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more difficult to retrieve the information because of the time elapsed between test periods; this creates a deeper level of processing of the learned information in long-term memory at each point. Another reason that the expanding repetition model is believed to work so effectively is that the first test happens early on in the rehearsal process. The purpose of this is to increase repetition success. By having a first test that followed initial learning with a successful repetition, people are more likely to remember this successful repetition on the following tests. Although expanding retrieval is commonly associated with spaced repetition, a uniform retrieval schedule is also a form of spaced repetition procedure.
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on studying long-term retention by testing participants over the course of one week. The participants were either assigned to a uniform schedule or an expanding schedule. No matter what type of spacing was assigned to the ninety-six participants, each completed three repeated tests at the end of their rehearsal intervals. Once those tests were completed, participants came back one week later to complete a final retention test. The researchers concluded that it did not matter what kind of repetition schedule was used. The biggest contribution to effective long-term learning was the spacing between the repeated tests (absolute spacing).
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found that it is beneficial for feedback to be applied when administering the tests. When a participant gave a wrong response, they were likely to get it correct on the following tests if the researcher gave them the correct answer after a delayed period. Spaced repetition is a useful tool for learning that is relevant to many domains such as fact learning or mathematics, and many different tasks (expanding or uniform retrieval). Many studies over the years have contributed to the use and implementation of spaced repetition, and it still remains a subject of interest for many researchers.
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312:), enabling automated scheduling and statistic gathering, scaling to thousands of cards scheduled individually. To enable the user to reach a target level of achievement (e.g. 90% of all material correctly recalled at any given time point), the software adjusts the repetition spacing interval. Material that is hard appears more often and material that is easy less often, with difficulty defined according to the ease with which the user is able to produce a correct response.
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spacing of these trials can either be expanding or uniform. The second form is called relative spacing. Relative spacing measures the spacing of trials between each test. An example of this would be if the absolute spacing was thirty, participants would either have expanding intervals (1–5–10–14) or uniform intervals (5–5–5–5–5–5). This is important in measuring whether or not one type of repetition schedule is more beneficial than the other.
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425:: items to memorize are entered into the program as question-answer pairs. When a pair is due to be reviewed, the question is displayed on a screen, and the user must attempt to answer. After answering, the user manually reveals the answer and then tells the program (subjectively) how difficult answering was. The program schedules pairs based on spaced repetition
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authored by John L Dobson has found cases where uniform retrieval is better than expanding. The main speculation for this range of results is that prior research has not accounted for the possibility of their results being affected by either the spacing condition or the number of successful repetitions during study periods.
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In this method, flashcards are sorted into groups according to how well the learner knows each one in
Leitner's learning box. The learners try to recall the solution written on a flashcard. If they succeed, they send the card to the next group. If they fail, they send it back to the first group. Each
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In 1939, H. F. Spitzer tested the effects of a type of spaced repetition on sixth-grade students in Iowa who were learning science facts. Spitzer tested over 3600 students in Iowa and showed that spaced repetition was effective. This early work went unnoticed, and the field was relatively quiet until
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The expansion is done to ensure a high success level of recalling the information on the first time and increasing the time interval to make the information long-lasting to help keep the information always accessible in their mind. Throughout the development of spaced repetition, they have found that
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A common criticism of repetition research has argued that many of the tests involved have simply measured retention on a short-term scale. A study conducted by
Karpicke and Bauernschmidt used this principle to determine the major differences between the different types of repetition. The two focused
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information. A more recent study has shown that spaced repetition can benefit tasks such as solving math problems. In a study conducted by
Pashler, Rohrer, Cepeda, and Carpenter, participants had to learn a simple math principle in either a spaced or massed retrieval schedule. The participants given
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Spaced repetition is a method where the subject is asked to remember a certain fact with the time intervals increasing each time the fact is presented or said. If the subject is able to recall the information correctly the time is doubled to further help them keep the information fresh in their mind
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There are two forms of implementing spacing in spaced repetition. The first form is absolute spacing. Absolute spacing is the measurement of all the trials within the learning and testing periods. An example of this would be that participants would study for a total of thirty trial periods, but the
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Spaced repetition with expanding intervals has long been argued to be the most beneficial version of this learning procedure, but research, which compared repetition procedures, has shown the difference between expanding repetition and uniform retrieval is either very little to nonexistent. A paper
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The data behind this initial research indicated that an increasing space between rehearsals (expanding) would yield a greater percentage of accuracy at test points. Spaced repetition with expanding intervals is believed to be so effective because with each expanded interval of repetition it becomes
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are able to recall the information weeks—even months—later. The technique has been successful in helping dementia patients remember particular objects' names, daily tasks, name face association, information about themselves, and many other facts and behaviors (Small, 2012). Sufficient test evidence
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and is particularly suited to programmed audio instruction due to the very short times (measured in seconds or minutes) between the first few repetitions, as compared to other forms of spaced repetition which may not require such precise timings. The intervals published in
Pimsleur's paper were: 5
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Over the years, techniques and tests have been formed to better patients with memory difficulties. Spaced repetition is one of these solutions to help better the patients' minds. Spaced repetition is used in many different areas of memory from remembering facts to remembering how to ride a bike to
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dementia keep their brain active, it has a high success level with little to no errors, and the technique is meaningful for the patient to do and remember more thing) Joltin et al. (2003), had a caregiver train a woman with
Alzheimer's by giving her the name of her grandchild over the phone while
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in 1978; they gathered a group of psychology students, showing the students pictures of a certain individual followed by that individual's name. This is also known as a face-name association. With the repetition of seeing the person's name and face they were able to associate the name and face of
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This is unique in the sense that it shows spaced repetition can be used to not only remember simple facts or contextual data but it can also be used in fields, such as math, where manipulation and the use of particular principles or formulas (e.g. y = mx + b) is necessary. These researchers also
522:), the schedule of repetition was governed by the size of the partitions in the learning box. These were 1, 2, 5, 8 and 14 cm. Only when a partition became full was the learner to review some of the cards it contained, moving them forward or back, depending on whether they remembered them.
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Some have theorized that the precise length of intervals does not have a great impact on algorithm effectiveness, although it has been suggested by others that the interval (expanded interval vs. fixed interval, etc.) is quite important. The experimental results regarding this point are mixed.
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Hawley, K. S., Cherry, K. E., Boudreaux, E. O., & Jackson, E. M. (2008). A comparison of adjusted spaced repetition versus a uniform expanded repetition schedule for learning a name-face association in older adults with probable
Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Clinical & Experimental
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to recall in the future. With this method, the patient is able to place the information in their long-term memory. If they are unable to remember the information they go back to the previous step and continue to practice to help make the technique lasting (Vance & Farr, 2007).
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in 1932: "Perhaps the most important discoveries are those which relate to the appropriate distribution of the periods of study... Acts of revision should be spaced in gradually increasing intervals, roughly intervals of one day, two days, four days, eight days, and so on."
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Small combines the works and findings of quite a few scientists to come up with five reasons why spaced repetition works: it helps show the relationship of routine memories, it shows the benefits of learning things with an expansion of time, it helps the patient with
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Karpicke, J. D., & Roediger, H. (2007). Expanding repetition practice promotes short-term retention, but equally spaced repetition enhances long-term retention. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 33(4), 704–719.
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In 1989, C. J. Camp decided that using this technique with
Alzheimer's patients may increase their duration of remembering particular things. These results show that the expansion of the time interval shows the strongest benefits for memory.
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remembering past events from childhood. Recovery practice is used to see if an individual is able to recall something immediately after they have seen or studied it. Increasing recovery practice is frequently used as a technique in improving
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Although the principle is useful in many contexts, spaced repetition is commonly applied in contexts in which a learner must acquire many items and retain them indefinitely in memory. It is, therefore, well suited for the problem of
201:. Ebbinghaus created the 'forgetting curve' - a graph portraying the loss of learned information over time - and postulated that it can be curbed by reviewing such information at several intervals over a period of time.
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Spaced repetition is typically studied through the use of memorizing facts. Traditionally speaking, it has not been applied to fields that required some manipulation or thought beyond simple factual/
447:: A user rates their confidence in each digital flashcard, e.g. on a scale of 1–5; a lower-confidence card is repeated more frequently until the user upgrades their confidence rating in it.
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Pashler, H., Rohrer, D., Cepeda, N., & Carpenter, S. (2007). Enhancing learning and retarding forgetting: Choices and consequences. Psychonomic
Bulletin & Review, 14(2), 187–193.
157:. Newly introduced and more difficult flashcards are shown more frequently, while older and less difficult flashcards are shown less frequently in order to exploit the psychological
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and other memory disorders. The findings showed that using spaced repetition can not only help students with name face association but patients dealing with memory impairments.
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asking her to associate with the picture of the grandchild posted on the refrigerator. After training, the woman was able to recall the name of her grandchild five days later.
142:, correctly answered cards are advanced to the next, less frequent box, while incorrectly answered cards return to the first box for more aggressive review and repetition.
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Oren, Shiri; Willerton, Charlene; Small, Jeff (February 2014). "Effects of Spaced
Retrieval Training on Semantic Memory in Alzheimer's Disease: A Systematic Review".
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Karpicke, J., & Roediger, H. (2010). Is expanding retrieval a superior method for learning text materials? Memory & Cognition, 38(1), 116–124.
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Landauer, T., & Bjork, R. (1978). Optimum rehearsal patterns and name learning. Practical Aspects of Memory, 625–632. Retrieved October 15, 2014.
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succeeding group has a longer period of time before the learner is required to revisit the cards. In Leitner's original method, published in his book
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429:. Without a computer program, the user has to schedule physical flashcards; this is time-intensive and limits users to simple algorithms like the
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Brush, J., & Camp, C. (2008). Using Spaced Retrieval as an Intervention During Speech-Language Therapy. Clinical Gerontologist, 19(1), 51–64.
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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221882038_Effect_of_uniform_versus_expanding_retrieval_practice_on_the_recall_of_physiology_information
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Landauer, T. K.; Bjork, R. A. (1978). "Optimum rehearsal patterns and name learning". In Gruneberg, M.; Morris, P. E.; Sykes, R. N. (eds.).
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Karpicke, Jeffrey D.; Bauernschmidt, Althea (2011). "Spaced retrieval: absolute spacing enhances learning regardless of relative spacing".
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in the 1970s. It is a simple implementation of the principle of spaced repetition, where cards are reviewed at increasing intervals.
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have been developed to aid the learning process. It is also possible to perform spaced repetition with physical flashcards using the
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Balepur, Nishant (February 19, 2024). "KARL: Knowledge-Aware Retrieval and Representations aid Retention and Learning in Students".
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the spaced repetition learning tasks showed higher scores on a final test distributed after their final practice session.
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Small, Jeff A. (June 2012). "A new frontier in spaced retrieval memory training for persons with Alzheimer's disease".
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Cull, W. L. (2000). "Untangling the benefits of multiple study opportunities and repeated testing for cued recall".
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and spaced repetition can be combined to improve long-term memory. Therefore, memorization can be easier to do.
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With the increase in access to personal computers in the 1980s, spaced repetition began to be implemented with
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shows that spaced repetition is valuable in learning new information and recalling information from the past.
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seconds, 25 seconds, 2 minutes, 10 minutes, 1 hour, 5 hours, 1 day, 5 days, 25 days, 4 months, and 2 years.
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Additional information retrieved automatically is available, such as example sentences containing a word.
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The notion that spaced repetition could be used for improving learning was first proposed in the book
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Automatic generation of pairs (e.g. for vocabulary, it is useful to generate three question-pairs:
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Most spaced repetition software (SRS) is modeled after the manual style of learning with physical
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pioneered the practical application of spaced repetition theory to language learning, and in 1973
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Opportunities to combine spaced repetition with online community functions, e.g. sharing courses.
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Melton, A. W. (1970). "The situation with respect to the spacing of repetitions and memory".
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The method of spaced repetition was first conceived of in the 1880s by German scientist
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Swedish Agency for Health Technology Assessment and Assessment of Social Services (SBU)
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Ye, Junyao; Su, Jingyong; Nie, Liqiang; Cao, Yilong; Chen, Yongyong (October 1, 2023).
1269:. KDD '22. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 4381–4390.
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Proceedings of the 28th ACM SIGKDD Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining
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Schacter, Rich, and Stampp in 1985 expanded the research to include people who have
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1263:"A Stochastic Shortest Path Algorithm for Optimizing Spaced Repetition Scheduling"
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Questions and/or answers can be a sound file to train recognition of spoken words.
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that individual shown with the expansion of time due to the spaced repetition.
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10.1002/(SICI)1099-0720(200005/06)14:3<215::AID-ACP640>3.0.CO;2-1
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1308:"Optimizing Spaced Repetition Schedule by Capturing the Dynamics of Memory"
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The Foundations of Remembering: Essays in Honor of Henry L. Roediger, III
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633:"The right time to learn: mechanisms and optimization of spaced learning"
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1230:"Spaced Repetition Algorithm: A Three-Day Journey from Novice to Expert"
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577: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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Graduated-interval recall is a type of spaced repetition published by
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Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
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acquisition in the course of second-language learning. A number of
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1484:"Spaced repetition: a hack to make your brain store information"
1209:(MSc thesis). School of Industrial and Information Engineering.
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Kail, R. V., & Cavanaugh J. C. (2007). "Spaced Retrieval".
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Balota, David A.; Duchek, Janet M.; Logan, Jessica M. (2011).
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Smolen, Paul; Zhang, Yili; Byrne, John H. (January 25, 2016).
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700:"Why We Can't Remember What We Learn and What To Do About It"
297:", an all-purpose spaced repetition learning system based on
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Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health (CADTH)
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There are several families of spaced repetition algorithms:
1627:"Effective learning: Twenty rules of formulating knowledge"
368:): SM-0 (a paper implementation) to SM-18 (in SuperMemo 18)
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Ye, Junyao; Su, Jingyong; Cao, Yilong (August 14, 2022).
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National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)
1541:"Brainscape's 'Confidence-Based Repetition' Methodology"
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Probabilistic Models of Student Learning and Forgetting
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the late 1960s when cognitive psychologists, including
1114:"Implementing a neural network for repetition spacing"
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Pimsleur, Paul (February 1967). "A Memory Schedule".
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IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering
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Stochastic Shortest Path Minimize Memorization Cost
62:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2234:Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ)
732:Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research
2029:Evidence-based pharmacy in developing countries
2004:Evidence-based library and information practice
883:Spitzer, H. F. (1939). "Studies in retention".
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2264:WHO Evidence-Informed Policy Network (EVIPNet)
1314:. Vol. 35, no. 10. pp. 10085–10097.
912:Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior
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1192:(MSc thesis). University of Colorado Boulder.
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2249:German Agency for Quality in Medicine (AEZQ)
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355:: 5 levels and an arbitrary number of stages
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593:Learn how and when to remove this message
153:technique that is usually performed with
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465:, but data only has to be entered once.)
168:Spaced repetition with forgetting curves
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1004:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
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1461:. Psychology Press. pp. 83–106.
1380:from the original on November 3, 2023
373:Difficulty, Ability and Study History
7:
2280:Centre for Reviews and Dissemination
1203:Randazzo, Giacomo (April 28, 2022).
1175:from the original on March 13, 2024.
951:. Academic Press. pp. 625–632.
575:adding citations to reliable sources
60:adding citations to reliable sources
1619:Human Development: A Life-Span View
1518:"Confidence-Based Repetition (CBR)"
306:computer-assisted language learning
232:patients using this technique with
179:spaced repetition software programs
1621:(5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
1576:(2). Blackwell Publishing: 73–75.
1539:Cohen, Andrew S. (July 15, 2008).
1516:Cohen, Andrew S. (May 12, 2015) .
1366:Damien, Elmes (October 31, 2023).
1347:from the original on June 19, 2023
25:
1482:Gupta, James (January 23, 2016).
885:Journal of Educational Psychology
824:Neuropsychological Rehabilitation
780:Neuropsychology, 30(6), 639–649.
536:Pimsleur language learning system
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1625:Wozniak, Piotr (February 1999).
1228:Ye, Junyao (November 13, 2023).
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384:Free Spaced Repetition Scheduler
382:) and the closely related FSRS (
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1333:Ye, Junyao (November 6, 2023).
1186:Lindsey, Robert Victor (2014).
744:10.1044/1092-4388(2013/12-0352)
562:needs additional citations for
47:needs additional citations for
308:software-based solutions (see
1:
2014:Evidence-based medical ethics
1455:. In Nairne, James S. (ed.).
924:10.1016/S0022-5371(70)80107-4
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2144:Policy-based evidence making
2108:Health technology assessment
1423:Applied Cognitive Psychology
836:10.1080/09602011.2011.640468
534:in 1967. It is used in the
2103:Randomized controlled trial
1979:Evidence-based conservation
1570:The Modern Language Journal
949:Practical aspects of memory
637:Nature Reviews Neuroscience
486:Animation of three sessions
443:Confidence-based repetition
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2039:Evidence-based prosecution
1999:Evidence-based legislation
807:10.1037/0278-7393.33.4.704
406:List of flashcard software
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2054:Evidence-based toxicology
2049:Evidence-based scheduling
2009:Evidence-based management
1974:Evidence-based assessment
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1320:10.1109/TKDE.2023.3251721
786:10.1080/13803390701595495
498:that was proposed by the
364:SM family of algorithms (
287:Pimsleur language courses
2341:Evidence-based practices
2123:Pragmatic clinical trial
1994:Evidence-based education
1984:Evidence-based dentistry
250:Research and application
2034:Evidence-based policing
2019:Evidence-based medicine
1948:Evidence-based practice
1934:Evidence-based practice
1275:10.1145/3534678.3539081
151:evidence-based learning
2331:Psychology of learning
2218:Science-Based Medicine
2213:Campbell Collaboration
2208:Cochrane Collaboration
2024:Evidence-based nursing
1400:"RemNote Release 1.16"
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204:It was also tested by
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2044:Evidence-based policy
1989:Evidence-based design
1953:Hierarchy of evidence
1528:on November 29, 2020.
520:How To Learn To Learn
485:
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167:
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1557:on November 4, 2020.
1368:"Anki Release 23.10"
986:on February 11, 2015
571:improve this article
455:written foreign word
56:improve this article
2203:James Lind Alliance
1718:Incremental reading
1078:10.3758/MC.38.1.116
870:Psychology of Study
704:Wharton Interactive
667:10.1038/nrn.2015.18
659:2016arXiv160608370S
514:So lernt man Lernen
502:science journalist
262:Psychology of Study
71:"Spaced repetition"
18:Spaced presentation
1969:Effective altruism
1872:Hermann Ebbinghaus
1841:Hermann Ebbinghaus
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1124:on August 21, 2022
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1780:eSpindle Learning
1683:Spaced repetition
1669:Spaced repetition
1468:978-1-136-87221-1
1284:978-1-4503-9385-0
1165:"Algorithm SM-18"
1118:www.supermemo.com
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1877:Thomas Landauer
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1710:
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1531:
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583:September 2022
559:
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2076:and concepts
2059:Journalology
1962:Applications
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2296:Examine.com
2139:uncertainty
2137:Scientific
2064:Metascience
1892:Hal Pashler
1865:Researchers
1760:Course Hero
1501:January 30,
1335:"fsrs4anki"
866:Mace, C. A.
710:December 3,
243:Alzheimer's
2315:Categories
2196:Non-profit
2175:Ken Harvey
1150:2402.12291
958:0123050502
650:1606.08370
618:References
496:flashcards
427:algorithms
423:flashcards
404:See also:
344:Algorithms
299:flashcards
266:C. A. Mace
254:See also:
175:vocabulary
155:flashcards
82:newspapers
1941:Key terms
1820:SuperMemo
1810:OpenCards
1805:Mnemosyne
1755:Cobocards
1703:Flashcard
1496:0261-3077
1406:April 25,
1293:251518206
752:1092-4388
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543:Criticism
378:SSP-MMC (
366:SuperMemo
2273:Academic
2244:EUnetHTA
1795:Lingopie
1775:Duolingo
1770:Cram.com
1676:Concepts
1378:Archived
1345:Archived
1240:Archived
1173:Archived
1128:July 15,
1060:16580641
1052:21574747
1000:cite web
868:(1932).
852:13147220
844:22272562
760:24023380
685:26806627
461:and its
400:Software
375:) family
321:semantic
279:Landauer
234:dementia
206:Landauer
2074:Methods
1815:Quizlet
1800:Memrise
1790:Kahoot!
676:5126970
655:Bibcode
463:meaning
218:amnesia
193:History
138:In the
96:scholar
2189:Groups
2153:People
1750:Cerego
1708:Memory
1590:321812
1588:
1494:
1465:
1373:GitHub
1340:GitHub
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1586:JSTOR
1555:(PDF)
1544:(PDF)
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1289:S2CID
1145:arXiv
1056:S2CID
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848:S2CID
645:arXiv
361:based
283:Bjork
210:Bjork
103:JSTOR
89:books
1765:Cram
1745:Anki
1503:2019
1492:ISSN
1463:ISBN
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1386:2023
1353:2023
1279:ISBN
1248:2023
1130:2017
1048:PMID
1006:link
992:2014
953:ISBN
840:PMID
756:PMID
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712:2023
681:PMID
490:The
415:Anki
281:and
277:and
208:and
75:news
1578:doi
1431:doi
1316:doi
1271:doi
1211:hdl
1074:doi
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671:PMC
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