have automatic mixers, which turn down unused channels to reduce noise, and automatic feedback elimination circuits which detect and notch out frequencies that are feeding back. These features may also be available in multi-function consoles used in convention facilities and multi-purpose venues.
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587:. Digital loudspeaker management systems offer sound engineers digital delay (to ensure speakers are in sync with each other), limiting, crossover functions, EQ filters, compression and other functions in a single rack-mountable unit. In previous decades, sound engineers typically had to transport a substantial number of rack-mounted analog
369:(an abbreviation for "auxiliary send"), on each input channel so that a different mix can be created and sent elsewhere for another purpose. One usage for aux sends is to create a mix of the vocal and instrument signals for the monitor mix (this is what the onstage singers and musicians hear from their
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or chapels are long rooms with low ceilings and additional fill-in speakers are needed throughout the room to give good coverage. Once installed, church systems are often operated by amateur volunteers from the congregation, which means that they must be easy to operate and troubleshoot. To this end,
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Since their introduction in the mid-1980s, in-ear monitors have grown to be the most popular monitoring choice for large touring acts. The reduction or elimination of loudspeakers other than instrument amplifiers on stage has allowed for cleaner and less problematic mixing for both the front of house
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loudspeakers, are speaker cabinets used onstage to help performers to hear their singing or playing. As such, monitor speakers are pointed towards a performer or a section of the stage. They are generally sent a different mix of vocals or instruments than the mix that is sent to the main loudspeaker
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mutes signals below a set threshold level. A noise gate's function is in, a sense, opposite to that of a compressor. Noise gates are useful for microphones which will pick up noise that is not relevant to the program, such as the hum of a miked electric guitar amplifier or the rustling of papers on
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is designed to help the audio engineer to manage the dynamic range of audio signals. Prior to the invention of automatic compressors, audio engineers accomplished the same goal by "riding the faders", listening carefully to the mix and lowering the faders of any singer or instrument which was getting
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In cases where performers have to play at a venue that does not have a monitor engineer near the stage, the monitor mixing is done by the FOH engineer from the FOH console. This arrangement can be problematic because the performers end up having to request changes to the monitor mixes with "...hand
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may be necessary. Some of the higher-budget theater shows and musicals are mixed in surround sound live, often with the show's sound operator triggering sound effects that are being mixed with music and dialogue by the show's mixing engineer. These systems are usually much more extensive to design,
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Audio-visual rental systems have to be able to withstand heavy use and even abuse from renters. For this reason, rental companies tend to own speaker cabinets that are heavily braced and protected with steel corners, and electronic equipment such as power amplifiers or effects are often mounted into
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Using monitor speakers instead of in-ear monitors typically results in an increase of stage volume, which can lead to more feedback issues and progressive hearing damage for the performers in front of them. The clarity of the mix for the performer on stage is also typically compromised as they hear
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into the signal path of the system. Audio feedback can create unwanted loud, screaming noises that are disruptive to the performance, and can damage speakers and performers' and audience members' ears. Audio feedback from microphones occurs when a microphone is too near a monitor or main speaker and
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Multiple consoles can be used for different purposes in a single sound reinforcement system. The front-of-house (FOH) mixing console is typically located where the operator can see the action on stage and hear what the audience hears. For broadcast and recording applications, the mixing console may
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In some conferences, sound engineers have to provide microphones for a large number of people who are speaking, in the case of a panel conference or debate. In some cases, automatic mixers are used to control the levels of the microphones and turn off the channels for microphones that are not being
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in the audience seating area by "...augment a hall's intrinsic acoustic characteristics." The systems use "...an array of microphones connected to a computer connected to an array of loudspeakers." However, as concertgoers have become aware of the use of these systems, debates have arisen, because
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In-ear monitors offer considerable isolation for the performer using them: no on-stage sound is heard and the monitor engineer can deliver a much more accurate and clear mix for the performer. With in-ear monitors, each performer can be sent their own customized mix; although this was also the case
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Digital loudspeaker management systems (DLMS) that combine digital crossover functions, compression, limiting, and other features in a single unit are used to process the mix from the mixing console and route it to the various amplifiers. Systems may include several loudspeakers, each with its own
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Compressor applications vary widely. Some applications use limiters for component protection and gain structure control. Artistic signal manipulation using a compressor is a subjective technique widely utilized by mix engineers to improve clarity or to creatively alter the signal in relation to the
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are often built into each channel in mixing consoles, typically for the mid-range frequencies. They are also available as separate rack-mount units that can be connected to a mixing board. Parametric equalizers typically use knobs and sometimes buttons. The audio engineer can select which frequency
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A sound reinforcement system should be able to accurately reproduce a signal from its input, through any processing, to its output without any coloration or distortion. However, due to inconsistencies in venue sizes, shapes, building materials, and even crowd densities, this is not always possible
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so that they can save and automatically recall these many settings in between each song. This time is also used by the system technicians to get familiar with the specific combination of gear that is going to be used on the tour and how it acoustically responds during the show. These technicians
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Mainstream bands that are going to perform in mid- to large-sized venues during their tour schedule one to two weeks of technical rehearsal with the entire concert system and production staff, including audio engineers, at hand. This allows the audio and lighting engineers to become familiar with
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or music theaters to small restaurants or basement pubs with concrete walls. Dance events may be held in huge warehouses, aircraft hangars or outdoor spaces. In some cases, clubs are housed in multi-story venues with balconies or in L-shaped rooms, which makes it hard to get a consistent sound for
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Many touring acts and large venue corporate events will rent large sound reinforcement systems that typically include one or more audio engineers on staff with the renting company. In the case of rental systems for tours, there are typically several audio engineers and technicians from the rental
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and a horn are common, as monitor loudspeakers need to be smaller to save space on the stage. These loudspeakers typically require less power and volume than the main loudspeaker system, as they only need to provide sound for a few people who are in relatively close proximity to the loudspeaker.
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effects are widely used in sound reinforcement systems to enhance the sound of the mix and create a desired artistic effect. Reverb and delay add a sense of spaciousness to the sound. Reverb can give the effect of singing voice or instrument being present in anything from a small room to a massive
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The oldest method of system calibration involves a set of healthy ears, test program material (i.e. music or speech), a graphic equalizer, and a familiarity with the desired frequency response. One must then listen to the program material through the system, take note of any noticeable frequency
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Large-scale sound reinforcement systems are designed, installed, and operated by audio engineers and audio technicians. During the design phase of a newly constructed venue, audio engineers work with architects and contractors, to ensure that the proposed design will accommodate the speakers and
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The 1970s to early 1980s was a period of innovation in loudspeaker design with many sound reinforcement companies designing their own speakers using commercially available drivers. The areas of innovation were in cabinet design, durability, ease of packing and transport, and ease of setup. This
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Since amplifiers can generate a significant amount of heat, thermal dissipation is an important factor for operators to consider when mounting amplifiers into equipment racks. Many power amplifiers feature internal fans to draw air across their heat sinks. The heat sinks can become clogged with
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Rental systems for non-professionals need to be easy to use and set up and they must be easy to repair and maintain for the renting company. From this perspective, speaker cabinets need to have easy-to-access horns, speakers, and crossover circuitry, so that repairs or replacements can be made.
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energy is useful to prevent interference from radio frequencies, lighting control, or digital circuitry creeping into the power amplifiers. Such filters are often paired with graphic and parametric equalizers to give the audio engineer full control of the frequency range. High-pass filters and
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states that opera houses have begun using electronic acoustic enhancement systems "...to compensate for flaws in a venue's acoustical architecture." Despite the uproar that has arisen amongst operagoers, Harada points out that none of the opera houses using acoustic enhancement systems "...use
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to prevent damage to the equipment during transportation. Active loudspeakers have internally mounted amplifiers that have been selected by the manufacturer to match the requirements of the loudspeaker. Some active loudspeakers also have equalization, crossover and mixing circuitry built in.
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hall, or even in a space that does not exist in the physical world. The use of reverb often goes unnoticed by the audience, as it often sounds more natural than if the signal was left "dry" (without effects). Many modern mixing boards designed for live sound include on-board reverb effects.
240:), which convert the signal back into sound energy (the sound heard by the audience and the performers). These primary parts involve varying numbers of individual components to achieve the desired goal of reinforcing and clarifying the sound to the audience, performers, or other individuals.
1428:-producing surfaces. One issue with reproducing speech is that the microphone used to pick up the sound of an individual's voice may also pick up unwanted sounds, such as the rustling of papers on a podium. A more tightly directional microphone may help to reduce unwanted background noises.
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more extraneous noise from around them. The use of monitor loudspeakers, active (with an integrated amplifier) or passive, requires more cabling and gear on stage, resulting in a more cluttered stage. These factors, amongst others, have led to the increasing popularity of in-ear monitors.
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remain busy during the show, making sure the SR system is operating properly and that the system is tuned correctly, as the acoustic response of a room or venue will respond differently throughout the day depending on the temperature, humidity, and number of people in the room or space.
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process is still done by many engineers, even when analysis equipment is used, as a final check of how the system sounds with music or speech playing through the system. Another method of manual calibration requires a pair of high-quality headphones patched into the input signal
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In a coffeehouse or small nightclub, the snake may be only routed to a single mixing console, which an audio engineer will use to adjust the sound and volume of the onstage vocals and instruments that the audience hears through the main speakers and adjust the volume of the
563:. Large music productions often use a separate stage monitor mixing console which is dedicated to creating mixes for the performers on-stage. These consoles are typically placed at the side of the stage so that the operator can communicate with the performers on stage.
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Systems for sports facilities often have to deal with substantial echo, which can make speech unintelligible. Sports and recreational sound systems often face environmental challenges as well, such as the need for weather-proof outdoor speakers in outdoor stadiums and
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This often involves programming different effects and signal processing for use on specific songs, to make the songs sound somewhat similar to the studio versions. To manage a show with a lot of effects changes, the mixing engineers for the show often choose to use a
936:, which offered significant weight- and space-savings as well as increased efficiency. Often installed in railroad stations, stadia, and airports, class D amplifiers can run with minimal additional cooling and with higher rack densities, compared to older amplifiers.
377:). Another use of an aux send is to select varying amounts of certain channels (via the aux send knobs on each channel), and then route these signals to an effects processor. A common example of the second use of aux sends is to send all of the vocal signals from a
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The processed input signals are then mixed to the master faders on the console. The next step in the signal path generally depends on the size of the system in place. In smaller systems, the main outputs are often sent to an additional equalizer, or directly to a
1518:(DSP), there have been many pieces of equipment and computer software designed to shift the bulk of the work of system calibration from human auditory interpretation to software algorithms that run on microprocessors. One tool for calibrating a sound system is a
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company that tour with the band to set up and calibrate the equipment. The individual that mixes the band is often selected and provided by the band, as they are familiar with the various aspects of the show and understand how the band wants the show to sound.
393:, with one or more loudspeakers (typically two, one on each side of the stage in smaller venues, or a large number in big venues) that are connected to that amplifier. In large-format systems, the signal is typically first routed through an equalizer then to a
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industry disagree over whether these audio systems should be called sound reinforcement (SR) systems or PA systems. Distinguishing between the two terms by technology and capability is common, while others distinguish by intended use (e.g., SR systems are for
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that makes live or pre-recorded sounds louder and may also distribute those sounds to a larger or more distant audience. In many situations, a sound reinforcement system is also used to enhance or alter the sound of the sources on the stage, typically by using
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Churches and similar houses of worship often pose design challenges. Speakers may need to be unobtrusive to blend in with antique woodwork and stonework. In some cases, audio designers have designed custom-painted speaker cabinets. Some facilities, such as
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and PA systems are for reproduction of speech and recorded music in buildings and institutions). In some regions or markets, the distinction between the two terms is important, though the terms are considered interchangeable in many professional circles.
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These systems use microphones, computer processing "with delay, phase, and frequency-response changes", and then send the signal "... to a large number of loudspeakers placed in extremities of the performance venue." Another acoustic enhancement system,
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Sound for live theater, operatic theater, and other dramatic applications may pose problems similar to those of churches; theaters may be in heritage buildings where speakers and wiring is required to blend in with the architecture. The need for clear
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of main loudspeakers at large concerts. During the 1980s the large speaker manufacturers started producing standard products using the innovations of the 1970s. These were mostly smaller two way systems with 12", 15" or double 15" woofers and a
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band to cut or boost, and then use additional knobs to adjust how much to cut or boost this frequency range. Parametric equalizers first became popular in the 1970s and have remained the program equalizer of choice for many engineers since then.
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to pick up the sound. Headset-mounted and tie-clip-mounted microphones are often used with wireless transmission to allow performers or speakers to move freely. Early adopters of headset mounted microphones technology included country singer
397:. A crossover splits the signal into multiple frequency bands with each band being sent to separate amplifiers and speaker enclosures for low, middle, and high-frequency signals. Low-frequency signals are sent to amplifiers and then to
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Eargle J. & Gelow, W., "Performance of Horn
Systems: Low-Frequency Cut-off, Pattern Control, and Distortion Trade-offs", presented at the 101st Audio Engineering Society Convention, Los Angeles, 8–11 November 1996. Preprint number
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of a sound reinforcement system with the aid of a DLMS results in more efficient use of amplifier power by sending each amplifier only the frequencies appropriate for its respective loudspeaker and eliminating losses associated with
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Davis, D & Wickersham, R., "Experiments in the
Enhancement of the Artist's Ability to Control His Interface with the Acoustic Environment in Large Halls", presented at the 51st AES Convention, 13–16 May 1975; preprint number
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signals and clever cryptic phrases" which may be misunderstood. The engineer also cannot hear the changes that he is applying to the monitors on stage, often resulting in a reduction of the quality of the onstage monitor mix.
551:, and mix, equalize and add effects to these sound sources. Doing the mixing for a live show requires a mix of technical and artistic skills. A sound engineer needs to have an expert knowledge of speaker and amplifier set-up,
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Touring sound systems are available in many different sizes and shapes as they have to be powerful and versatile enough to cover many different halls and venues. Touring systems range from mid-sized systems for bands playing
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design. The universal fit in-ear monitors feature rubber or foam tips that can be inserted into virtually anybody's ear. Custom-fit in-ear monitors are created from an impression of the user's ear that has been made by an
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program material. An example of artistic compression is the typical heavy compression used on the various components of a modern rock drum kit. The drums are processed to be perceived as sounding more punchy and full.
786:. The use of effects in the reproduction of 2010-era pop music is often in an attempt to mimic the sound of the studio version of the artist's music in a live concert setting. For example, an audio engineer may use an
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and monitor engineers. Audio feedback is greatly reduced and there is less sound reflecting off the back wall of the stage out into vocal mics and the audience, which improves the clarity of the front-of-house mix.
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are a simple type of equalizer. Equalizers exist in professional sound reinforcement systems in three forms: shelving equalizers (typically for a whole range of bass and treble frequencies), graphic equalizers and
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are electronic devices that allow audio engineers to control the tone and frequencies of the sound in a channel, group (e.g., all the mics on a drumkit) or an entire stage's mix. The bass and treble controls on a
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where traditional folk, bluegrass or jazz groups are the main performers may have no subwoofers, and instead rely on the full-range main PA speakers to reproduce bass sounds. On the other hand, a club where
1435:, individuals who are invited to speak at a forum may not be familiar with how microphones work. Some individuals may accidentally point the microphone towards a speaker or monitor speaker, which may cause
409:) than routing all of the frequencies through a single full-range speaker system. Nevertheless, many small venues still use a single full-range speaker system, as it is easier to set up and less expensive.
1070:. Routing the low-frequency energy to a separate amplifier and subwoofer can substantially improve the bass response of the system. Also, clarity may be enhanced because low-frequency sounds can cause
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into the system and measuring the result with a special calibrated microphone connected to the RTA. Using this information, the system can be adjusted to help achieve the desired frequency response.
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system. Monitor loudspeaker cabinets are often a wedge shape, directing their output upwards towards the performer when set on the floor of the stage. Simple two-way, dual-driver designs with a
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Setting up sound reinforcement for live music clubs and dance events often poses unique challenges, because there is such a large variety of venues that are used as clubs, ranging from former
905:. Standards bodies differ in their recommendations for nominal level and headroom. Selecting amplifiers with enough headroom helps to ensure that the signal will remain clean and undistorted.
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all audience members. The solution is to use fill-in speakers to obtain good coverage, using a delay to ensure that the audience does not hear the same reinforced sound at different times.
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Rear panel of a power amplifier with 2 × 700 Watt (4 Ohm) - very similar to the topmost device in the image above - showing typical connectors for professional use: From left, symmetrical
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Using equalizers, frequencies that are too weak, such as a singer with modest projection in their lower register, can be boosted. Frequencies that are too loud, such as a "boomy" sounding
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are the heart of a sound reinforcement system. This is where the sound engineer can adjust the volume and tone of each input, whether it is a vocalist's microphone or the signal from an
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speaker cabinets and power amplifiers dedicated to low-frequency sounds used in a club depends on the type of club, the genres of music played there, and the size of the venue. A small
1154:. In-ear monitors are almost always used in conjunction with a wireless transmitting system, allowing the performer to freely move about the stage while receiving their monitor mix.
1477:. When the sound reinforcement components are installed, the audio engineers test and calibrate the system so that its sound production will be even across the frequency spectrum.
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and in-ear monitor systems. This lets performers move about the stage during the show or even go out into the audience without the worry of tripping over or disconnecting cables.
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A JBL floor monitor speaker cabinet with a 12" (30 cm) woofer and a "bullet" tweeter. Most monitor cabinets have a metal grille or woven plastic mesh to protect the loudspeaker.
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and monitor mixing engineers during this time to establish what their general idea is of how the show and mix should sound, both for themselves on stage and for the audience.
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973:, housed in a suitable enclosure. More elaborate, professional-caliber sound reinforcement loudspeakers may incorporate separate drivers to produce low, middle, and high
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Microphones used for sound reinforcement are positioned and mounted in many ways, including base-weighted upright stands, podium mounts, tie-clips, instrument mounts, and
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The pre-fade-listen feature on the test program input channel of the mixing console, or the headphone output of the CD player or tape deck can be used for this purpose.
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protective road cases. Rental companies also tend to select gear that have electronic protection features, such as speaker-protection circuitry and amplifier limiters.
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mics are widely used in live sound, because their "apple-shaped" pickup pattern rejects sounds from the sides and rear of the mic, making it more resistant to unwanted
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Small PA systems for venues such as bars and clubs are now available with features that were formerly only available on professional-level equipment, such as digital
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multipin connectors which are all limited to a maximum of 15 amps of current. XLR connectors are still the standard input connector on active loudspeaker cabinets.
901:. Headroom can be thought of as a safety zone allowing transient audio peaks to exceed the nominal level without damaging the system or the audio signal, e.g., via
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is used in some concert halls where classical music such as symphonies and opera is performed. Acoustic enhancement systems add more sound to the hall and prevent
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the show and establish presets on their digital equipment (e.g., digital mixers) for each part of the show, if needed. Many modern musical groups work with their
624:(vertical slide controls) which together resemble a frequency response curve plotted on a graph. The faders can be used to boost or cut specific frequency bands.
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Some manufacturers have designed loudspeakers for use either as a component of a small PA system or as a monitor loudspeaker. A number of manufacturers produce
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circuits which electronically sense and prevent audio feedback when it becomes a problem. Digital effects units may offer multiple pre-set and variable reverb,
669:) reduces the waste of amplifier power which does not produce audible sound and which moreover can be hard on the subwoofer drivers. A low-pass filter to cut
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2779:, volume 53, pp. 17–24 (January 1934). Also, BSTJ, volume XIII, number 2, p. 259 (April 1934) and Journal AES, volume 26, number 3 (March 1978).
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uses "...different algorithms based on microphones placed around the room." The
Deutsche Staatsoper in Berlin and the Hummingbird Centre in Toronto use a
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The appropriate type, variation, and level of effects is quite subjective and is often collectively determined by a production's audio engineer, artists,
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were used alone or in combination to reduce driver failures. During the same period, the professional sound reinforcement industry made the
Neutrik
1005:, where long vertical arrays of loudspeakers in smaller cabinets are used to increase efficiency and provide even dispersion and frequency response.
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the sound reinforcement system amplifies itself. Audio feedback through a microphone is almost universally regarded as a negative phenomenon, many
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pointing towards the onstage performers helps them hear their singing and playing. The audio engineer sits at the back of the room, operating the
1051:(AES) and the loudspeaker industry group ALMA in developing the EIA-426 testing standard, power-handling specifications became more trustworthy.
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Lightweight, portable speaker systems for small venues route the low-frequency parts of the music (electric bass, bass drum, etc.) to a powered
928:. In the late 1990s, power amplifiers in PA applications became lighter, smaller, more powerful, and more efficient, with the increasing use of
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frequency centers. These are typically used to equalize output signals going to the main loudspeaker system or the monitor speakers on stage.
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deviation or resonances, and correct them using the equalizer. Engineers typically use a familiar playlist to calibrate a new system. This
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Houtgast, T. and
Steeneken, H., "Envelope Spectrum Intelligibility of Speech in Enclosures", presented at IEEAFCRL Speech Conference, 1972.
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use guitar feedback as part of their performance. This type of feedback is intentional, so the sound engineer does not try to prevent it.
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Sound reinforcement in a large format system typically involves a signal path that starts with the signal inputs, which may be instrument
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Many sound reinforcement loudspeaker systems incorporate protection circuitry to prevent damage from excessive power or operator error.
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Once the signal arrives at an input on a mixing console, this signal can be adjusted in many ways by the sound engineer. A signal can be
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More recently, sound engineers have seen the introduction of dual fast-Fourier transform (FFT) based audio analysis software, such as
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A challenge with designing sound systems for clubs is that the sound system may need to be used for both prerecorded music played by
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attached to a high frequency horn. The 1980s also saw the start of loudspeaker companies focused on the sound reinforcement market.
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through a reverb effect. While reverb is usually added to vocals in the main mix, it is not usually added to electric bass and other
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mics, are widely used in live sound, because they reduce pickup from the side and rear, helping to avoid unwanted feedback from the
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cabinets. Using a crossover to separate the sound into low, middle and high frequencies can lead to a "cleaner", clearer sound (see
655:(high-cut) filter may also be included on equalizers or audio consoles. High-pass and low-pass filters restrict a given channel's
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any processing. One can then use this direct signal as a reference with which to identify any differences in frequency response.
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Lecture halls and conference rooms pose the challenge of reproducing speech clearly in a large hall, which may have reflective,
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Like most sound reinforcement equipment, professional power amplifiers are typically designed to be mounted within standard
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are required; one to do the main mix for the audience at FOH and another to do the monitor mix for the performers on stage.
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682:, does the opposite. It allows all frequencies to pass except for one band in the middle. A feedback suppressor, using an
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may make the use of regular speaker cabinets unacceptable; instead, slim, low-profile speakers are often used instead.
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Sound reinforcement systems are used in a broad range of different settings, each of which poses different challenges.
886:. A power amplifier pushed into clipping can damage loudspeakers. Amplifiers also typically provide protection against
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theater and PA speakers were commonly columns of multiple drivers mounted in a vertical line within a tall enclosure.
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Another challenge with doing live sound for individuals who are speaking at a conference is that, in comparison with
1388:"...purists maintain that the natural acoustic sound of voices instruments in a given hall should not be altered."
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them above the stage area, to provide more even sound coverage and to maximize sightlines within performance venues.
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being the most commonly used input device. Microphones can be classified according to their method of transduction,
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signal and provides enough electrical power to drive a loudspeaker and produce sound. All loudspeakers, including
249:
2716:, volume 17, number 2 (April 1969), volume 18, number 1 (February 1970), and volume 20, number 10 (December 1972).
3217:
1515:
1048:
897:. Headroom refers to the amount by which the signal-handling capabilities of an audio system exceed a designated
706:
311:
225:
1541:
1349:
1037:
941:
621:
55:
Rear panel of a medium-sized sound reinforcement system located at one side of the stage at a pop concert in a
1283:
The
Iglesia Los Olivos church. P.A. speakers are mounted on the ceiling to reproduce the speech of the priest.
1248:
may have multiple large subwoofers, as these genres and music styles typically use powerful, deep bass sound.
540:
A Yamaha PM4000 and a Midas
Heritage 3000 mixing console at the front of house position at an outdoor concert.
1856:
1413:
640:
555:
and other technologies and a good "ear" for what the music should sound like in order to create a good mix.
217:
1207:
A front-of-house sound engineer with a
Digidesign D-Show Profile live digital mixer and a computer monitor.
1335:
3232:
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3067:
2798:
1373:
1368:
490:
265:
237:
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132:
100:
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are headphones that have been designed for use as monitors by a live performer. They are either of a
878:, require power amplification. Most professional audio power amplifiers also provide protection from
260:) or a microphone that a vocalist is singing into or a microphone placed in front of an instrument or
3155:
2761:
Toole, F., "Loudspeaker
Measurements and Their Relationship to Listener Preferences, Parts 1 and 2",
1887:
1560:
and related equipment designed for use by audio engineers and technicians. Stores often use the word
1380:
759:
617:
607:
584:
477:
466:
458:
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or their functional application. Most microphones used in sound reinforcement are either dynamic or
307:
296:
221:
1695:
Audio
Systems - Loudspeakers, Amplifiers, Signal Processors, Mixers, Music Source & Microphones
1356:
1106:
810:
580:
525:
2688:
Gander, M. & Eargle, J., "Measurement and Estimation of Large Loudspeaker Array Performance",
1934:
2836:
1762:
1519:
1507:
995:
970:
925:
632:
501:
168:
163:
2733:
Peutz, V., "Articulation Loss of Consonants as a Criterion for Speech Transmission in a Room",
401:, and middle and high-frequency sounds are typically sent to amplifiers which power full-range
2949:
2624:
2606:
2588:
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2552:
2534:
2516:
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2015:
1993:
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1233:
946:
933:
576:
318:(that is sent to the left or right speakers). The signal may also be routed into an external
124:
1568:
in their name or the description of their store, to differentiate their stores from consumer
1077:
Professional sound reinforcement speaker systems often include dedicated hardware for safely
143:
and technicians. On the other hand, a sound reinforcement system can be as simple as a small
3145:
3112:
3017:
2890:
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system. The Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles, the Royal National Theatre in London, and the
1255:
A DJ gets his decks ready as the speaker cabinets are set up and readied for a dance event.
698:
17:
3022:
2681:
French, N. & Steinberg, J., "Factors Governing the Intelligibility of Speech Sounds",
1787:
1701:
1071:
1054:
1021:
1017:
978:
867:
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filter, eliminating undesirable frequencies both above and below the auditory spectrum. A
652:
497:
473:
394:
390:
315:
253:
68:
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output optimized for a specific range of frequencies (i.e. bass, midrange, and treble).
2775:
Wente, E. & Thuras, A., "Auditory Perspective — Loudspeakers and Microphones",
2621:
Professional Sound Reinforcement Techniques: Tips and Tricks of a Concert Sound Engineer
1443:
spoken into, to reduce unwanted background noise and reduce the likelihood of feedback.
635:
can be cut. Sound reinforcement systems typically use graphic equalizers with one-third
3135:
3107:
3097:
2841:
2452:
2394:
2214:
2193:
2172:
1954:
1804:
1436:
1327:
1138:
1131:
859:
814:
798:
686:, automatically detects the onset of feedback and applies a narrow band-stop filter (a
544:
438:
430:
382:
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330:(effected) version of the signal, which is typically mixed in varying amounts with the
300:
299:, which is often a second mixer at the side of the stage. In these cases, at least two
292:
288:
273:
193:
184:
A basic sound reinforcement system that would be used in a small music venue. The main
144:
140:
104:
64:
60:
56:
2719:
Lochner, P. & Burger, J., "The Influence of Reflections on Auditorium Acoustics",
2702:
Hilliard, J., "Historical Review of Horns Used for Audience-Type Sound Reproduction",
1694:
1674:
1451:
790:
effect to produce unusual vocal sound effects that a singer used on their recordings.
39:
3196:
3057:
2984:
2954:
2474:
1875:
1748:
1727:
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1268:
1033:
898:
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847:
775:
755:
548:
339:
257:
147:(PA) system, consisting of, for example, a single microphone connected to a 100-watt
2754:
Smith, D., Keele, D., and Eargle, J., "Improvements in Monitor Loudspeaker Design",
1305:
A Meyer line array of speaker cabinets is moved into position at an outdoor concert.
3117:
3082:
3077:
2974:
2868:
2863:
2747:
Schroeder, M., "Progress in Architectural Acoustics and Artificial Reverberation",
2008:
1557:
1301:
1279:
1029:
957:
909:
818:
687:
588:
552:
536:
482:
422:
335:
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209:
120:
109:
72:
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without prior calibration of the system. This can be done in one of several ways.
1360:
typically involving separate sets of speakers for different zones in the theater.
1819:
426:
Audio engineers use a range of microphones for different live sound applications.
3181:
3171:
3102:
3042:
3032:
2853:
2289:
1577:
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1006:
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612:
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402:
287:
Mid- to large-size performing venues typically route the onstage signals to two
233:
185:
152:
96:
733:
Effect processing rack-mounted units at the FOH position at an outdoor concert.
3140:
3052:
3027:
2944:
2895:
2873:
2826:
2768:
Veneklasen, P., "Design Considerations from the Viewpoint of the Consultant",
1523:
1510:
underneath an Ashly Protea II 4.24C speaker processor (with RS-232 connection)
1212:
1047:) which indicates their maximum power capacity. Thanks to the efforts of the
1002:
875:
871:
851:
794:
783:
743:
670:
661:
516:
may be necessary to adapt some of these sources to the inputs of the console.
505:
454:
450:
446:
205:
201:
136:
84:
123:
in a stadium may be very complex, including hundreds of microphones, complex
30:
This article is about live sound reinforcement. For other sound systems, see
3087:
3062:
2979:
2964:
1355:
In live theater and drama, performers move around onstage, which means that
1311:
1237:
1229:
1220:
1067:
1059:
1043:
To help users avoid overpowering them, loudspeakers have a power rating (in
981:
routes the different frequencies to the appropriate drivers. In the 1960s,
974:
921:
dust, which can adversely affect the cooling capabilities of the amplifier.
913:
870:
is an electronic device that uses electrical power and circuitry to boost a
787:
675:
628:
508:
pickups (cartridges) used in record players. Electronic instruments such as
486:
398:
378:
272:). The snake then delivers the signals of all of the inputs to one or more
232:, which produce a powerful version of the resulting signal that can drive a
229:
92:
44:
1126:
1726:
Badhorn, Philippe (February 2006). "Interview in Rolling Stone (France)".
1502:
1178:
3047:
2959:
2883:
1461:
1264:
961:
A large line array with separate subs and a smaller side fill line array.
434:
351:
196:, which shapes the sound and volume of all of the voices and instruments.
1580:
equipment, and amplifiers, which are designed for private, in-home use.
1089:
3072:
3037:
2989:
2878:
2858:
2712:
Klipsch, P. "Modulation Distortion in Loudspeakers: Parts 1, 2, and 3"
2503:
1474:
1315:
1025:
883:
855:
767:
711:
513:
213:
59:. The setup (image covering about 3 m from left to right) includes the
834:
729:
512:
can have their output signal routed directly to the mixing console. A
3092:
2086:, Cedar Rapids, IA: National Systems Contractors Association (NSCA),
1530:
636:
572:
560:
343:
323:
113:
1372:
the first permanent LARES outdoor speakers at a concert venue named
180:
2084:
Audio systems Technology #2 - Handbook for Installers and Engineers
690:) at specific frequency or frequencies pertaining to the feedback.
3176:
2969:
2918:
2913:
1839:
1501:
1450:
1409:
1397:
1367:
1300:
1278:
1250:
1202:
1177:
1125:
1088:
1053:
1028:
NL4 and NL8 connectors the standard speaker connectors, replacing
956:
841:
728:
535:
429:
421:
264:. These signal inputs are plugged into the input jacks of a thick
188:
for the audience are to the left and right of the stage. A row of
179:
50:
38:
2603:
The Sound On Sound book of Live Sound for the Performing Musician
1455:
A speaker array mounted in the rafters in a camp sports facility.
2996:
2923:
2740:
Rathe, E., "Note on Two Common Problems of Sound Reproduction",
1405:
1182:
Staff set up sound system speaker cabinets for an outdoor event.
1044:
714:. The speed that the compressor adjusts the gain of the signal (
128:
2787:
2726:
Meyer, D., "Digital Control of Loudspeaker Array Directivity",
2531:
Live Sound basics: The fundamentals of Live Sound for Beginners
1983:, vol. 1 and 2, New York: Audio Engineering Society, 1996
1314:
and other mid-sized venues to large systems for groups playing
524:
Wireless systems are typically used for electric guitar, bass,
159:
sound to make it louder or distribute it to a wider audience.
1630:(2nd ed.), Milwaukee: Hal Leonard Corporation, p. 4
47:
concerts use complex and powerful sound reinforcement systems
2772:, pp. 21–24, Applied Science Publishers, London (1975).
2645:
Benson, J.E. "Theory and Design of Loudspeaker Enclosures",
2400:(2nd ed.), Pasadena, CA: Audio Engineering Associates,
2257:(3rd ed.), Victoria Australia: Roztralia Productions,
1260:
1241:
659:
extremes. Cutting very low-frequency sound signals (termed
2783:
817:
and suppresses it, typically by automatically inserting a
778:
and spectral manipulation or harmonic effects such as the
2659:
Damaske, P., "Subjective Investigation of Sound Fields",
2418:(2nd ed.), Focal Press, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd.,
354:), which electronically correct any out-of-tune singing.
116:, as opposed to simply amplifying the sources unaltered.
1801:"Q. What exactly is 'headroom' and why is it important?"
461:
microphones. One type of directional microphone, called
200:
A typical sound reinforcement system consists of; input
2699:, volume 26, number, pp. 629–634 (September 1978).
2695:
Henricksen, C. & Ureda, M., "The Manta-Ray Horns",
2158:(5th ed.), Peterborough, NH: Audio Amateur Press,
1263:
and live music. A club system designed for DJs needs a
862:
for the loudspeaker cables (black and red per channel).
2291:
JBL Professional, Sound System Design Reference Manual
893:
Audio engineers select amplifiers that provide enough
310:(e.g., by adjusting the bass or treble of the sound),
2706:, volume 59, number 1, pp. 1 – 8, (January 1976)
2674:
Engebretson, M., "Low Frequency Sound Reproduction",
2758:, volume 31, number 6, pp. 408–422 (June 1983).
2374:(Bestseller ed.), Auburn Hills, MI: Mix Books,
718:) is typically adjustable as is the final output or
559:
be placed within an enclosed booth or outside in an
476:. Microphones on stands are also placed in front of
127:
and signal processing systems, tens of thousands of
3164:
3126:
3010:
2937:
2906:
2819:
989:period also saw the introduction of the hanging or
449:can be found in a sound reinforcement system, with
338:are used in sound reinforcement systems, including
2678:, volume 32, number 5, pp. 340–352 (May 1984)
2473:
2451:
2393:
2007:
2434:Concert Sound: Tours, Techniques & Technology
2318:Sound Check: The Basic of Sound and Sound Systems
1790:. Harmony-Central. Retrieved on January 23, 2009.
766:Other effects include modulation effects such as
2567:Standard Handbook of Audio and Radio Engineering
1764:Advantages of a Dedicated Monitor Mixing Console
1020:, specialized current-limiting light bulbs, and
924:In the 1970s and 1980s, most PAs employed heavy
2647:Amalgamated Wireless Australia Technical Review
1886:LiveDesignOnline.com. Kai Harada, Mar 1, 2001.
1013:varies widely depending on the implementation.
1851:
1849:
500:used in electric guitars and electric basses,
236:and output transducers (e.g., loudspeakers in
220:which alter the signal characteristics (e.g.,
2799:
2652:Beranek, L., "Loudspeakers and Microphones",
2237:The Yamaha Guide to Sound Systems for Worship
1905:"PRIMEDIA Business Magazines & Media Inc"
1713:
1652:
1640:
1134:. This particular model is the Etymotic ER-4S
674:low-pass filters used together function as a
504:used on stringed instruments, and pianos and
8:
1522:(RTA). This tool is usually used by piping
1379:A subtle type of sound reinforcement called
912:. Rack-mounted amps are typically housed in
2587:, Seattle: University of Washington Press,
1818:Vasey, John (1999). "5, Power amplifiers".
2806:
2792:
2784:
2307:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1744:The Monitor Engineer's Role in Performance
151:for a singer-guitarist playing in a small
2751:, volume 32, number 4, p. 194 (1984)
1959:Audio Engineering for sound reinforcement
1114:, which contain an integrated amplifier.
1074:and other distortion in speaker systems.
850:-sockets for signal input, alternatively
496:Other types of input transducers include
2663:, Vol. 19, pp. 198–213 (1967–1968).
2014:(5th ed.), Belmont, CA: Wadsworth,
833:
697:
598:
27:Amplified sound system for public events
2480:, San Francisco: Miller Freeman Press,
2356:(5th ed.), New York: McGraw-Hill,
2275:(2nd ed.), Carmel, Indiana: Sams,
2102:Live Sound: PA for Performing Musicians
1618:
1589:
854:sockets, loudspeaker terminals of type
162:Some audio engineers and others in the
2765:, volume 34, numbers 4 & 5 (1986).
2300:
2297:(ebook ed.), Northridge, CA, 1999
2200:, Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers,
2179:, Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers,
1673:, Prism Business Media, archived from
1416:in New York City use the SIAP system.
702:A rack of electronic audio compressors
334:(effect-free) signal. Many electronic
2744:, volume 10, pp. 472–479 (1969).
2583:White, Glenn; Louie, Gary J. (2005),
2515:(3rd ed.), Boston: Focal Press,
2273:Audio Systems Design and Installation
2140:(2nd ed.), Boston: Focal Press,
2122:, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons,
2068:(3rd ed.), Boston: Focal Press,
2032:(3rd ed.), Oxford: Focal Press,
1961:. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard Corporation.
858:(center), alternatively conventional
357:Mixing consoles also have additional
314:(to avoid unwanted signal peaks), or
7:
2605:, London: Sanctuary Publishing Ltd,
2565:Whitaker, Jerry; Benson, K. (2002),
2533:(1st ed.), Athens, GA: Amazon,
2458:, Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard Corp.,
2320:, Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard Corp.,
2239:, Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard Corp.,
1902:Entertainment Design, Mar 1, 2001
1857:"In-Ear Monitors: Tips of the Trade"
1665:Borgerson, Bruce (1 November 2003),
2476:Rock Hardware, Blafon/Outline Press
2414:Talbot-Smith, Michael, ed. (2001),
890:across the output and overheating.
591:devices to accomplish these tasks.
119:A sound reinforcement system for a
2723:, volume 4, pp. 426–54 (196).
2513:Concert Sound and Lighting Systems
2066:Loudspeaker and Headphone Handbook
1821:Concert Sound and Lighting Systems
1626:Davis, Gary; Jones, Ralph (1989),
1420:Lecture halls and conference rooms
1001:The 1990s saw the introduction of
284:that are aimed at the performers.
25:
2551:(3rd ed.), Boca Raton: CRC,
2082:Brawley, J., ed. (October 1998),
1981:AES Sound Reinforcement Anthology
1400:or thunder in Wagnerian operas).
1199:Live music clubs and dance events
228:that reduce signal peaks, etc.),
224:that adjust the bass and treble,
2704:J. Acoustical Society of America
2683:J. Acoustical Society of America
2654:J. Acoustical Society of America
2177:Electroacoustical Reference Data
1988:Ahnert, W.; Steffer, F. (2000),
155:. In both cases, these systems
2416:Audio Engineer's Reference Book
1990:Sound Reinforcement Engineering
1876:Why do you need a Sound System?
2737:, volume 19, number 11 (1971).
2730:, volume 32, number 10 (1984).
2336:Music, Physics and Engineering
1931:"When Hearing Starts To Drift"
71:which are partly stacked in a
1:
2692:, volume 38, number 4 (1990).
2656:, volume 26, number 5 (1954).
2436:, Emeryville, CA: Mix Books,
2136:Davis, D.; Davis, C. (1997),
2120:High Performance Loudspeakers
969:may have a single full-range
32:Sound system (disambiguation)
2763:J. Audio Engineering Society
2756:J. Audio Engineering Society
2749:J. Audio Engineering Society
2735:J. Audio Engineering Society
2728:J. Audio Engineering Society
2714:J. Audio Engineering Society
2697:J. Audio Engineering Society
2690:J. Audio Engineering Society
2676:J. Audio Engineering Society
2030:Handbook for Sound Engineers
1893:Retrieved on March 24, 2009.
1671:Sound & Video Contractor
1628:Sound Reinforcement Handbook
1572:, which sell consumer-grade
965:A simple and inexpensive PA
838:Three audio power amplifiers
139:, all overseen by a team of
3208:Sound production technology
2496:PA Systems for Small Groups
2354:Principles of Digital Audio
2104:, Kent, UK: PC Publishing,
1889:Opera's Dirty Little Secret
1393:Opera's Dirty Little Secret
18:Sound reinforcement systems
3249:
3203:Sound reinforcement system
3151:Sound reinforcement system
3011:Concepts · Techniques
2623:, Vallejo, CA: Mix Books,
2529:Wallace, Ric, ed. (2012),
2048:Audio Engineering Handbook
2006:Alten, Stanley R. (1999),
1704:. Retrieved on 2024-07-24.
882:typically as some form of
620:. Graphic equalizers have
81:sound reinforcement system
67:(standing behind) and the
29:
2569:, New York: McGraw-Hill,
2549:AC Power Systems Handbook
2271:Giddings, Philip (1998),
2064:Borwick, J., ed. (2001),
2050:, New York: McGraw-Hill,
1957:; Foreman, Chris (2002).
1714:Eargle & Foreman 2002
1653:Eargle & Foreman 2002
1641:Eargle & Foreman 2002
1542:Professional audio stores
1516:digital signal processing
1514:Since the development of
1364:Classical music and opera
1049:Audio Engineering Society
707:Dynamic range compression
216:into an electric signal,
57:location with 3.200 seats
2547:Whitaker, Jerry (2006),
2472:Trynka, P., ed. (1996),
2454:Live Sound for Musicians
2396:The New Stereo Soundbook
2372:Live Sound Reinforcement
2156:The Loudspeaker Cookbook
2138:Sound System Engineering
2118:Colloms, Martin (2005),
1130:A pair of universal fit
1112:powered monitor speakers
942:Bi-amping and tri-amping
930:switching power supplies
631:, or an overly resonant
585:echo and related effects
326:effect, which outputs a
2619:Yakabuski, Jim (2001),
2432:Trubitt, David (1993),
2370:Stark, Scott H (2004),
2221:, Boston: Focal Press,
1537:Equipment supply stores
1414:Vivian Beaumont Theater
801:, or musical director.
579:, and, in some models,
2777:Electrical Engineering
2742:J. Sound and Vibration
2450:Trubitt, Rudy (1997),
2352:Pohlmann, Ken (2005),
2235:Eiche, Jon F. (1990),
1992:, London: SPON Press,
1511:
1506:A Rane RA 27 hardware
1468:Setting up and testing
1456:
1376:
1336:digital mixing console
1306:
1284:
1256:
1208:
1183:
1135:
1094:
1063:
962:
863:
839:
734:
703:
604:
541:
442:
427:
361:, also referred to as
197:
83:is the combination of
76:
48:
2649:, (1968, 1971, 1972).
2316:Moscal, Tony (1994),
2154:Dickason, V. (1995),
2100:Buick, Peter (1996),
2028:Ballou, Glen (2005),
1505:
1454:
1391:Kai Harada's article
1374:Jay Pritzker Pavilion
1371:
1304:
1282:
1254:
1206:
1181:
1129:
1092:
1057:
996:high frequency driver
960:
845:
837:
732:
701:
641:Parametric equalizers
618:parametric equalizers
602:
539:
478:instrument amplifiers
433:
425:
183:
149:amplified loudspeaker
54:
42:
2938:Voice classification
2770:Auditorium Acoustics
2601:White, Paul (2005),
2585:The Audio Dictionary
2511:Vasey, John (1999),
2253:Fry, Duncan (1996),
2198:Loudspeaker Handbook
1447:Sports sound systems
1433:professional singers
1381:acoustic enhancement
1357:wireless microphones
1098:Monitor loudspeakers
1085:Monitor loudspeakers
526:handheld microphones
467:stage monitor system
445:Many types of input
346:. Some concerts use
297:stage monitor system
135:power, and multiple
103:all controlled by a
3002:Non-classical music
2907:Forms · Genres
2721:Sound and Vibration
2685:, volume 19 (1947).
2338:, New York: Dover,
2334:Oson, H.F. (1967),
2219:The Microphone Book
2046:Benson, K. (1988),
1667:"Is it P.A. or SR?"
926:class AB amplifiers
824:electric guitarists
811:feedback suppressor
805:Feedback suppressor
581:feedback prevention
502:contact microphones
3213:Technology systems
2837:Extended technique
1700:2012-01-08 at the
1677:on 1 December 2008
1570:electronics stores
1546:speaker enclosures
1544:sell microphones,
1520:real-time analyzer
1512:
1508:real-time analyzer
1457:
1377:
1307:
1285:
1257:
1209:
1184:
1136:
1095:
1064:
971:loudspeaker driver
963:
934:class D amplifiers
864:
840:
735:
716:attack and release
704:
633:dreadnought guitar
605:
577:graphic equalizers
542:
443:
428:
198:
169:live event support
164:professional audio
137:loudspeaker arrays
110:electronic effects
77:
49:
3223:Audio engineering
3190:
3189:
2390:Everest, F. Alton
2255:Live Sound Mixing
1320:outdoor festivals
1275:Houses of worship
1234:heavy metal music
979:crossover network
953:Main loudspeakers
947:passive crossover
813:detects unwanted
651:(low-cut) and/or
603:Graphic equalizer
567:Signal processors
418:Input transducers
413:System components
320:effects processor
218:signal processors
212:such as a person
208:), which convert
125:live sound mixing
89:signal processors
16:(Redirected from
3240:
3218:Audio amplifiers
3146:Pitch correction
3113:Vocal resonation
2891:Vocal percussion
2847:Overtone singing
2832:Bathroom singing
2808:
2801:
2794:
2785:
2633:
2615:
2597:
2579:
2561:
2543:
2525:
2507:
2490:
2479:
2468:
2457:
2446:
2428:
2410:
2399:
2388:Streicher, Ron;
2384:
2366:
2348:
2330:
2312:
2306:
2298:
2296:
2285:
2267:
2249:
2231:
2210:
2189:
2168:
2150:
2132:
2114:
2096:
2078:
2060:
2042:
2024:
2013:
2002:
1984:
1962:
1946:
1945:
1943:
1942:
1933:. Archived from
1926:
1920:
1919:
1917:
1916:
1907:. Archived from
1900:
1894:
1884:
1878:
1873:
1867:
1866:
1864:
1863:
1853:
1844:
1843:
1815:
1809:
1808:
1807:. February 2010.
1797:
1791:
1785:
1779:
1778:
1777:
1776:
1769:Sweetwater Sound
1759:
1753:
1752:
1747:, archived from
1738:
1732:
1731:
1723:
1717:
1711:
1705:
1692:
1686:
1685:
1684:
1682:
1662:
1656:
1650:
1644:
1638:
1632:
1631:
1623:
1607:
1604:
1598:
1594:
1236:bands play or a
1022:circuit breakers
1018:Resettable fuses
1011:powered speakers
830:Power amplifiers
680:band-stop filter
498:magnetic pickups
407:bi-amplification
371:monitor speakers
348:pitch correction
282:monitor speakers
268:(often called a
262:guitar amplifier
238:speaker cabinets
190:monitor speakers
69:power amplifiers
21:
3248:
3247:
3243:
3242:
3241:
3239:
3238:
3237:
3193:
3192:
3191:
3186:
3160:
3156:Monitor speaker
3129:(popular music)
3128:
3127:Sound equipment
3122:
3006:
2933:
2902:
2815:
2812:
2782:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2618:
2613:
2600:
2595:
2582:
2577:
2564:
2559:
2546:
2541:
2528:
2523:
2510:
2493:
2488:
2471:
2466:
2449:
2444:
2431:
2426:
2413:
2408:
2387:
2382:
2369:
2364:
2351:
2346:
2333:
2328:
2315:
2299:
2294:
2288:
2283:
2270:
2265:
2252:
2247:
2234:
2229:
2213:
2208:
2192:
2187:
2171:
2166:
2153:
2148:
2135:
2130:
2117:
2112:
2099:
2094:
2081:
2076:
2063:
2058:
2045:
2040:
2027:
2022:
2005:
2000:
1987:
1979:
1975:
1970:
1968:Further reading
1965:
1953:
1949:
1940:
1938:
1928:
1927:
1923:
1914:
1912:
1903:
1901:
1897:
1885:
1881:
1874:
1870:
1861:
1859:
1855:
1854:
1847:
1832:
1824:. Focal Press.
1817:
1816:
1812:
1799:
1798:
1794:
1786:
1782:
1774:
1772:
1761:
1760:
1756:
1740:
1739:
1735:
1725:
1724:
1720:
1712:
1708:
1702:Wayback Machine
1693:
1689:
1680:
1678:
1664:
1663:
1659:
1651:
1647:
1639:
1635:
1625:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1611:
1610:
1605:
1601:
1595:
1591:
1586:
1556:, rack-mounted
1539:
1483:
1470:
1449:
1422:
1366:
1345:
1299:
1297:Touring systems
1277:
1201:
1176:
1168:
1139:In-ear monitors
1132:in-ear monitors
1124:
1122:In-ear monitors
1087:
1072:intermodulation
955:
868:power amplifier
860:screw terminals
832:
807:
753:
740:
722:of the device.
696:
597:
569:
545:Mixing consoles
534:
532:Mixing consoles
522:
420:
415:
391:power amplifier
375:in-ear monitors
350:effects (e.g.,
301:audio engineers
295:(FOH), and the
289:mixing consoles
274:mixing consoles
266:multicore cable
254:electric guitar
246:
178:
141:audio engineers
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3246:
3244:
3236:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3195:
3194:
3188:
3187:
3185:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3168:
3166:
3162:
3161:
3159:
3158:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3136:In-ear monitor
3132:
3130:
3124:
3123:
3121:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3108:Vocal register
3105:
3100:
3098:Vocal pedagogy
3095:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3020:
3014:
3012:
3008:
3007:
3005:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2993:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2941:
2939:
2935:
2934:
2932:
2931:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2910:
2908:
2904:
2903:
2901:
2900:
2899:
2898:
2888:
2887:
2886:
2881:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2850:
2849:
2844:
2842:Throat singing
2834:
2829:
2823:
2821:
2817:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2810:
2803:
2796:
2788:
2781:
2780:
2773:
2766:
2759:
2752:
2745:
2738:
2731:
2724:
2717:
2710:
2707:
2700:
2693:
2686:
2679:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2657:
2650:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2634:
2629:
2616:
2611:
2598:
2593:
2580:
2575:
2562:
2557:
2544:
2540:978-1475080476
2539:
2526:
2521:
2508:
2494:Urso, Mark T.
2491:
2486:
2469:
2464:
2447:
2442:
2429:
2424:
2411:
2406:
2385:
2380:
2367:
2362:
2349:
2344:
2331:
2326:
2313:
2286:
2281:
2268:
2263:
2250:
2245:
2232:
2227:
2211:
2206:
2190:
2185:
2169:
2164:
2151:
2146:
2133:
2128:
2115:
2110:
2097:
2092:
2079:
2074:
2061:
2056:
2043:
2038:
2025:
2020:
2010:Audio in Media
2003:
1998:
1985:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1963:
1950:
1948:
1947:
1921:
1895:
1879:
1868:
1845:
1830:
1810:
1805:Sound on Sound
1792:
1780:
1754:
1741:Philip Manor,
1733:
1718:
1706:
1687:
1657:
1655:, p. 167.
1645:
1643:, p. 299.
1633:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1609:
1608:
1599:
1588:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1538:
1535:
1482:
1481:System testing
1479:
1469:
1466:
1448:
1445:
1437:audio feedback
1421:
1418:
1365:
1362:
1344:
1341:
1328:front of house
1298:
1295:
1276:
1273:
1269:record players
1267:and space for
1219:The number of
1200:
1197:
1175:
1174:Rental systems
1172:
1167:
1164:
1123:
1120:
1100:, also called
1086:
1083:
1058:An 18" Mackie
1034:XLR connectors
954:
951:
888:short circuits
831:
828:
815:audio feedback
806:
803:
799:music producer
752:
749:
739:
736:
695:
692:
684:microprocessor
596:
593:
568:
565:
533:
530:
521:
518:
474:headset mounts
419:
416:
414:
411:
383:rhythm section
293:front of house
245:
242:
194:mixing console
177:
174:
145:public address
105:mixing console
65:sound engineer
61:mixing console
43:Large outdoor
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3245:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3200:
3198:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3169:
3167:
3165:Miscellaneous
3163:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3133:
3131:
3125:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3018:Backup vocals
3016:
3015:
3013:
3009:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2985:Mezzo-soprano
2983:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2955:Bass-baritone
2953:
2951:
2948:
2947:
2946:
2943:
2942:
2940:
2936:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2911:
2909:
2905:
2897:
2894:
2893:
2892:
2889:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2876:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2839:
2838:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2824:
2822:
2820:Singing types
2818:
2809:
2804:
2802:
2797:
2795:
2790:
2789:
2786:
2778:
2774:
2771:
2767:
2764:
2760:
2757:
2753:
2750:
2746:
2743:
2739:
2736:
2732:
2729:
2725:
2722:
2718:
2715:
2711:
2708:
2705:
2701:
2698:
2694:
2691:
2687:
2684:
2680:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2662:
2658:
2655:
2651:
2648:
2644:
2643:
2638:
2632:
2630:0-87288-759-6
2626:
2622:
2617:
2614:
2612:1-86074-210-6
2608:
2604:
2599:
2596:
2594:0-295-98498-8
2590:
2586:
2581:
2578:
2576:0-07-006717-1
2572:
2568:
2563:
2560:
2558:0-8493-4034-9
2554:
2550:
2545:
2542:
2536:
2532:
2527:
2524:
2522:0-240-80364-7
2518:
2514:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2492:
2489:
2487:0-87930-428-6
2483:
2478:
2477:
2470:
2467:
2465:0-7935-6852-8
2461:
2456:
2455:
2448:
2445:
2443:0-7935-2073-8
2439:
2435:
2430:
2427:
2425:0-240-51685-0
2421:
2417:
2412:
2409:
2407:0-9665162-0-6
2403:
2398:
2397:
2391:
2386:
2383:
2381:1-59200-691-4
2377:
2373:
2368:
2365:
2363:0-07-144156-5
2359:
2355:
2350:
2347:
2345:0-486-21769-8
2341:
2337:
2332:
2329:
2327:0-7935-3559-X
2323:
2319:
2314:
2310:
2304:
2293:
2292:
2287:
2284:
2282:0-672-22672-3
2278:
2274:
2269:
2266:
2260:
2256:
2251:
2248:
2246:0-7935-0029-X
2242:
2238:
2233:
2230:
2228:0-240-51961-2
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2209:
2207:1-4020-7584-7
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2188:
2186:0-442-01397-3
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2167:
2165:0-9624191-7-6
2161:
2157:
2152:
2149:
2147:0-240-80305-1
2143:
2139:
2134:
2131:
2129:0-470-09430-3
2125:
2121:
2116:
2113:
2111:1-870775-44-9
2107:
2103:
2098:
2095:
2093:0-7906-1163-5
2089:
2085:
2080:
2077:
2075:0-240-51578-1
2071:
2067:
2062:
2059:
2057:0-07-004777-4
2053:
2049:
2044:
2041:
2039:0-240-80758-8
2035:
2031:
2026:
2023:
2021:0-534-54801-6
2017:
2012:
2011:
2004:
2001:
1999:0-419-21810-6
1995:
1991:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1951:
1937:on 2001-12-26
1936:
1932:
1925:
1922:
1911:on 2013-10-31
1910:
1906:
1899:
1896:
1892:
1890:
1883:
1880:
1877:
1872:
1869:
1858:
1852:
1850:
1846:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1831:9780240803647
1827:
1823:
1822:
1814:
1811:
1806:
1802:
1796:
1793:
1789:
1788:Reverberation
1784:
1781:
1770:
1766:
1765:
1758:
1755:
1751:on 2008-03-25
1750:
1746:
1745:
1737:
1734:
1729:
1728:Rolling Stone
1722:
1719:
1716:, p. 62.
1715:
1710:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1696:
1691:
1688:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1661:
1658:
1654:
1649:
1646:
1642:
1637:
1634:
1629:
1622:
1619:
1613:
1603:
1600:
1593:
1590:
1583:
1581:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1558:effects units
1555:
1554:mixing boards
1551:
1547:
1543:
1536:
1534:
1532:
1527:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1509:
1504:
1500:
1498:
1493:
1487:
1480:
1478:
1476:
1467:
1465:
1463:
1453:
1446:
1444:
1440:
1438:
1434:
1429:
1427:
1419:
1417:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1401:
1399:
1394:
1389:
1386:
1382:
1375:
1370:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1353:
1351:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1331:
1329:
1323:
1321:
1318:, arenas and
1317:
1313:
1303:
1296:
1294:
1291:
1281:
1274:
1272:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1253:
1249:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1226:
1222:
1217:
1214:
1205:
1198:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1180:
1173:
1171:
1165:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1153:
1148:
1144:
1143:universal fit
1140:
1133:
1128:
1121:
1119:
1115:
1113:
1108:
1103:
1099:
1091:
1084:
1082:
1080:
1075:
1073:
1069:
1061:
1056:
1052:
1050:
1046:
1041:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1014:
1012:
1008:
1004:
999:
997:
992:
986:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
959:
952:
950:
948:
943:
937:
935:
931:
927:
922:
918:
915:
911:
910:19-inch racks
906:
904:
900:
899:nominal level
896:
891:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
861:
857:
853:
849:
844:
836:
829:
827:
825:
820:
816:
812:
804:
802:
800:
796:
791:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
764:
761:
757:
756:Reverberation
750:
748:
745:
737:
731:
727:
723:
721:
717:
713:
708:
700:
693:
691:
689:
685:
681:
677:
672:
668:
664:
663:
658:
654:
650:
645:
642:
638:
634:
630:
625:
623:
619:
614:
609:
601:
594:
592:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
566:
564:
562:
556:
554:
553:effects units
550:
549:electric bass
546:
538:
531:
529:
527:
519:
517:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
494:
492:
488:
484:
479:
475:
470:
468:
464:
460:
456:
455:polar pattern
452:
448:
440:
436:
432:
424:
417:
412:
410:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
386:
385:instruments.
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
355:
353:
349:
345:
341:
340:digital delay
337:
336:effects units
333:
329:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
304:
302:
298:
294:
290:
285:
283:
277:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
258:electric bass
255:
251:
243:
241:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
195:
191:
187:
182:
176:Basic concept
175:
173:
170:
165:
160:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
117:
115:
111:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
53:
46:
41:
37:
33:
19:
3233:Audio mixing
3228:Loudspeakers
3150:
3118:Vocal weight
3083:Sprechgesang
3078:Scat singing
2975:Countertenor
2869:Sign singing
2864:Scat singing
2776:
2769:
2762:
2755:
2748:
2741:
2734:
2727:
2720:
2713:
2703:
2696:
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2584:
2566:
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2530:
2512:
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2433:
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2317:
2290:
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2254:
2236:
2218:
2197:
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2155:
2137:
2119:
2101:
2083:
2065:
2047:
2029:
2009:
1989:
1980:
1958:
1955:Eargle, John
1939:. Retrieved
1935:the original
1924:
1913:. Retrieved
1909:the original
1898:
1888:
1882:
1871:
1860:. Retrieved
1820:
1813:
1795:
1783:
1773:, retrieved
1771:, 2004-02-16
1763:
1757:
1749:the original
1743:
1736:
1721:
1709:
1690:
1679:, retrieved
1675:the original
1670:
1660:
1648:
1636:
1627:
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1592:
1574:loudspeakers
1565:
1562:professional
1561:
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1496:
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1343:Live theater
1332:
1324:
1308:
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1210:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1169:
1166:Applications
1160:
1156:
1146:
1142:
1137:
1116:
1107:speaker cone
1101:
1096:
1078:
1076:
1065:
1042:
1015:
1000:
990:
987:
964:
938:
923:
919:
907:
892:
865:
819:notch filter
808:
792:
765:
754:
741:
724:
720:make-up gain
719:
705:
688:notch filter
666:
660:
646:
626:
606:
589:effects unit
570:
557:
543:
523:
510:synthesizers
495:
483:Garth Brooks
471:
462:
444:
387:
366:
362:
358:
356:
331:
327:
322:, such as a
305:
286:
278:
269:
247:
210:sound energy
199:
186:loudspeakers
161:
156:
121:rock concert
118:
97:loudspeakers
80:
78:
73:19-inch rack
36:
3182:Vocal coach
3172:Vocal music
3103:Vocal range
3058:Lead vocals
3043:Death growl
3033:Chest voice
2854:Oversinging
1929:Rat, Dave.
1681:18 February
1578:home cinema
1290:sanctuaries
1246:dance music
1225:coffeehouse
1152:audiologist
1007:Trapezoidal
1003:line arrays
983:horn loaded
977:sounds. A
967:loudspeaker
738:Noise gates
694:Compressors
613:home stereo
451:microphones
447:transducers
244:Signal path
234:loudspeaker
226:compressors
206:microphones
202:transducers
153:coffeehouse
85:microphones
75:most right.
3197:Categories
3141:Microphone
3053:Head voice
3028:Coloratura
2945:Voice type
2896:Beatboxing
2874:Sing-along
2827:A cappella
2504:B003H1AI74
2264:9996352706
2215:Eargle, J.
2194:Eargle, J.
2173:Eargle, J.
1941:2007-04-26
1915:2007-10-25
1862:2009-01-24
1840:lc99030654
1775:2019-01-07
1614:References
1552:speakers,
1524:pink noise
1385:dead spots
1350:sightlines
1213:warehouses
1147:custom fit
1030:1/4" jacks
949:circuits.
914:road cases
876:headphones
872:line level
852:audio jack
795:bandleader
784:harmonizer
744:noise gate
671:ultrasonic
662:infrasonic
608:Equalizers
595:Equalizers
506:phonograph
399:subwoofers
312:compressed
230:amplifiers
222:equalizers
112:, such as
101:enclosures
93:amplifiers
3088:Tessitura
3063:Passaggio
2980:Contralto
2965:Baritenor
1312:nightclub
1238:nightclub
1230:hard rock
1221:subwoofer
1068:subwoofer
1060:subwoofer
975:frequency
788:Auto Tune
676:band-pass
657:bandwidth
649:high-pass
629:bass drum
575:effects,
487:Kate Bush
459:condenser
395:crossover
379:rock band
367:aux sends
308:equalized
157:reinforce
133:amplifier
45:pop music
3048:Falsetto
3038:Crooning
2960:Baritone
2929:Vocables
2884:Lip sync
2661:Acustica
2392:(1998),
2303:citation
2217:(2001),
2196:(1997),
2175:(1994),
1698:Archived
1462:humidity
1316:stadiums
1265:DJ mixer
1102:foldback
1062:cabinet.
903:clipping
895:headroom
884:limiting
880:clipping
667:subsonic
653:low-pass
520:Wireless
463:cardioid
441:"howls".
439:feedback
435:Cardioid
352:AutoTune
63:for the
3073:Rapping
3068:Quintus
3023:Belting
2990:Soprano
2879:Karaoke
2859:Rapping
2814:Singing
2498:(DVD).
1550:monitor
1475:rigging
1026:Speakon
856:Speakon
780:exciter
768:Flanger
751:Effects
712:limiter
514:DI unit
491:Madonna
403:speaker
252:(on an
250:pickups
214:singing
204:(e.g.,
3093:Timbre
2914:Choral
2639:Papers
2627:
2609:
2591:
2573:
2555:
2537:
2519:
2502:
2484:
2462:
2440:
2422:
2404:
2378:
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2243:
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2204:
2183:
2162:
2144:
2126:
2108:
2090:
2072:
2054:
2036:
2018:
1996:
1838:
1828:
1531:Smaart
1497:before
1492:by ear
1240:where
1079:flying
1038:Cannon
1036:, and
991:flying
776:chorus
774:, and
772:phaser
637:octave
622:faders
573:reverb
561:OB van
489:, and
344:reverb
324:reverb
316:panned
291:: the
114:reverb
95:, and
3177:Choir
2970:Tenor
2919:Opera
2671:4330.
2667:1033.
2295:(PDF)
1973:Books
1584:Notes
1410:LARES
1398:Tosca
1244:play
1045:watts
760:delay
665:, or
363:auxes
359:sends
270:snake
129:watts
2997:Fach
2950:Bass
2924:Lied
2625:ISBN
2607:ISBN
2589:ISBN
2571:ISBN
2553:ISBN
2535:ISBN
2517:ISBN
2500:ASIN
2482:ISBN
2460:ISBN
2438:ISBN
2420:ISBN
2402:ISBN
2376:ISBN
2358:ISBN
2340:ISBN
2322:ISBN
2309:link
2277:ISBN
2259:ISBN
2241:ISBN
2223:ISBN
2202:ISBN
2181:ISBN
2160:ISBN
2142:ISBN
2124:ISBN
2106:ISBN
2088:ISBN
2070:ISBN
2052:ISBN
2034:ISBN
2016:ISBN
1994:ISBN
1836:LCCN
1826:ISBN
1683:2007
1426:echo
1406:VRAS
932:and
782:and
758:and
342:and
1566:pro
1564:or
1261:DJs
1242:DJs
1232:or
1145:or
848:XLR
373:or
365:or
332:dry
328:wet
256:or
131:of
99:in
3199::
2305:}}
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1848:^
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1576:,
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469:.
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2793:v
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1944:.
1918:.
1891:.
1865:.
1842:.
1730:.
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
