660:, which makes the cancer more invasive. TGF-β1 has been implicated in the process of activating Hepatic Stellate Cells (HSCs) with the magnitude of hepatic fibrosis being in proportion to increase in TGF-β levels. Studies have shown that ACTA2 is associated with TGF-β pathway that enhances contractile properties of HSCs leading to Liver fibrosis. TGF-β also converts effector T-cells, which normally attack cancer with an inflammatory (immune) reaction, into regulatory (suppressor) T-cells, which turn off the inflammatory reaction. Normal tissue integrity is preserved by feedback interactions between different cell types that express adhesion molecules and secrete cytokines. Disruption of these feedback mechanisms in cancer damages a tissue. When TGF-β signaling fails to control NF-κB activity in cancer cells, this has at least two potential effects: first, it enables the malignant tumor to persist in the presence of activated immune cells, and second, the cancer cell outlasts immune cells because it survives in the presence of apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory mediators.
264:
are seen in multiple cell types and tissues. Proteases, integrins, pH, and reactive oxygen species are just few of the currently known factors that can activate TGF-β, as discussed below. It is well known that perturbations of these activating factors can lead to unregulated TGF-β signaling levels that may cause several complications including inflammation, autoimmune disorders, fibrosis, cancer and cataracts. In most cases, an activated TGF-β ligand will initiate the TGF-β signaling cascade as long as TGF-β receptors I and II are available for binding. This is due to a high affinity between TGF-β and its receptors, suggesting why the TGF-β signaling recruits a latency system to mediate its signaling.
343:αVβ6 integrin was the first integrin to be identified as TGF-β1 activator. LAPs contain an RGD motif which is recognized by vast majority of αV containing integrins, and αVβ6 integrin can activate TGF-β1 by binding to the RGD motif present in LAP-β1 and LAP-β3. Upon binding, it induces adhesion-mediated cell forces that are translated into biochemical signals which can lead to liberation/activation of TGFb from its latent complex. This pathway has been demonstrated for activation of TGF-β in epithelial cells and does not associate MMPs.
31:
3506:
255:
LTBP isoforms have a propensity to associate with specific LAP•TGF-β isoforms. For example, LTBP-4 is reported to bind only to TGF-β1, thus, mutation in LTBP-4 can lead to TGF-β associated complications which are specific to tissues that predominantly involves TGF-β1. Moreover, the structural differences within the LAP's provide different latent TGF-β complexes which are selective but to specific stimuli generated by specific activators.
421:
extracellular-regulated kinases (ERK1 and 2), Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) and p38 MAPK play an important role in the TGF-β signaling. ERK 1 and 2 are activated via the Raf-Ras-MEK1/2 pathway induced by mitogenic stimuli such as epidermal growth factor, whereas the JNK and p38 MAPK are activated by the MAPK kinase, activated themselves by the TGF-β-activated kinase-1 (TAK1) upon stress stimuli.
92:. TGF-β receptors are composed of both type 1 and type 2 receptor subunits. After the binding of TGF-β, the type 2 receptor kinase phosphorylates and activates the type 1 receptor kinase that activates a signaling cascade. This leads to the activation of different downstream substrates and regulatory proteins, inducing transcription of different target genes that function in differentiation,
326:(TSP-1) is a matricellular glycoprotein found in plasma of healthy patients with levels in the range of 50–250 ng/ml. TSP-1 levels are known to increase in response to injury and during development. TSP-1 activates latent TGF-beta by forming direct interactions with the latent TGF-β complex and induces a conformational rearrangement preventing it from binding to the matured TGF-β.
365:
373:
581:
regulator of cell cycle progression through the G1 and S phase), and repressing other key regulatory genes such as c-myc and ATM. CD40, a key surface molecule in the activation of the innate immune response, can induce Smad7 expression to reverse the growth inhibition of B cells induced by TGF-β. TGF-β also blocks B cell activation and promotes class switching
438:, there is evidence of association and binding between DAXX and type 2 TGF-β receptor kinase, wherein DAXX binds to the C-terminal region of the type 2 TGF-β receptor. The exact molecular mechanism is unknown, but as a general overview, DAXX is then phosphorylated by homeodomain-interacting protein kinase 2 (HIPK2), which then activates
774:, it has been shown that the Marfan syndrome phenotype can be relieved by addition of a TGF-β antagonist in affected mice. This suggests that while the symptoms of Marfan syndrome may seem consistent with a connective tissue disorder, the mechanism is more likely related to reduced sequestration of TGF-β by fibrillin.
417:. The SMAD pathway is regulated by feedback inhibition. SMAD6 and SMAD7 may block type I receptors. There is also substantial evidence that TGF-β-dependent signaling via the SMAD-3 pathway is responsible for many of the inhibitory functions of TGF-β discussed in later sections and thus it is implicated in oncogenesis.
127:(TSP-1). Inflammatory stimuli that activate macrophages enhance the release of active TGF-β by promoting the activation of plasmin. Macrophages can also endocytose IgG-bound latent TGF-β complexes that are secreted by plasma cells and then release active TGF-β into the extracellular fluid. Among its key functions is
601:
TGF-β is thought to play a role in alternative macrophage activation seen in lean mice, and these macrophages maintain an anti-inflammatory phenotype. This phenotype is lost in obese mice, who have not only more macrophages than lean mice but also classically activated macrophages which release TNF-α
588:
TGF-β also induces apoptosis of immature or resting B cells; the mechanism is unknown, but may overlap with its anti-proliferation pathway. TGF-β has been shown to downregulate c-myc as it does in the inhibition of B cell proliferation. It is also known to induce NF-κB inhibitor IKBa, inhibiting
355:
of the latent TGF beta complex, αV containing integrins activate TGF-β1 by creating a close connection between the latent TGF-β complex and MMPs. Integrins αVβ6 and αVβ3 are suggested to simultaneously bind the latent TGF-β1 complex and proteinases, simultaneous inducing conformational changes of the
254:
There are four different LTBP isoforms known, LTBP-1, LTBP-2, LTBP-3 and LTBP-4. Mutation or alteration of LAP or LTBP can result in improper TGF-β signaling. Mice lacking LTBP-3 or LTBP-4 demonstrate phenotypes consistent to phenotypes seen in mice with altered TGF-β signaling. Furthermore, specific
250:
containing both the LTBP and the LAP which need to be further processed in order to release active TGF-β. The attachment of TGF-β to the LTBP is by disulfide bond which allows it to remain inactive by preventing it from binding to its receptors . Because different cellular mechanisms require distinct
5185:
Senatorov VV, Friedman, AR, Milikovsky DZ, Ofer J, Saar-Ashkenazy R, Charbash A, Jahan N, Chin G, Mihaly E, Lin JM, Ramsay HJ, Moghbel A, Preininger MK, Eddings CR, Harrison HV, Patel R, Shen Y, Ghanim H, Sheng H, Veksler R, Sudmant PH, Becker A, Hart B, Rogawski MA, Dillin A, Friedman A, and Kaufer
707:
infection, or tuberculosis, has been shown to result in increased levels of active TGF-β within the lung. Due to the broad range of suppressive effects of TGF-β on immune cells, computer modeling has predicted that TGF-β blockade may improve immune responses and infection outcome. Research in animal
334:
The general theme of integrins participating in latent TGF-β1 activation arose from studies that examined mutations/knockouts of β6 integrin, αV integrin, β8 integrin and in LAP. These mutations produced phenotypes that were similar to phenotypes seen in TGF-β1 knockout mice. Currently there are two
237:
All three TGF-βs are synthesized as precursor molecules containing a propeptide region in addition to the TGF-β homodimer. After it is synthesized, the TGF-β homodimer interacts with a
Latency-Associated Peptide (LAP), a protein derived from the N-terminal region of the TGF-β gene product, forming a
3524:
Johnston, Chris J. C.; Smyth, Danielle J.; Kodali, Ravindra B.; White, Madeleine P. J.; Harcus, Yvonne; Filbey, Kara J.; Hewitson, James P.; Hinck, Cynthia S.; Ivens, Alasdair; Kemter, Andrea M.; Kildemoes, Anna O.; Le Bihan, Thierry; Soares, Dinesh C.; Anderton, Stephen M.; Brenn, Thomas; Wigmore,
547:
17 cells goes against its dominant conceptualization as an anti-inflammatory cytokine; however, the shared requirement between inflammatory and anti-inflammatory immune cells suggests that an imbalance between these two cell types can be an important link to autoimmunity. Co-activation by IL-6 from
310:
The structure of LAP is important in maintaining its function. Structure modification of LAP can lead to disturb the interaction between LAP and TGF-β and thus activating it. Factors that may cause such modification may include hydroxyl radicals from reactive oxygen species (ROS). TGF-β was rapidly
263:
Although TGF-β is important in regulating crucial cellular activities, only a few TGF-β activating pathways are currently known, and the full mechanism behind the suggested activation pathways is not yet well understood. Some of the known activating pathways are cell or tissue specific, while some
3462:
Yingling, Jonathan M.; McMillen, William T.; Yan, Lei; Huang, Huocong; Sawyer, J. Scott; Graff, Jeremy; Clawson, David K.; Britt, Karen S.; Anderson, Bryan D.; Beight, Douglas W.; Desaiah, Durisala; Lahn, Michael M.; Benhadji, Karim A.; Lallena, Maria J.; Holmgaard, Rikke B.; Xu, Xiaohong; Zhang,
651:
In normal cells, TGF-β, acting through its signaling pathway, stops the cell cycle at the G1 stage to stop proliferation, induce differentiation, or promote apoptosis. In many cancer cells, parts of the TGF-β signaling pathway are mutated, and TGF-β no longer controls the cell. These cancer cells
228:
with the ninth cysteine of another TGF-β protein to produce a dimer. Many other conserved residues in TGF-β are thought to form secondary structure through hydrophobic interactions. The region between the fifth and sixth conserved cysteines houses the most divergent area of TGF-β proteins that is
392:
characterized in the activation of cytokine receptors implicated, for example, in the B cell isotype switching pathway. As previously stated, the binding of the TGF-β ligand to the TGF-β receptor, the type 2 receptor kinase phosphorylates and activates the type 1 receptor kinase that activates a
185:
A fourth member, TGF beta 4, has been identified in birds – TGRB4 (synonyms: endometrial bleeding associated factor beta-4 (EBAF), Lefty preproprotein, LEFTA; Left-Right
Determination Factor 2; LEFTYA; Left-Right Determination Factor A; Transforming Growth Factor Beta-4; Protein Lefty-2; Protein
597:
The general consensus in the literature is that TGF-β stimulates resting monocytes and inhibits activated macrophages. For monocytes, TGF-β has been shown to function as a chemoattractant as well as an upregulator of anti-inflammatory response. However, TGF-β has also been shown to downregulate
580:
TGF-β has mainly inhibitory effects on B lymphocytes. TGF-β inhibits B cell proliferation. The exact mechanism is unknown, but there is evidence that TGF-β inhibits B cell proliferation by inducing the transcription factor Id3, inducing expression of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 21 (a
292:
are known to cleave latent TGF-β. The LAP complex contains a protease-sensitive hinge region which can be the potential target for this liberation of TGF-β. Despite the fact that MMPs have been proven to play a key role in activating TGF-β, mice with mutations in MMP-9 and MMP-2 genes can still
420:
The Smads are not the only TGF-β-regulated signaling pathways. Non-Smad signaling proteins can initiate parallel signaling that eventually cooperate with the Smads or crosstalk with other major signaling pathways. Among them, the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family that include the
153:
includes endogenous growth inhibiting proteins; an increase in expression of TGF-β often correlates with the malignancy of many cancers and a defect in the cellular growth inhibition response to TGF-β. Its immunosuppressive functions then come to dominate, contributing to oncogenesis. The
1457:
Roberts, Anita B.; Kim, Seong-Jin; Noma, Takafumi; Glick, Adam B.; Lafyatis, Robert; Lechleider, Robert; Jakowlew, Sonia B.; Geiser, Andrew; O'Reilly, Michael A.; Danielpour, David; Sporn, Michael B. (2007). "Multiple Forms of TGF-β: Distinct
Promoters and Differential Expression".
284:(MMP) play a key role in promoting tumor invasion and tissue remodeling by inducing proteolysis of several ECM components. The TGF-β activation process involves the release of the LLC from the matrix, followed by further proteolysis of the LAP to release TGF-β to its receptors.
429:
TGF-β induces apoptosis, or programmed cell death, in human lymphocytes and hepatocytes. The importance of this function is clear in TGF-β deficient mice which experience hyperproliferation and unregulated autoimmunity. In a separate apoptotic pathway from the association of
4533:
Bonecini-Almeida, M. Glória; Ho, John L.; Boéchat, Neio; Huard, Richard C.; Chitale, Sadhana; Doo, Howard; Geng, Jiayuan; Rego, Lorena; Lazzarini, Luiz
Claudio Oliveira; Kritski, Afrânio L.; Johnson, Warren D.; McCaffrey, Timothy A.; Silva, José R. Lapa e (May 2004).
301:
Acidic conditions can denature the LAP. Treatment of the medium with extremes of pH (1.5 or 12) resulted in significant activation of TGF-β as shown by radio-receptor assays, while mild acid treatment (pH 4.5) yielded only 20-30% of the activation achieved by pH 1.5.
4679:
Gern, Benjamin H.; Adams, Kristin N.; Plumlee, Courtney R.; Stoltzfus, Caleb R.; Shehata, Laila; Moguche, Albanus O.; Busman-Sahay, Kathleen; Hansen, Scott G.; Axthelm, Michael K.; Picker, Louis J.; Estes, Jacob D.; Urdahl, Kevin B.; Gerner, Michael Y. (March 2021).
393:
signaling cascade. In the case of Smad, receptor-activated Smads are phosphorylated by the type 1 TGF-β receptor kinase, and these go on to complex with other Smads, which is able to translocate into the cell nucleus to induce transcription of different effectors.
335:
proposed models of how αV containing integrins can activate latent TGF-β1; the first proposed model is by inducing conformational change to the latent TGF-β1 complex and hence releasing the active TGF-β1 and the second model is by a protease-dependent mechanism.
708:
models has further shown that TGF-β impairs immune responses and elimination of TGF-β signaling results in and enhanced T cell response and lower bacterial burdens. Thus, therapies which block TGF-β may have the potential to improve therapy for tuberculosis.
238:
complex called Small Latent
Complex (SLC). This complex remains in the cell until it is bound by another protein called Latent TGF-β-Binding Protein (LTBP), forming a larger complex called Large Latent Complex (LLC). It is this LLC that gets secreted to the
535:
differentiation from activated T helper cells, and the mechanism for this differentiation is unknown for both induced T regulatory cells as well as natural T regulatory cells. In mouse models, the effect of TGF-β1 appears to be age-dependent.
3632:
Mukundan, Ananya; Byeon, Chang-Hyeock; Hinck, Cynthia S.; Smyth, Danielle J.; Maizels, Rick M.; Hinck, Andrew P. (2020-12-09). "Structure-based mapping of the TβRI and TβRII receptor binding sites of the parasitic TGF-β mimic, Hp-TGM".
652:
proliferate. The surrounding stromal cells (fibroblasts) also proliferate. Both cells increase their production of TGF-β. This TGF-β acts on the surrounding stromal cells, immune cells, endothelial and smooth-muscle cells. It causes
3681:
Cook, Laura; Reid, Kyle T; Häkkinen, Elmeri; de Bie, Brett; Tanaka, Shigeru; Smyth, Danielle J; White, Madeleine PJ; Wong, May Q; Huang, Qing; Gillies, Jana K; Zeigler, Steven F; Maizels, Rick M; Levings, Megan K (2021-04-30).
888:
There is substantial evidence in animal and some human studies that TGF-β in breast milk may be a key immunoregulatory factor in the development of infant immune response, moderating the risk of atopic disease or autoimmunity.
598:
inflammatory cytokine production in monocytes and macrophages, likely by the aforementioned inhibition of NF-κB. This contradiction may be due to the fact that the effect of TGF-β has been shown to be highly context-dependent.
872:
as compared to control subjects, suggesting a possible role in the neurodegenerative cascade leading to
Alzheimer's disease symptoms and pathology. The role of TGF-β in neuronal dysfunction remains an active area of research.
3582:
Smyth, Danielle J.; Harcus, Yvonne; White, Madeleine P.J.; Gregory, William F.; Nahler, Janina; Stephens, Ian; Toke-Bjolgerud, Edward; Hewitson, James P.; Ivens, Alasdair; McSorley, Henry J.; Maizels, Rick M. (April 2018).
245:
In most cases, before the LLC is secreted, the TGF-β precursor is cleaved from the propeptide but remains attached to it by noncovalent bonds. After its secretion, it remains in the extracellular matrix as an in
6641:
396:
More specifically, activated TGF-β complexes bind to the type 2 domain of the TGF-β receptor which then recruits and phosphorylates a type 1 receptor. The type 1 receptor then recruits and phosphorylates a
2034:
Saharinen J, Hyytiäinen M, Taipale J, Keski-Oja J (June 1999). "Latent transforming growth factor-beta binding proteins (LTBPs)--structural extracellular matrix proteins for targeting TGF-beta action".
3435:
Hofmann TG, Stollberg N, Schmitz ML, Will H (December 2003). "HIPK2 regulates transforming growth factor-beta-induced c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase activation and apoptosis in human hepatoma cells".
589:
NF-κB activation. NF-κB is a transcription factor that regulates the production of cytokines like IL-1, TNF-a, and defensins, although its function in apoptosis may be separate from this function.
154:
dysregulation of its immunosuppressive functions is also implicated in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases, although their effect is mediated by the environment of other cytokines present.
356:
LAP and sequestering proteases to close proximity. Regardless of involving MMPs, this mechanism still necessitate the association of integrins and that makes it a non proteolytic pathway.
832:
Decreased levels of TGF-β have been observed in patients diagnosed with multiple sclerosis. Its role in multiple sclerosis can be explained due to TGF-β role in regulating apoptosis of
204:
of 20–30 amino acids that they require for secretion from a cell, a pro-region called latency-associated peptide (LAP - Alias: Pro-TGF beta 1, LAP/TGF beta 1), and a 112-114 amino acid
293:
activate TGF-β and do not show any TGF-β deficiency phenotypes, this may reflect redundancy among the activating enzymes suggesting that other unknown proteases might be involved.
6634:
1654:"Regulation of matrix metalloproteinase-9/gelatinase B expression and activation by ovarian steroids and LEFTY-A/endometrial bleeding-associated factor in the human endometrium"
1046:
Nakao A, Afrakhte M, Morén A, Nakayama T, Christian JL, Heuchel R, et al. (October 1997). "Identification of Smad7, a TGFbeta-inducible antagonist of TGF-beta signalling".
3392:
Perlman R, Schiemann WP, Brooks MW, Lodish HF, Weinberg RA (August 2001). "TGF-beta-induced apoptosis is mediated by the adapter protein Daxx that facilitates JNK activation".
2072:"Disruption of the gene encoding the latent transforming growth factor-beta binding protein 4 (LTBP-4) causes abnormal lung development, cardiomyopathy, and colorectal cancer"
483:-TGM consists of 5 domains, with the first three shown to crucial for interaction with the TGFβR complex, with functions for domains 4 and 5 not yet known. Importantly,
3785:
Morishima N, Mizoguchi I, Takeda K, Mizuguchi J, Yoshimoto T (August 2009). "TGF-beta is necessary for induction of IL-23R and Th17 differentiation by IL-6 and IL-23".
5238:
6627:
4536:"Down-Modulation of Lung Immune Responses by Interleukin-10 and Transforming Growth Factor β (TGF-β) and Analysis of TGF-β Receptors I and II in Active Tuberculosis"
801:
As noted above in the section about macrophages, loss of TGF-β signaling in obesity is one contributor to the inflammatory milieu generated in the case of obesity.
388:
are a class of intracellular signalling proteins and transcription factors for the TGF-β family of signalling molecules. This pathway conceptually resembles the
8269:
1763:
Herpin A, Lelong C, Favrel P (May 2004). "Transforming growth factor-beta-related proteins: an ancestral and widespread superfamily of cytokines in metazoans".
4996:"Mitigation of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis by TGF-β induced FOXP3 regulatory T cells through the induction of anergy and infectious tolerance"
2121:"Specific sequence motif of 8-Cys repeats of TGF-beta binding proteins, LTBPs, creates a hydrophobic interaction surface for binding of small latent TGF-beta"
1613:"Signal sequence and keyword trap in silico for selection of full-length human cDNAs encoding secretion or membrane proteins from oligo-capped cDNA libraries"
572:
2 lineages in that they have been shown to be capable of regulatory functions, this is further evidence of TGF-β1's regulatory function in the immune system.
471:
secretes a molecule that mimics the ability of mammalian TGF-β to bind to the TGFβR complex and trigger downstream signalling pathways. This molecule, termed
6118:
5579:
4478:
Ezzeddini R, Somi MH, Taghikhani M, Moaddab SY, Masnadi
Shirazi K, Shirmohammadi M, Eftekharsadat AT, Sadighi Moghaddam B, Salek Farrokhi A (February 2021).
5879:
5600:
1693:
Tabibzadeh S, Kothapalli R, Buyuksal I (July 1997). "Distinct tumor specific expression of TGFB4 (ebaf)*, a novel human gene of the TGF-beta superfamily".
5500:
3288:"Polyubiquitination of Transforming Growth Factor β-activated Kinase 1 (TAK1) at Lysine 562 Residue Regulates TLR4-mediated JNK and p38 MAPK Activation"
1505:"Maternal genes and facial clefts in offspring: a comprehensive search for genetic associations in two population-based cleft studies from Scandinavia"
6016:
6010:
6005:
5995:
5990:
5985:
5980:
5975:
5511:
814:
402:
4737:
Jayaswal, Shilpi; Kamal, Md. Azhar; Dua, Raina; Gupta, Shashank; Majumdar, Tanmay; Das, Gobardhan; Kumar, Dhiraj; Rao, Kanury V. S. (15 April 2010).
6151:
4864:
119:
catalyze the release of active TGF-β from the complex. This often occurs on the surface of macrophages where the latent TGF-β complex is bound to
5378:
8199:
6376:
5495:
4796:
Rosas-Taraco, Adrian G.; Higgins, David M.; Sánchez-Campillo, Joaquín; Lee, Eric J.; Orme, Ian M.; González-Juarrero, Mercedes (January 2011).
4382:"Dysregulated epidermal growth factor and tumor growth factor-beta receptor signaling through GFAP-ACTA2 protein interaction in liver fibrosis"
848:
17 cells secretes TNF-α, which induces demyelination of the oligodendroglial via TNF receptor 1. The decreased TGF-β levels lead to increased T
150:
54:
3463:
Faming; Manro, Jason R.; Iversen, Philip W.; Iyer, Chandrasekar V.; Brekken, Rolf A.; Kalos, Michael D.; Driscoll, Kyla E. (23 January 2018).
5519:
5142:
Swardfager W, Lanctôt K, Rothenburg L, Wong A, Cappell J, Herrmann N (November 2010). "A meta-analysis of cytokines in
Alzheimer's disease".
2803:"Interactions between growth factors and integrins: latent forms of transforming growth factor-beta are ligands for the integrin alphavbeta1"
1475:
4014:"Smad7 is induced by CD40 and protects WEHI 231 B-lymphocytes from transforming growth factor-beta -induced growth inhibition and apoptosis"
6577:
6572:
6567:
5832:
5099:
Nakahara J, Maeda M, Aiso S, Suzuki N (February 2012). "Current concepts in multiple sclerosis: autoimmunity versus oligodendrogliopathy".
131:, particularly in the gut. TGF-β also plays a crucial role in stem cell differentiation as well as T-cell regulation and differentiation.
3465:"Preclinical assessment of galunisertib (LY2157299 monohydrate), a first-in-class transforming growth factor-β receptor type I inhibitor"
2648:"Inactivation of the integrin beta 6 subunit gene reveals a role of epithelial integrins in regulating inflammation in the lung and skin"
2294:
Wipff PJ, Hinz B (September 2008). "Integrins and the activation of latent transforming growth factor beta1 - an intimate relationship".
8516:
5682:
1419:
1385:
1351:
852:
17 cells and subsequently increased TNFα levels. As a result, demyelination of neurons occurs. TGF-β have also been observed to induce
8484:
6559:
5924:
4798:"Local pulmonary immunotherapy with siRNA targeting TGFβ1 enhances antimicrobial capacity in Mycobacterium tuberculosis infected mice"
212:
cleavage. The mature TGF-β protein dimerizes to produce a 25 KDa active protein with many conserved structural motifs. TGF-β has nine
8262:
6179:
3918:
Li MO, Wan YY, Sanjabi S, Robertson AK, Flavell RA (2006-01-01). "Transforming growth factor-beta regulation of immune responses".
2862:"The integrin alpha v beta 6 binds and activates latent TGF beta 1: a mechanism for regulating pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis"
2336:"Cell surface-localized matrix metalloproteinase-9 proteolytically activates TGF-beta and promotes tumor invasion and angiogenesis"
192:
The peptide structures of the TGF-β isoforms are highly similar (homologies on the order of 70–80%). They are all encoded as large
5188:"Blood-brain barrier dysfunction in aging induces hyperactivation of TGFβ signaling and chronic yet reversible neural dysfunction"
732:, drugs that lower cholesterol levels, may enhance the responsiveness of cardiovascular cells to the protective actions of TGF-β.
5572:
5541:
410:
58:
6465:
6064:
5787:
2564:"Thrombospondin causes activation of latent transforming growth factor-beta secreted by endothelial cells by a novel mechanism"
108:
3525:
Stephen J.; Woodcock, Hannah V.; Chambers, Rachel C.; Hinck, Andrew P.; McSorley, Henry J.; Maizels, Rick M. (December 2017).
251:
levels of TGF-β signaling, the inactive complex of this cytokine gives opportunity for a proper mediation of TGF-β signaling.
6526:
6194:
2388:"Latent transforming growth factor-beta 1 associates to fibroblast extracellular matrix via latent TGF-beta binding protein"
934:, identified a major atheroprotective role of regulatory T cells and associated anti-inflammatory cytokines, IL-10 and TGF-β
7950:
7786:
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7534:
7436:
7362:
7174:
7065:
6729:
6074:
5747:
5740:
5735:
5730:
5725:
4585:"Immunotherapeutics for Tuberculosis in Experimental Animals: Is There a Common Pathway Activated by Effective Protocols?"
4055:"TGF beta 1 inhibits NF-kappa B/Rel activity inducing apoptosis of B cells: transcriptional activation of I kappa B alpha"
908:; with fewer fat cells underneath to provide support, the skin becomes saggy and wrinkled. Subcutaneous fat also produces
8511:
8255:
8076:
7986:
7922:
7742:
7619:
7507:
7318:
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6664:
6650:
6453:
6448:
6144:
5720:
5715:
5710:
5705:
5700:
5695:
4739:"Identification of Host-Dependent Survival Factors for Intracellular Mycobacterium tuberculosis through an siRNA Screen"
5394:"Age-Related Loss of Innate Immune Antimicrobial Function of Dermal Fat Is Mediated by Transforming Growth Factor Beta"
1096:
6582:
6344:
5565:
4147:"Human intestinal macrophages display profound inflammatory anergy despite avid phagocytic and bacteriocidal activity"
2611:
Murphy-Ullrich JE, Poczatek M (2000). "Activation of latent TGF-beta by thrombospondin-1: mechanisms and physiology".
3872:
O'Connor W, Zenewicz LA, Flavell RA (June 2010). "The dual nature of T(H)17 cells: shifting the focus to function".
2746:"Targeted disruption of the mouse transforming growth factor-beta 1 gene results in multifocal inflammatory disease"
8330:
8313:
8296:
7918:
7738:
7615:
7314:
6960:
6853:
6714:
6438:
6421:
6386:
6223:
6026:
5690:
2697:"Extensive vasculogenesis, angiogenesis, and organogenesis precede lethality in mice lacking all alpha v integrins"
703:
431:
389:
3110:
Derynck R, Zhang YE (October 2003). "Smad-dependent and Smad-independent pathways in TGF-beta family signalling".
951:
Meng, Xiao-ming; Nikolic-Paterson, David J.; Lan, Hui Yao (June 2016). "TGF-β: the master regulator of fibrosis".
8526:
8521:
8335:
8062:
6955:
6843:
5809:
5592:
1847:"Human transforming growth factor-beta complementary DNA sequence and expression in normal and transformed cells"
794:
TGF-β/SMAD3 signaling pathway is important in regulating glucose and energy homeostasis and might play a role in
467:
5338:"A systematic review of the importance of milk TGF-beta on immunological outcomes in the infant and young child"
2906:"Transforming growth factor beta 1 null mutation in mice causes excessive inflammatory response and early death"
860:
producing cells) growth. Hence, the decreased TGF-β levels during MS may also prevent remyelination of neurons.
783:
8618:
8308:
6608:
6168:
5907:
5852:
5836:
5529:
443:
281:
38:, which regulates many cellular functions including cell proliferation, differentiation, adhesion and migration
3527:"A structurally distinct TGF-β mimic from an intestinal helminth parasite potently induces regulatory T cells"
3014:"The integrin alpha(v)beta8 mediates epithelial homeostasis through MT1-MMP-dependent activation of TGF-beta1"
539:
Studies show that neutralization of TGF-β1 in vitro inhibits the differentiation of helper T cells into T
4480:"Association of Foxp3 rs3761548 polymorphism with cytokines concentration in gastric adenocarcinoma patients"
8649:
8446:
8418:
8345:
8325:
6587:
6371:
6137:
1902:"Latent transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) binding proteins: orchestrators of TGF-beta availability"
829:
mediated response. This suggests a possible role for TGF-β and iTreg in the regulation and treatment of MS.
352:
85:
4945:
Robinson PN, Arteaga-Solis E, Baldock C, Collod-Béroud G, Booms P, De Paepe A, et al. (October 2006).
4847:
720:
suppresses the responsiveness of cardiovascular cells to TGF-β and its protective qualities, thus allowing
8458:
8431:
4345:
Blobe GC, Schiemann WP, Lodish HF (May 2000). "Role of transforming growth factor beta in human disease".
4145:
Smythies LE, Sellers M, Clements RH, Mosteller-Barnum M, Meng G, Benjamin WH, et al. (January 2005).
2814:
869:
623:
4630:"Deletion of TGF-β1 Increases Bacterial Clearance by Cytotoxic T Cells in a Tuberculosis Granuloma Model"
189:
A fourth member of the subfamily, TGFB4, has been identified in birds and a fifth, TGFB5, only in frogs.
8584:
8546:
8426:
8372:
8350:
8303:
3654:
756:
4479:
229:
exposed at the surface of the protein and is implicated in receptor binding and specificity of TGF-β.
8555:
8551:
8503:
5515:
5199:
4901:
4249:
4238:"Eosinophils sustain adipose alternatively activated macrophages associated with glucose homeostasis"
3966:
3538:
3299:
3119:
2917:
2757:
2437:"Proteolytic activation of latent transforming growth factor-beta from fibroblast-conditioned medium"
1858:
1811:
1516:
1055:
795:
622:. TGF-β causes synthesis of p15 and p21 proteins, which block the cyclin:CDK complex responsible for
239:
3585:"TGF-β mimic proteins form an extended gene family in the murine parasite Heligmosomoides polygyrus"
2819:
8613:
8596:
8282:
8209:
6603:
5959:
5644:
5258:"Active transforming growth factor-beta2 is increased in the aqueous humor of keratoconus patients"
881:
Overactive TGF-β pathway, with an increase of TGF-β2, was reported in the studies of patients with
7403:
7014:
6917:
4236:
Wu D, Molofsky AB, Liang HE, Ricardo-Gonzalez RR, Jouihan HA, Bando JK, et al. (April 2011).
585:
in both human and mouse B cells and has an otherwise inhibitory function for antibody production.
8159:
8034:
6797:
6656:
6034:
5823:
5535:
5167:
5124:
4778:
4719:
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4327:
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3767:
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3417:
3143:
3092:
2726:
2509:
1882:
1334:
1279:
1079:
976:
901:
818:
143:
89:
7991:
7834:
7673:
7388:
1564:"A large-scale candidate gene association study of age at menarche and age at natural menopause"
7592:
7493:
7281:
7276:
7246:
7241:
7141:
3012:
Mu D, Cambier S, Fjellbirkeland L, Baron JL, Munger JS, Kawakatsu H, et al. (April 2002).
868:
Higher concentrations of TGF-β are found in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid of patients with
602:
and other pro-inflammatory cytokines that contribute to a chronically pro-inflammatory milieu.
30:
8463:
8184:
7261:
6724:
6054:
5614:
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5318:
5269:
5219:
5159:
5116:
5081:
5017:
4976:
4927:
4827:
4770:
4711:
4682:"TGFβ restricts expansion, survival, and function of T cells within the tuberculous granuloma"
4661:
4606:
4565:
4507:
4499:
4460:
4411:
4362:
4319:
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2593:
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2150:
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2016:
1964:
1923:
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1071:
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968:
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668:
653:
509:
247:
193:
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7231:
7131:
7019:
6922:
6772:
4429:
Vlahopoulos SA, Cen O, Hengen N, Agan J, Moschovi M, Critselis E, et al. (August 2015).
3931:
2860:
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2070:
Sterner-Kock A, Thorey IS, Koli K, Wempe F, Otte J, Bangsow T, et al. (September 2002).
1800:"Crystal structure of transforming growth factor-beta 2: an unusual fold for the superfamily"
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2765:
2708:
2667:
2659:
2620:
2583:
2575:
2536:
2527:
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2493:
2456:
2448:
2407:
2399:
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2347:
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2261:
2219:
2177:
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2006:
1954:
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521:
323:
124:
78:
7587:
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7009:
6912:
6907:
5239:"Damage to a Protective Shield around the Brain May Lead to Alzheimer's and Other Diseases"
4890:"Losartan, an AT1 antagonist, prevents aortic aneurysm in a mouse model of Marfan syndrome"
4431:"Dynamic aberrant NF-κB spurs tumorigenesis: a new model encompassing the microenvironment"
2904:
Kulkarni AB, Huh CG, Becker D, Geiser A, Lyght M, Flanders KC, et al. (January 1993).
682:
through influencing Tregs function and the secretion of immunomodulatory cytokines such as
409:
where it acts as a transcription factor for various genes, including those to activate the
208:
region that becomes the mature TGF-β molecule following its release from the pro-region by
8468:
8015:
7945:
7940:
7858:
7781:
7776:
7646:
7641:
7464:
7357:
7352:
7112:
6999:
6994:
6879:
6505:
6500:
6358:
6059:
5392:
Zhang LJ, Chen SX, Guerrero-Juarez CF, Li F, Tong Y, Liang Y, et al. (January 2019).
4851:
3667:
3510:
3505:
853:
744:
721:
35:
5557:
5287:
Engler C, Chakravarti S, Doyle J, Eberhart CG, Meng H, Stark WJ, et al. (May 2011).
4845:
Understanding Heart
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Shull MM, Ormsby I, Kier AB, Pawlowski S, Diebold RJ, Yin M, et al. (October 1992).
1562:
He C, Kraft P, Chasman DI, Buring JE, Chen C, Hankinson SE, et al. (November 2010).
4905:
4253:
3970:
3542:
3509: This article incorporates text from this source, which is available under the
3303:
3123:
2921:
2761:
2223:
1862:
1815:
1520:
1059:
896:, which reduces the subcutaneous fat that gives skin a pleasant appearance and texture.
8601:
8408:
8278:
8247:
6619:
5963:
5588:
5472:
5447:
5420:
5393:
5313:
5288:
5076:
5049:
4971:
4946:
4922:
4889:
4888:
Habashi JP, Judge DP, Holm TM, Cohn RD, Loeys BL, Cooper TK, et al. (April 2006).
4822:
4797:
4765:
4738:
4706:
4681:
4656:
4629:
4455:
4430:
4406:
4381:
4270:
4237:
4122:
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3849:
3824:
3710:
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3584:
3559:
3526:
3489:
3464:
3369:
3344:
3320:
3287:
3228:
3203:
3038:
3013:
2989:
2964:
2778:
2745:
2672:
2647:
2588:
2563:
2461:
2436:
2412:
2387:
1588:
1563:
1539:
1504:
1225:
1200:
1176:
1151:
1023:
998:
826:
771:
752:
748:
683:
679:
385:
225:
217:
201:
74:
5505:
4560:
4535:
4314:
4297:
4171:
4146:
4071:
4054:
3989:
3954:
3360:
3079:
3062:
2878:
2861:
2713:
2696:
2624:
2360:
2335:
2208:"Tumor cell interactions with the extracellular matrix during invasion and metastasis"
2096:
2071:
2048:
1741:
1266:
1249:
8643:
8403:
8169:
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6160:
5354:
5337:
4723:
4519:
3646:
3251:
Roskoski R (August 2012). "ERK1/2 MAP kinases: structure, function, and regulation".
2940:
2905:
2837:
2802:
2145:
2120:
1943:"Processing of transforming growth factor beta 1 precursor by human furin convertase"
1128:
925:
857:
810:
725:
495:
regulatory T cells that had much greater stability than those induced by TGF-β.
5525:
5128:
4551:
3421:
3096:
2730:
2513:
1283:
980:
667:(FOXP3) as a transcription factor is an essential molecular marker of regulatory T (
8628:
8393:
8389:
8189:
7572:
7567:
7256:
7216:
7211:
6787:
5171:
5155:
4782:
4331:
3901:
3771:
3147:
1886:
1845:
Derynck R, Jarrett JA, Chen EY, Eaton DH, Bell JR, Assoian RK, et al. (1985).
1652:
Cornet PB, Galant C, Eeckhout Y, Courtoy PJ, Marbaix E, Henriet P (February 2005).
1611:
Otsuki T, Ota T, Nishikawa T, Hayashi K, Suzuki Y, Yamamoto J, et al. (2005).
1338:
1083:
909:
764:
657:
454:
435:
406:
221:
104:
4624:
Warsinske, Hayley C.; Pienaar, Elsje; Linderman, Jennifer J.; Mattila, Joshua T.;
4446:
3955:"Redirection of B cell responsiveness by transforming growth factor beta receptor"
1167:
446:(JNK) pathway and thus apoptosis as seen in the left panel of the adjacent image.
5410:
5214:
5187:
4755:
4583:
Rook, Graham A. W.; Lowrie, Douglas B.; Hernàndez-Pando, Rogelio (15 July 2007).
3754:
3737:
3600:
2540:
1529:
487:-TGM shows promise as a novel therapeutic as it induces less fibrosis than TGF-β
200:
and TGF-β2 and TGF-β3 each contain 412 amino acids. They each have an N-terminal
8623:
8436:
8179:
7877:
7577:
7221:
6089:
6049:
5551:
5463:
5012:
4995:
4358:
3219:
1299:"Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) isoforms in wound healing and fibrosis"
931:
882:
717:
209:
4813:
4697:
4495:
3959:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3840:
3798:
3550:
3264:
2910:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2307:
2181:
2168:
ten Dijke P, Hill CS (May 2004). "New insights into TGF-beta-Smad signalling".
1216:
8576:
8219:
8130:
8126:
8122:
7912:
7732:
7556:
7552:
7548:
7251:
7200:
7196:
7192:
7059:
6896:
6892:
6888:
6837:
6751:
6747:
6743:
6703:
6409:
6404:
6399:
5945:
5637:
5632:
5627:
5546:
5304:
5257:
5112:
4211:
3638:
3480:
2484:
Booth WJ, Berndt MC (July 1987). "Thrombospondin in clinical disease states".
2266:
2249:
1776:
1629:
1612:
1579:
1467:
611:
224:
structure characteristic of the TGF-β superfamily. The ninth cysteine forms a
205:
197:
178:
172:
166:
128:
112:
100:
93:
4646:
4503:
4112:
2646:
Huang XZ, Wu JF, Cass D, Erle DJ, Corry D, Young SG, et al. (May 1996).
1959:
1942:
1322:
548:
activated dendritic cells, which serves to activate the transcription factor
8606:
8340:
8112:
8108:
8099:
8009:
8005:
7976:
7908:
7904:
7852:
7848:
7824:
7728:
7724:
7691:
7687:
7529:
7488:
7271:
7169:
7136:
7106:
7102:
7083:
7055:
7051:
6848:
6833:
6829:
6709:
6699:
6695:
6510:
6366:
5782:
4962:
4913:
4397:
4261:
3979:
1823:
1298:
905:
767:
763:. While the underlying defect in Marfan syndrome is faulty synthesis of the
414:
364:
135:
8085:
7516:
5481:
5429:
5363:
5322:
5273:
5223:
5163:
5120:
5085:
5050:"The neuroprotective functions of transforming growth factor beta proteins"
5021:
4980:
4931:
4831:
4774:
4715:
4665:
4610:
4569:
4511:
4464:
4415:
4366:
4323:
4279:
4219:
4180:
4131:
4039:
4030:
4013:
3998:
3939:
3893:
3858:
3806:
3763:
3719:
3618:
3568:
3498:
3448:
3413:
3329:
3272:
3237:
3188:
3179:
3163:"TGF-beta signaling in T cells: roles in lymphoid and epithelial neoplasia"
3162:
3139:
3047:
2998:
2887:
2632:
2497:
2452:
2369:
2315:
2189:
2154:
2105:
2056:
2020:
1927:
1918:
1901:
1784:
1749:
1679:
1638:
1597:
1548:
1330:
1275:
1234:
1185:
1032:
972:
964:
809:
Induced T regulatory cells (iTreg), stimulated by TGF-β in the presence of
5289:"Transforming growth factor-β signaling pathway activation in Keratoconus"
5256:
Maier P, Broszinski A, Heizmann U, Böhringer D, Reinhardau T (July 2007).
4080:
4012:
Patil S, Wildey GM, Brown TL, Choy L, Derynck R, Howe PH (December 2000).
3378:
3088:
3029:
2949:
2930:
2846:
2787:
2722:
2681:
2663:
2597:
2579:
2548:
2505:
2470:
2421:
2403:
2275:
2231:
2136:
1968:
1878:
1831:
1714:
1485:
1136:
1075:
372:
34:
Computer graphic of TGF-beta. TGF-beta is a cytokine with three different
8398:
8355:
8236:
6320:
5379:"UC San Diego Researchers Identify How Skin Ages, Loses Fat and Immunity"
5066:
3684:"Induction of stable human FOXP3 Tregs by a parasite-derived TGF-β mimic"
2828:
2351:
1670:
1653:
1436:
1402:
1368:
1297:
Lichtman, Michael K.; Otero-Vinas, Marta; Falanga, Vincent (March 2016).
897:
893:
691:
615:
213:
139:
50:
3131:
2980:
17:
8380:
8174:
8164:
8104:
8001:
7900:
7844:
7720:
7683:
7098:
7047:
6825:
6691:
6495:
6434:
6044:
6039:
3700:
2250:"Redox-mediated activation of latent transforming growth factor-beta 1"
2087:
1440:
1406:
1372:
913:
277:
116:
3311:
2899:
2897:
2011:
1994:
1452:
1450:
1314:
1250:"TGFbeta signaling in growth control, cancer, and heritable disorders"
743:
TGF-β signaling also likely plays a major role in the pathogenesis of
678:
polymorphism (rs3761548) might be involved in cancer progression like
8225:
8023:
8019:
7887:
7866:
7862:
7702:
7472:
7468:
7266:
7120:
7116:
6102:
6001:
5971:
5917:
5912:
5889:
5884:
5874:
5867:
5862:
4162:
3405:
2769:
1870:
729:
398:
4195:
4094:
Kubiczkova L, Sedlarikova L, Hajek R, Sevcikova S (September 2012).
3885:
3345:"Daxx, a novel Fas-binding protein that activates JNK and apoptosis"
2207:
1941:
Dubois CM, Laprise MH, Blanchette F, Gentry LE, Leduc R (May 1995).
1846:
1799:
1112:
1014:
7301:
6942:
5204:
4601:
4584:
508:
TGF-β1 plays a role in the induction from CD4 T cells of both
8154:
8086:
8044:
7981:
7829:
7818:
7814:
7770:
7766:
7762:
7635:
7603:
7602:
7538:
7517:
7454:
7448:
7382:
7346:
7342:
7338:
7182:
7178:
7156:
7088:
7077:
6988:
6984:
6873:
6869:
6718:
6549:
6544:
6539:
6534:
6490:
6485:
6480:
6475:
6339:
6334:
6329:
6305:
6299:
6293:
6287:
6267:
6263:
6254:
6250:
6241:
6237:
6097:
5929:
5857:
5802:
5797:
5792:
5671:
5664:
5659:
5654:
1067:
822:
687:
675:
664:
631:
626:(Rb) phosphorylation. Thus, TGF-β blocks advancement through the G
549:
492:
371:
363:
289:
285:
70:
66:
62:
6129:
5448:"The Discovery and Early Days of TGF-β: A Historical Perspective"
4947:"The molecular genetics of Marfan syndrome and related disorders"
1706:
928:, a molecular biologist who made pioneering observations of TGF-β
7970:
7966:
7962:
7958:
7954:
7934:
7930:
7926:
7810:
7806:
7802:
7798:
7794:
7790:
7758:
7754:
7750:
7746:
7667:
7663:
7659:
7655:
7631:
7627:
7623:
7444:
7440:
7418:
7378:
7374:
7370:
7366:
7334:
7330:
7326:
7322:
7296:
7151:
7073:
7069:
7029:
6980:
6976:
6972:
6968:
6937:
6865:
6861:
6857:
6807:
6733:
6673:
6259:
6246:
6233:
6211:
6207:
6203:
6198:
6190:
5777:
5772:
5767:
5762:
5757:
5752:
5649:
4844:
2801:
Munger JS, Harpel JG, Giancotti FG, Rifkin DB (September 1998).
1423:
1389:
1355:
630:
phase of the cycle. In doing so, TGF-β suppresses expression of
552:, is required in addition to TGF-β1 for the differentiation of T
439:
405:
and forms a heterodimeric complex. This complex then enters the
120:
57:
that includes three different mammalian isoforms (TGF-β 1 to 3,
8251:
6623:
6133:
5561:
5496:
Description of the TGF beta producing genes at ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
3738:"The T(reg)/Th17 cell balance: a new paradigm for autoimmunity"
8045:
5536:
Biochemists Solve Structure Of TGF-Beta And Its Receptor. 2008
2386:
Taipale J, Miyazono K, Heldin CH, Keski-Oja J (January 1994).
2201:
2199:
1462:. Novartis Foundation Symposia. Vol. 157. pp. 7–28.
1460:
Ciba Foundation Symposium 157 - Clinical Applications of TGF-β
582:
475:-TGM, shares no sequence homology to TGF-β and is secreted by
1728:
Khalil N (December 1999). "TGF-beta: from latent to active".
2243:
2241:
401:(R-SMAD). The R-SMAD then binds to the common SMAD (coSMAD)
3343:
Yang X, Khosravi-Far R, Chang HY, Baltimore D (June 1997).
339:
Conformation change mechanism pathway (without proteolysis)
103:, in a latent form in which it is complexed with two other
2695:
Bader BL, Rayburn H, Crowley D, Hynes RO (November 1998).
138:
regulation and differentiation, it is a highly researched
5501:
Diagram of the TGF beta signaling pathway at genome.ad.jp
3063:"Smads: transcriptional activators of TGF-beta responses"
1097:
AfCS signaling gateway – data center – ligand description
840:. When TGF-β levels decrease, they are unable to induce T
216:
residues that are conserved among its family. Eight form
4380:
Hassan, Sobia; Shah, Hussain; Shawana, Summayya (2020).
3286:
Chen IT, Hsu PH, Hsu WC, Chen NJ, Tseng PH (July 2015).
543:
17 cells. The role of TGF-β1 in the generation of T
8049:
6651:
2206:
Stetler-Stevenson WG, Aznavoorian S, Liotta LA (1993).
531:
TGF-β1 alone precipitates the expression of FOXP3 and T
491:
in mice and can be used to induce populations of human
84:
Activated TGF-β complexes with other factors to form a
7419:
7297:
7152:
7030:
6938:
6808:
6678:
6674:
747:, a disease characterized by disproportionate height,
735:
TGF-β is involved in regeneration of zebrafish heart.
96:, proliferation, and activation of many immune cells.
4865:"TGFBR2 transforming growth factor, beta receptor II"
457:
is the selective and potent TGFβRI kinase inhibitor.
5381:(Press release). University of California San Diego.
1658:
The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism
786:
which is caused by mutations in the TGF-β receptor.
759:
and aortic enlargement increasing the likelihood of
610:
TGF-β plays a crucial role in the regulation of the
560:
17 differentiation is not well understood. Because T
520: cells), which have a regulatory function, and
8569:
8539:
8502:
8477:
8445:
8417:
8371:
8364:
8289:
8144:
8084:
8075:
8043:
7886:
7701:
7601:
7515:
7506:
7417:
7295:
7150:
7028:
6936:
6806:
6672:
6663:
6596:
6558:
6525:
6462:
6431:
6420:
6385:
6357:
6315:
6276:
6220:
6176:
6167:
6111:
6088:
6025:
5958:
5938:
5900:
5845:
5822:
5680:
5608:
5599:
4196:"Transforming growth factor-beta: innately bipolar"
3787:
Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications
2562:Schultz-Cherry S, Murphy-Ullrich JE (August 1993).
2381:
2379:
1798:Daopin S, Piez KA, Ogawa Y, Davies DR (July 1992).
1499:Jugessur A, Shi M, Gjessing HK, Lie RT, Wilcox AJ,
351:Because MMP-2 and MMP-9 can activate TGF-β through
142:in the fields of cancer, auto-immune diseases, and
111:(LTBP) and latency-associated peptide (LAP). Serum
7423:
7034:
6812:
2965:"Review of the activation of TGF-beta in immunity"
1152:"TGF-β control of stem cell differentiation genes"
992:
990:
5048:Dobolyi A, Vincze C, Pál G, Lovas G (July 2012).
3204:"Non-Smad Signaling Pathways of the TGF-β Family"
7888:
7703:
347:Integrin protease-dependent activation mechanism
99:TGF-β is secreted by many cell types, including
7707:
5043:
5041:
5039:
5037:
5035:
5033:
5031:
4096:"TGF-β - an excellent servant but a bad master"
1993:Annes JP, Munger JS, Rifkin DB (January 2003).
556:17 cells. However, the molecular mechanism of T
8263:
6635:
6145:
5573:
5446:Moses HL, Roberts AB, Derynck R (July 2016).
3061:Derynck R, Zhang Y, Feng XH (December 1998).
8:
5101:Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology
4291:
4289:
2435:Lyons RM, Keski-Oja J, Moses HL (May 1988).
2248:Barcellos-Hoff MH, Dix TA (September 1996).
1435:Universal protein resource accession number
1401:Universal protein resource accession number
1367:Universal protein resource accession number
1248:Massagué J, Blain SW, Lo RS (October 2000).
1113:"Regulation of immune responses by TGF-beta"
1106:
1104:
528:, which secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines.
5054:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
4053:Arsura M, Wu M, Sonenshein GE (July 1996).
1995:"Making sense of latent TGFbeta activation"
330:Activation by Alpha(V) containing integrins
306:Activation by reactive oxygen species (ROS)
8451:
8368:
8270:
8256:
8248:
8081:
7512:
6669:
6642:
6628:
6620:
6428:
6173:
6152:
6138:
6130:
5842:
5605:
5580:
5566:
5558:
5452:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
5237:Daniela Kaufer; Alon Friedman (May 2021).
3208:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
2289:
2287:
2285:
1988:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1980:
1978:
273:Activation by protease and metalloprotease
5528:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
5471:
5419:
5409:
5353:
5312:
5213:
5203:
5075:
5065:
5011:
4970:
4921:
4821:
4764:
4754:
4705:
4655:
4645:
4600:
4559:
4454:
4405:
4313:
4269:
4170:
4121:
4111:
4070:
4029:
3988:
3978:
3848:
3825:"TGF-beta: a master of all T cell trades"
3753:
3709:
3699:
3608:
3558:
3488:
3368:
3319:
3227:
3178:
3078:
3037:
2988:
2939:
2929:
2877:
2836:
2818:
2777:
2712:
2671:
2587:
2460:
2411:
2359:
2265:
2144:
2095:
2010:
1958:
1917:
1669:
1628:
1587:
1538:
1528:
1265:
1224:
1201:"TGF-beta: a master of all T cell trades"
1175:
1022:
815:experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis
3932:10.1146/annurev.immunol.24.021605.090737
2529:The Journal of Investigative Dermatology
2119:Saharinen J, Keski-Oja J (August 2000).
1765:Developmental and Comparative Immunology
900:does this by blocking the conversion of
29:
4296:Hanahan D, Weinberg RA (January 2000).
3953:Roes J, Choi BK, Cazac BB (June 2003).
3736:Eisenstein EM, Williams CB (May 2009).
943:
5508:—Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology
3663:
3652:
3589:International Journal for Parasitology
1111:Letterio JJ, Roberts AB (April 1998).
1003:Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology
770:I, normally an important component of
442:(ASK1), which goes on to activate the
55:transforming growth factor superfamily
5538:– shows TGF-β3 dimer in TGFB-receptor
5520:European Molecular Biology Laboratory
4994:Selvaraj RK, Geiger TL (March 2008).
4231:
4229:
4151:The Journal of Clinical Investigation
3913:
3911:
3818:
3816:
3731:
3729:
2486:Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis
2329:
2327:
2325:
782:TGF-β signaling is also disturbed in
381:Canonical signaling: The SMAD pathway
7:
5336:Oddy WH, Rosales F (February 2010).
4435:Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews
4386:Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences
2613:Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews
2334:Yu Q, Stamenkovic I (January 2000).
2037:Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews
390:Jak-STAT signal transduction pathway
129:regulation of inflammatory processes
77:. TGFB proteins are produced by all
8517:Transcription preinitiation complex
4347:The New England Journal of Medicine
4018:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
2224:10.1146/annurev.cb.09.110193.002545
1947:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
1906:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
1420:Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man
1386:Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man
1352:Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man
162:The primary 3 mammalian types are:
8485:Signal transducing adaptor protein
8152:Endogenous antagonists/inhibitors:
5542:Measurement of Human Latent TGF-β1
4589:The Journal of Infectious Diseases
916:that fights bacterial infections.
440:apoptosis signal-inducing kinase 1
134:Because of its role in immune and
25:
5293:American Journal of Ophthalmology
4100:Journal of Translational Medicine
3823:Li MO, Flavell RA (August 2008).
1199:Li MO, Flavell RA (August 2008).
5355:10.1111/j.1399-3038.2009.00913.x
5342:Pediatric Allergy and Immunology
3504:
2296:European Journal of Cell Biology
1129:10.1146/annurev.immunol.16.1.137
892:Skin aging is caused in part by
813:, suppressed the development of
755:and heart complications such as
411:mitogen-activated protein kinase
6466:Relaxin family peptide hormones
5601:TGF beta superfamily of ligands
4552:10.1128/IAI.72.5.2628-2634.2004
716:One animal study suggests that
634:, a gene which is involved in G
479:in a biologically active form.
434:(DAXX) with the death receptor
268:Integrin-independent activation
220:within the protein to create a
109:latent TGF-beta binding protein
43:Transforming growth factor beta
6928:ML-347 (LDN-193719, VU0469381)
6778:ML-347 (LDN-193719, VU0469381)
5748:Growth differentiation factors
5377:Galindo, Yadira (2018-12-26).
5192:Science Translational Medicine
5156:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.06.012
2170:Trends in Biochemical Sciences
1150:Massagué J, Xi Q (July 2012).
425:Apoptosis via the DAXX pathway
319:Activation by thrombospondin-1
1:
4447:10.1016/j.cytogfr.2015.06.001
4315:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81683-9
4200:Current Opinion in Immunology
4072:10.1016/S1074-7613(00)80307-6
3688:Immunology & Cell Biology
3361:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80294-9
3080:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81696-7
2879:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80545-0
2807:Molecular Biology of the Cell
2714:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81618-9
2625:10.1016/S1359-6101(99)00029-5
2212:Annual Review of Cell Biology
2125:Molecular Biology of the Cell
2049:10.1016/S1359-6101(99)00010-6
1742:10.1016/S1286-4579(99)00259-2
1303:Wound Repair and Regeneration
1267:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)00121-5
1168:10.1016/j.febslet.2012.03.023
614:by blocking progress through
5411:10.1016/j.immuni.2018.11.003
5215:10.1126/scitranslmed.aaw8283
4756:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000839
3755:10.1203/PDR.0b013e31819e76c7
3601:10.1016/j.ijpara.2017.12.004
2969:Journal of Leukocyte Biology
2541:10.1111/1523-1747.ep12461198
1530:10.1371/journal.pone.0011493
999:"TGFβ signalling in context"
564:17 cells are distinct from T
7267:RepSox (E-616452, SJN-2511)
5691:Bone morphogenetic proteins
5464:10.1101/cshperspect.a021865
5013:10.4049/jimmunol.180.5.2830
4951:Journal of Medical Genetics
4359:10.1056/NEJM200005043421807
3920:Annual Review of Immunology
3220:10.1101/cshperspect.a022129
3161:Letterio JJ (August 2005).
3018:The Journal of Cell Biology
2652:The Journal of Cell Biology
2568:The Journal of Cell Biology
2441:The Journal of Cell Biology
2392:The Journal of Cell Biology
1503:, et al. (July 2010).
1117:Annual Review of Immunology
997:Massagué J (October 2012).
8666:
6439:Insulin-like growth factor
4814:10.1016/j.tube.2010.11.004
4698:10.1016/j.chom.2021.02.005
4496:10.1016/j.cyto.2020.155351
3841:10.1016/j.cell.2008.07.025
3799:10.1016/j.bbrc.2009.05.140
3551:10.1038/s41467-017-01886-6
3265:10.1016/j.phrs.2012.04.005
3202:Zhang YE (February 2017).
2963:Taylor AW (January 2009).
2308:10.1016/j.ejcb.2008.01.012
2182:10.1016/j.tibs.2004.03.008
1217:10.1016/j.cell.2008.07.025
817:(EAE), an animal model of
704:Mycobacterium tuberculosis
432:death-associated protein 6
413:8 pathway, which triggers
8454:
7257:Galunisertib (LY-2157299)
5305:10.1016/j.ajo.2010.11.008
5113:10.1007/s12016-011-8287-6
4298:"The hallmarks of cancer"
4212:10.1016/j.coi.2006.11.008
4194:Wahl SM (February 2007).
3639:10.1101/2020.12.08.416701
3481:10.18632/oncotarget.23795
2267:10.1210/mend.10.9.8885242
1777:10.1016/j.dci.2003.09.007
1580:10.1007/s00439-010-0878-4
1468:10.1002/9780470514061.ch2
953:Nature Reviews Nephrology
468:Heligmosomoides polygyrus
444:Jun amino-terminal kinase
282:matrix metalloproteinases
8597:Neuroendocrine signaling
8205:Thrombospondin 1 (THBS1)
7987:Osteogenin (BMP3, BMP3A)
5908:Activin type 2 receptors
5853:Activin type 1 receptors
5547:TGF beta pathway diagram
5530:Medical Subject Headings
4647:10.3389/fimmu.2017.01843
4113:10.1186/1479-5876-10-183
3253:Pharmacological Research
1960:10.1074/jbc.270.18.10618
1900:Rifkin DB (March 2005).
638:cell cycle progression.
465:The parasitic roundworm
450:TGFβ receptor inhibitors
315:radiation exposure ROS.
6279:FGF homologous factors:
4963:10.1136/jmg.2005.039669
4914:10.1126/science.1124287
4686:Cell Host & Microbe
4634:Frontiers in Immunology
4398:10.12669/pjms.36.4.1845
4262:10.1126/science.1201475
3980:10.1073/pnas.0731875100
2340:Genes & Development
2254:Molecular Endocrinology
2076:Genes & Development
1999:Journal of Cell Science
1824:10.1126/science.1631557
1695:Frontiers in Bioscience
1630:10.1093/dnares/12.2.117
499:Effects on immune cells
399:receptor regulated SMAD
353:proteolytic degradation
86:serine/threonine kinase
49:) is a multifunctional
8459:cAMP-dependent pathway
7404:Dorsomorphin (BML-275)
7015:Dorsomorphin (BML-275)
6918:Dorsomorphin (BML-275)
5810:Anti-müllerian hormone
5593:TGFβ signaling pathway
5516:TGFB domain annotation
4540:Infection and Immunity
4031:10.1074/jbc.M004861200
3662:Cite journal requires
3180:10.1038/sj.onc.1208922
2498:10.1055/s-2007-1003505
2453:10.1083/jcb.106.5.1659
1919:10.1074/jbc.R400029200
1730:Microbes and Infection
965:10.1038/nrneph.2016.48
665:forkhead box protein 3
624:retinoblastoma protein
377:
369:
196:; TGF-β1 contains 390
88:complex that binds to
39:
8585:Synaptic transmission
8581:Neurocrine signaling
8504:Transcription factors
8351:PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway
5144:Biological Psychiatry
5000:Journal of Immunology
3531:Nature Communications
3030:10.1083/jcb.200109100
2931:10.1073/pnas.90.2.770
2664:10.1083/jcb.133.4.921
2580:10.1083/jcb.122.4.923
2404:10.1083/jcb.124.1.171
2137:10.1091/mbc.11.8.2691
844:17 cells apoptosis. T
757:mitral valve prolapse
642:Clinical significance
375:
367:
33:
6654:receptor superfamily
6560:Vascular endothelial
5067:10.3390/ijms13078219
4863:Entrez Gene (2007).
4628:(20 December 2017).
4626:Kirschner, Denise E.
2829:10.1091/mbc.9.9.2627
2352:10.1101/gad.14.2.163
1671:10.1210/jc.2004-1277
796:diabetic nephropathy
790:Obesity and diabetes
784:Loeys–Dietz syndrome
778:Loeys–Dietz syndrome
240:extracellular matrix
233:Latent TGF-β complex
8614:Mechanotransduction
8602:Exocrine signalling
8409:Signaling molecules
8283:Signal transduction
8222:(against myostatin)
5645:Activin and inhibin
5506:The TGF-beta system
5243:Scientific American
5186:D (December 2019).
4906:2006Sci...312..117H
4868:(Entrez gene entry)
4254:2011Sci...332..243W
3971:2003PNAS..100.7241R
3748:(5 Pt 2): 26R–31R.
3543:2017NatCo...8.1741J
3394:Nature Cell Biology
3304:2015NatSR...512300C
3132:10.1038/nature02006
3124:2003Natur.425..577D
2981:10.1189/jlb.0708415
2922:1993PNAS...90..770K
2762:1992Natur.359..693S
1863:1985Natur.316..701D
1816:1992Sci...257..369D
1521:2010PLoSO...511493J
1060:1997Natur.389..631N
870:Alzheimer's disease
8624:Ion channel gating
8356:Integrin receptors
8290:Signaling pathways
8228:(against endoglin)
7585:Kinase inhibitors:
7481:Kinase inhibitors:
7396:Kinase inhibitors:
7229:Kinase inhibitors:
7129:Kinase inhibitors:
7007:Kinase inhibitors:
6905:Kinase inhibitors:
6770:Kinase inhibitors:
5824:TGF beta receptors
4850:2007-11-12 at the
3742:Pediatric Research
3701:10.1111/imcb.12475
3292:Scientific Reports
2088:10.1101/gad.229102
902:dermal fibroblasts
819:multiple sclerosis
805:Multiple Sclerosis
728:to develop, while
378:
370:
360:Signaling pathways
194:protein precursors
144:infectious disease
75:signaling proteins
40:
8637:
8636:
8619:Phototransduction
8577:Intracrine action
8535:
8534:
8498:
8497:
8386:Neurotransmitters
8245:
8244:
8140:
8139:
8071:
8070:
7502:
7501:
6795:Other inhibitors:
6617:
6616:
6521:
6520:
6353:
6352:
6127:
6126:
6027:Ligand inhibitors
5954:
5953:
5818:
5817:
5404:(1): 121–136.e5.
5348:(1 Pt 1): 47–59.
5299:(5): 752–759.e2.
5198:(521): eaaw8283.
4692:(4): 594–606.e6.
3874:Nature Immunology
3312:10.1038/srep12300
2012:10.1242/jcs.00229
1477:978-0-470-51406-1
1315:10.1111/wrr.12398
761:aortic dissection
654:immunosuppression
248:activated complex
151:TGF-β superfamily
73:) and many other
53:belonging to the
16:(Redirected from
8657:
8590:Chemical synapse
8490:Scaffold protein
8452:
8447:Second messenger
8373:Receptor ligands
8369:
8272:
8265:
8258:
8249:
8088:
8082:
8051:
8047:
8032:Decoy receptors:
7977:Myostatin (GDF8)
7890:
7875:Decoy receptors:
7825:Myostatin (GDF8)
7709:
7705:
7605:
7519:
7513:
7425:
7421:
7303:
7299:
7158:
7154:
7084:Myostatin (GDF8)
7036:
7032:
6944:
6940:
6814:
6810:
6785:Decoy receptors:
6680:
6676:
6670:
6653:
6644:
6637:
6630:
6621:
6527:Platelet-derived
6469:
6442:
6429:
6323:
6281:
6227:
6184:
6174:
6154:
6147:
6140:
6131:
5843:
5606:
5582:
5575:
5568:
5559:
5485:
5475:
5434:
5433:
5423:
5413:
5389:
5383:
5382:
5374:
5368:
5367:
5357:
5333:
5327:
5326:
5316:
5284:
5278:
5277:
5262:Molecular Vision
5253:
5247:
5246:
5234:
5228:
5227:
5217:
5207:
5182:
5176:
5175:
5139:
5133:
5132:
5096:
5090:
5089:
5079:
5069:
5045:
5026:
5025:
5015:
4991:
4985:
4984:
4974:
4942:
4936:
4935:
4925:
4900:(5770): 117–21.
4885:
4879:
4878:
4876:
4874:
4869:
4860:
4854:
4842:
4836:
4835:
4825:
4793:
4787:
4786:
4768:
4758:
4734:
4728:
4727:
4709:
4676:
4670:
4669:
4659:
4649:
4621:
4615:
4614:
4604:
4580:
4574:
4573:
4563:
4546:(5): 2628–2634.
4530:
4524:
4523:
4475:
4469:
4468:
4458:
4426:
4420:
4419:
4409:
4377:
4371:
4370:
4342:
4336:
4335:
4317:
4293:
4284:
4283:
4273:
4233:
4224:
4223:
4191:
4185:
4184:
4174:
4163:10.1172/JCI19229
4142:
4136:
4135:
4125:
4115:
4091:
4085:
4084:
4074:
4050:
4044:
4043:
4033:
4024:(49): 38363–70.
4009:
4003:
4002:
3992:
3982:
3950:
3944:
3943:
3915:
3906:
3905:
3869:
3863:
3862:
3852:
3820:
3811:
3810:
3782:
3776:
3775:
3757:
3733:
3724:
3723:
3713:
3703:
3678:
3672:
3671:
3665:
3660:
3658:
3650:
3629:
3623:
3622:
3612:
3579:
3573:
3572:
3562:
3521:
3515:
3508:
3502:
3492:
3475:(6): 6659–6677.
3459:
3453:
3452:
3432:
3426:
3425:
3406:10.1038/35087019
3389:
3383:
3382:
3372:
3340:
3334:
3333:
3323:
3283:
3277:
3276:
3248:
3242:
3241:
3231:
3199:
3193:
3192:
3182:
3158:
3152:
3151:
3118:(6958): 577–84.
3107:
3101:
3100:
3082:
3058:
3052:
3051:
3041:
3009:
3003:
3002:
2992:
2960:
2954:
2953:
2943:
2933:
2901:
2892:
2891:
2881:
2857:
2851:
2850:
2840:
2822:
2798:
2792:
2791:
2781:
2770:10.1038/359693a0
2741:
2735:
2734:
2716:
2692:
2686:
2685:
2675:
2643:
2637:
2636:
2608:
2602:
2601:
2591:
2559:
2553:
2552:
2524:
2518:
2517:
2481:
2475:
2474:
2464:
2432:
2426:
2425:
2415:
2383:
2374:
2373:
2363:
2331:
2320:
2319:
2291:
2280:
2279:
2269:
2245:
2236:
2235:
2203:
2194:
2193:
2165:
2159:
2158:
2148:
2116:
2110:
2109:
2099:
2067:
2061:
2060:
2031:
2025:
2024:
2014:
2005:(Pt 2): 217–24.
1990:
1973:
1972:
1962:
1953:(18): 10618–24.
1938:
1932:
1931:
1921:
1897:
1891:
1890:
1871:10.1038/316701a0
1842:
1836:
1835:
1810:(5068): 369–73.
1795:
1789:
1788:
1760:
1754:
1753:
1725:
1719:
1718:
1690:
1684:
1683:
1673:
1649:
1643:
1642:
1632:
1608:
1602:
1601:
1591:
1559:
1553:
1552:
1542:
1532:
1496:
1490:
1489:
1454:
1445:
1444:
1432:
1426:
1417:
1411:
1410:
1398:
1392:
1383:
1377:
1376:
1364:
1358:
1349:
1343:
1342:
1294:
1288:
1287:
1269:
1245:
1239:
1238:
1228:
1196:
1190:
1189:
1179:
1147:
1141:
1140:
1108:
1099:
1094:
1088:
1087:
1043:
1037:
1036:
1026:
994:
985:
984:
948:
376:The DAXX Pathway
368:The SMAD Pathway
324:Thrombospondin-1
311:activated after
297:Activation by pH
280:and a number of
125:thrombospondin-1
123:via its ligand,
79:white blood cell
21:
8665:
8664:
8660:
8659:
8658:
8656:
8655:
8654:
8640:
8639:
8638:
8633:
8565:
8531:
8494:
8473:
8469:Lipid signaling
8441:
8413:
8360:
8285:
8276:
8246:
8241:
8160:Cerberus (CER1)
8136:
8067:
8039:
7946:Eptotermin alfa
7941:Dibotermin alfa
7882:
7782:Eptotermin alfa
7777:Dibotermin alfa
7697:
7647:Eptotermin alfa
7642:Dibotermin alfa
7597:
7498:
7413:
7358:Eptotermin alfa
7353:Dibotermin alfa
7291:
7146:
7024:
7000:Eptotermin alfa
6995:Dibotermin alfa
6932:
6880:Eptotermin alfa
6802:
6659:
6648:
6618:
6613:
6592:
6554:
6517:
6463:
6458:
6432:
6423:
6416:
6381:
6359:EGF-like domain
6349:
6316:
6311:
6277:
6272:
6221:
6216:
6177:
6163:
6158:
6128:
6123:
6107:
6084:
6021:
5950:
5934:
5896:
5826:
5814:
5676:
5623:TGF beta family
5595:
5586:
5492:
5445:
5442:
5440:Further reading
5437:
5391:
5390:
5386:
5376:
5375:
5371:
5335:
5334:
5330:
5286:
5285:
5281:
5255:
5254:
5250:
5236:
5235:
5231:
5184:
5183:
5179:
5141:
5140:
5136:
5098:
5097:
5093:
5047:
5046:
5029:
4993:
4992:
4988:
4944:
4943:
4939:
4887:
4886:
4882:
4872:
4870:
4867:
4862:
4861:
4857:
4852:Wayback Machine
4843:
4839:
4795:
4794:
4790:
4749:(4): e1000839.
4736:
4735:
4731:
4678:
4677:
4673:
4623:
4622:
4618:
4582:
4581:
4577:
4532:
4531:
4527:
4477:
4476:
4472:
4428:
4427:
4423:
4379:
4378:
4374:
4344:
4343:
4339:
4295:
4294:
4287:
4248:(6026): 243–7.
4235:
4234:
4227:
4193:
4192:
4188:
4144:
4143:
4139:
4093:
4092:
4088:
4052:
4051:
4047:
4011:
4010:
4006:
3952:
3951:
3947:
3917:
3916:
3909:
3886:10.1038/ni.1882
3871:
3870:
3866:
3822:
3821:
3814:
3784:
3783:
3779:
3735:
3734:
3727:
3680:
3679:
3675:
3661:
3651:
3631:
3630:
3626:
3581:
3580:
3576:
3523:
3522:
3518:
3461:
3460:
3456:
3437:Cancer Research
3434:
3433:
3429:
3391:
3390:
3386:
3342:
3341:
3337:
3285:
3284:
3280:
3250:
3249:
3245:
3201:
3200:
3196:
3173:(37): 5701–12.
3160:
3159:
3155:
3109:
3108:
3104:
3060:
3059:
3055:
3011:
3010:
3006:
2962:
2961:
2957:
2903:
2902:
2895:
2859:
2858:
2854:
2820:10.1.1.492.5809
2800:
2799:
2795:
2756:(6397): 693–9.
2743:
2742:
2738:
2694:
2693:
2689:
2645:
2644:
2640:
2610:
2609:
2605:
2561:
2560:
2556:
2526:
2525:
2521:
2483:
2482:
2478:
2434:
2433:
2429:
2398:(1–2): 171–81.
2385:
2384:
2377:
2333:
2332:
2323:
2302:(8–9): 601–15.
2293:
2292:
2283:
2247:
2246:
2239:
2205:
2204:
2197:
2167:
2166:
2162:
2131:(8): 2691–704.
2118:
2117:
2113:
2082:(17): 2264–73.
2069:
2068:
2064:
2033:
2032:
2028:
1992:
1991:
1976:
1940:
1939:
1935:
1899:
1898:
1894:
1857:(6030): 701–5.
1844:
1843:
1839:
1797:
1796:
1792:
1762:
1761:
1757:
1736:(15): 1255–63.
1727:
1726:
1722:
1692:
1691:
1687:
1651:
1650:
1646:
1610:
1609:
1605:
1561:
1560:
1556:
1498:
1497:
1493:
1478:
1456:
1455:
1448:
1434:
1433:
1429:
1418:
1414:
1400:
1399:
1395:
1384:
1380:
1366:
1365:
1361:
1350:
1346:
1296:
1295:
1291:
1247:
1246:
1242:
1198:
1197:
1193:
1149:
1148:
1144:
1110:
1109:
1102:
1095:
1091:
1054:(6651): 631–5.
1045:
1044:
1040:
1015:10.1038/nrm3434
996:
995:
988:
950:
949:
945:
941:
922:
879:
866:
854:oligodendrocyte
851:
847:
843:
837:
807:
792:
780:
745:Marfan syndrome
741:
739:Marfan syndrome
722:atherosclerosis
714:
700:
672:
649:
644:
637:
629:
619:
608:
595:
578:
571:
567:
563:
559:
555:
546:
542:
534:
525:
519:
513:
506:
501:
463:
452:
427:
383:
362:
349:
341:
332:
321:
308:
299:
275:
270:
261:
235:
218:disulfide bonds
160:
90:TGF-β receptors
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8663:
8661:
8653:
8652:
8642:
8641:
8635:
8634:
8632:
8631:
8626:
8621:
8616:
8611:
8610:
8609:
8599:
8594:
8593:
8592:
8587:
8579:
8573:
8571:
8570:Other concepts
8567:
8566:
8564:
8563:
8558:
8549:
8543:
8541:
8537:
8536:
8533:
8532:
8530:
8529:
8524:
8519:
8514:
8508:
8506:
8500:
8499:
8496:
8495:
8493:
8492:
8487:
8481:
8479:
8475:
8474:
8472:
8471:
8466:
8461:
8455:
8449:
8443:
8442:
8440:
8439:
8434:
8429:
8423:
8421:
8415:
8414:
8412:
8411:
8406:
8404:Growth factors
8401:
8396:
8383:
8377:
8375:
8366:
8362:
8361:
8359:
8358:
8353:
8348:
8343:
8338:
8333:
8328:
8323:
8322:
8321:
8316:
8306:
8301:
8299:
8293:
8291:
8287:
8286:
8279:Cell signaling
8277:
8275:
8274:
8267:
8260:
8252:
8243:
8242:
8240:
8239:
8230:
8229:
8223:
8213:
8212:
8207:
8202:
8197:
8192:
8187:
8182:
8177:
8172:
8167:
8162:
8157:
8148:
8146:
8142:
8141:
8138:
8137:
8135:
8134:
8116:
8102:
8093:
8091:
8079:
8073:
8072:
8069:
8068:
8066:
8065:
8056:
8054:
8041:
8040:
8038:
8037:
8028:
8027:
8013:
7995:
7994:
7989:
7984:
7979:
7974:
7948:
7943:
7938:
7916:
7894:
7892:
7884:
7883:
7881:
7880:
7871:
7870:
7856:
7838:
7837:
7832:
7827:
7822:
7784:
7779:
7774:
7736:
7714:
7712:
7699:
7698:
7696:
7695:
7677:
7676:
7671:
7649:
7644:
7639:
7609:
7607:
7599:
7598:
7596:
7595:
7590:
7581:
7580:
7575:
7570:
7561:
7560:
7542:
7532:
7523:
7521:
7510:
7504:
7503:
7500:
7499:
7497:
7496:
7491:
7486:
7477:
7476:
7458:
7457:
7452:
7430:
7428:
7415:
7414:
7412:
7411:
7406:
7401:
7392:
7391:
7386:
7360:
7355:
7350:
7308:
7306:
7293:
7292:
7290:
7289:
7284:
7279:
7274:
7269:
7264:
7259:
7254:
7249:
7244:
7239:
7234:
7225:
7224:
7219:
7214:
7205:
7204:
7186:
7172:
7163:
7161:
7148:
7147:
7145:
7144:
7139:
7134:
7125:
7124:
7110:
7092:
7091:
7086:
7081:
7063:
7041:
7039:
7026:
7025:
7023:
7022:
7017:
7012:
7003:
7002:
6997:
6992:
6958:
6949:
6947:
6934:
6933:
6931:
6930:
6925:
6920:
6915:
6910:
6901:
6900:
6882:
6877:
6851:
6846:
6841:
6819:
6817:
6804:
6803:
6801:
6800:
6791:
6790:
6781:
6780:
6775:
6766:
6765:
6756:
6755:
6737:
6727:
6722:
6712:
6707:
6685:
6683:
6667:
6661:
6660:
6649:
6647:
6646:
6639:
6632:
6624:
6615:
6614:
6612:
6611:
6606:
6600:
6598:
6594:
6593:
6591:
6590:
6585:
6580:
6575:
6570:
6564:
6562:
6556:
6555:
6553:
6552:
6547:
6542:
6537:
6531:
6529:
6523:
6522:
6519:
6518:
6516:
6515:
6514:
6513:
6508:
6503:
6493:
6488:
6483:
6478:
6472:
6470:
6460:
6459:
6457:
6456:
6451:
6445:
6443:
6426:
6424:Relaxin family
6418:
6417:
6415:
6414:
6413:
6412:
6407:
6402:
6391:
6389:
6383:
6382:
6380:
6379:
6374:
6369:
6363:
6361:
6355:
6354:
6351:
6350:
6348:
6347:
6342:
6337:
6332:
6326:
6324:
6313:
6312:
6310:
6309:
6303:
6297:
6291:
6284:
6282:
6274:
6273:
6271:
6270:
6257:
6244:
6230:
6228:
6218:
6217:
6215:
6214:
6201:
6187:
6185:
6171:
6165:
6164:
6161:Growth factors
6159:
6157:
6156:
6149:
6142:
6134:
6125:
6124:
6122:
6121:
6115:
6113:
6109:
6108:
6106:
6105:
6100:
6094:
6092:
6086:
6085:
6083:
6082:
6077:
6072:
6067:
6062:
6057:
6052:
6047:
6042:
6037:
6031:
6029:
6023:
6022:
6020:
6019:
6014:
6008:
5999:
5993:
5988:
5983:
5978:
5968:
5966:
5956:
5955:
5952:
5951:
5949:
5948:
5942:
5940:
5936:
5935:
5933:
5932:
5927:
5922:
5921:
5920:
5915:
5904:
5902:
5898:
5897:
5895:
5894:
5893:
5892:
5887:
5877:
5872:
5871:
5870:
5865:
5860:
5849:
5847:
5840:
5820:
5819:
5816:
5815:
5813:
5812:
5807:
5806:
5805:
5800:
5795:
5790:
5785:
5783:Myostatin/GDF8
5780:
5775:
5770:
5765:
5760:
5755:
5745:
5744:
5743:
5738:
5733:
5728:
5723:
5718:
5713:
5708:
5703:
5698:
5687:
5685:
5678:
5677:
5675:
5674:
5669:
5668:
5667:
5662:
5657:
5652:
5642:
5641:
5640:
5635:
5630:
5619:
5617:
5603:
5597:
5596:
5589:Cell signaling
5587:
5585:
5584:
5577:
5570:
5562:
5556:
5555:
5552:IntroPro Entry
5549:
5544:
5539:
5533:
5523:
5509:
5503:
5498:
5491:
5490:External links
5488:
5487:
5486:
5458:(7): a021865.
5441:
5438:
5436:
5435:
5384:
5369:
5328:
5279:
5248:
5229:
5205:10.1101/537431
5177:
5150:(10): 930–41.
5134:
5091:
5060:(7): 8219–58.
5027:
4986:
4957:(10): 769–87.
4937:
4880:
4855:
4837:
4788:
4743:PLOS Pathogens
4729:
4671:
4616:
4602:10.1086/518937
4595:(2): 191–198.
4575:
4525:
4470:
4441:(4): 389–403.
4421:
4392:(4): 782–787.
4372:
4353:(18): 1350–8.
4337:
4285:
4225:
4186:
4137:
4086:
4045:
4004:
3965:(12): 7241–6.
3945:
3907:
3864:
3835:(3): 392–404.
3812:
3777:
3725:
3694:(8): 833–847.
3673:
3664:|journal=
3624:
3595:(5): 379–385.
3574:
3516:
3454:
3443:(23): 8271–7.
3427:
3384:
3355:(7): 1067–76.
3335:
3278:
3243:
3214:(2): a022129.
3194:
3153:
3102:
3053:
3024:(3): 493–507.
3004:
2955:
2893:
2852:
2813:(9): 2627–38.
2793:
2736:
2687:
2638:
2619:(1–2): 59–69.
2603:
2554:
2519:
2492:(3): 298–306.
2476:
2447:(5): 1659–65.
2427:
2375:
2321:
2281:
2260:(9): 1077–83.
2237:
2195:
2160:
2111:
2062:
2026:
1974:
1933:
1912:(9): 7409–12.
1892:
1837:
1790:
1755:
1720:
1685:
1664:(2): 1001–11.
1644:
1603:
1568:Human Genetics
1554:
1491:
1476:
1446:
1427:
1412:
1393:
1378:
1359:
1344:
1309:(2): 215–222.
1289:
1260:(2): 295–309.
1240:
1211:(3): 392–404.
1191:
1162:(14): 1953–8.
1142:
1100:
1089:
1038:
1009:(10): 616–30.
986:
959:(6): 325–338.
942:
940:
937:
936:
935:
929:
921:
918:
878:
875:
865:
862:
849:
845:
841:
835:
806:
803:
791:
788:
779:
776:
772:elastic fibers
753:ectopia lentis
749:arachnodactyly
740:
737:
713:
710:
699:
696:
680:gastric cancer
670:
648:
645:
643:
640:
635:
627:
617:
607:
604:
594:
591:
577:
574:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
544:
540:
532:
523:
517:
511:
505:
502:
500:
497:
462:
459:
451:
448:
426:
423:
382:
379:
361:
358:
348:
345:
340:
337:
331:
328:
320:
317:
307:
304:
298:
295:
274:
271:
269:
266:
260:
257:
234:
231:
226:disulfide bond
202:signal peptide
183:
182:
176:
170:
159:
156:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8662:
8651:
8648:
8647:
8645:
8630:
8627:
8625:
8622:
8620:
8617:
8615:
8612:
8608:
8605:
8604:
8603:
8600:
8598:
8595:
8591:
8588:
8586:
8583:
8582:
8580:
8578:
8575:
8574:
8572:
8568:
8562:
8559:
8557:
8553:
8550:
8548:
8545:
8544:
8542:
8538:
8528:
8525:
8523:
8520:
8518:
8515:
8513:
8510:
8509:
8507:
8505:
8501:
8491:
8488:
8486:
8483:
8482:
8480:
8476:
8470:
8467:
8465:
8462:
8460:
8457:
8456:
8453:
8450:
8448:
8444:
8438:
8435:
8433:
8432:Intracellular
8430:
8428:
8425:
8424:
8422:
8420:
8416:
8410:
8407:
8405:
8402:
8400:
8397:
8395:
8394:Neurohormones
8391:
8390:Neuropeptides
8387:
8384:
8382:
8379:
8378:
8376:
8374:
8370:
8367:
8363:
8357:
8354:
8352:
8349:
8347:
8344:
8342:
8341:Fas apoptosis
8339:
8337:
8334:
8332:
8329:
8327:
8324:
8320:
8317:
8315:
8312:
8311:
8310:
8307:
8305:
8302:
8300:
8298:
8295:
8294:
8292:
8288:
8284:
8280:
8273:
8268:
8266:
8261:
8259:
8254:
8253:
8250:
8238:
8235:
8232:
8231:
8227:
8224:
8221:
8218:
8215:
8214:
8211:
8210:Tomoregulin 1
8208:
8206:
8203:
8201:
8198:
8196:
8193:
8191:
8188:
8186:
8185:Gremlin (Drm)
8183:
8181:
8178:
8176:
8173:
8171:
8168:
8166:
8163:
8161:
8158:
8156:
8153:
8150:
8149:
8147:
8143:
8132:
8128:
8124:
8120:
8117:
8114:
8110:
8106:
8103:
8101:
8098:
8095:
8094:
8092:
8090:
8083:
8080:
8078:
8074:
8064:
8061:
8058:
8057:
8055:
8053:
8042:
8036:
8033:
8030:
8029:
8025:
8021:
8017:
8014:
8011:
8007:
8003:
8000:
7997:
7996:
7993:
7990:
7988:
7985:
7983:
7980:
7978:
7975:
7972:
7968:
7964:
7960:
7956:
7952:
7949:
7947:
7944:
7942:
7939:
7936:
7932:
7928:
7924:
7920:
7917:
7914:
7910:
7906:
7902:
7899:
7896:
7895:
7893:
7891:
7885:
7879:
7876:
7873:
7872:
7868:
7864:
7860:
7857:
7854:
7850:
7846:
7843:
7840:
7839:
7836:
7833:
7831:
7828:
7826:
7823:
7820:
7816:
7812:
7808:
7804:
7800:
7796:
7792:
7788:
7785:
7783:
7780:
7778:
7775:
7772:
7768:
7764:
7760:
7756:
7752:
7748:
7744:
7740:
7737:
7734:
7730:
7726:
7722:
7719:
7716:
7715:
7713:
7711:
7700:
7693:
7689:
7685:
7682:
7679:
7678:
7675:
7672:
7669:
7665:
7661:
7657:
7653:
7650:
7648:
7645:
7643:
7640:
7637:
7633:
7629:
7625:
7621:
7617:
7614:
7611:
7610:
7608:
7606:
7600:
7594:
7591:
7589:
7586:
7583:
7582:
7579:
7576:
7574:
7571:
7569:
7566:
7563:
7562:
7558:
7554:
7550:
7546:
7543:
7540:
7536:
7533:
7531:
7528:
7525:
7524:
7522:
7520:
7514:
7511:
7509:
7505:
7495:
7492:
7490:
7487:
7485:
7482:
7479:
7478:
7474:
7470:
7466:
7463:
7460:
7459:
7456:
7453:
7450:
7446:
7442:
7438:
7435:
7432:
7431:
7429:
7427:
7416:
7410:
7407:
7405:
7402:
7400:
7397:
7394:
7393:
7390:
7387:
7384:
7380:
7376:
7372:
7368:
7364:
7361:
7359:
7356:
7354:
7351:
7348:
7344:
7340:
7336:
7332:
7328:
7324:
7320:
7316:
7313:
7310:
7309:
7307:
7305:
7294:
7288:
7285:
7283:
7280:
7278:
7275:
7273:
7270:
7268:
7265:
7263:
7260:
7258:
7255:
7253:
7250:
7248:
7245:
7243:
7240:
7238:
7235:
7233:
7230:
7227:
7226:
7223:
7220:
7218:
7215:
7213:
7210:
7207:
7206:
7202:
7198:
7194:
7190:
7187:
7184:
7180:
7176:
7173:
7171:
7168:
7165:
7164:
7162:
7160:
7149:
7143:
7140:
7138:
7135:
7133:
7130:
7127:
7126:
7122:
7118:
7114:
7111:
7108:
7104:
7100:
7097:
7094:
7093:
7090:
7087:
7085:
7082:
7079:
7075:
7071:
7067:
7064:
7061:
7057:
7053:
7049:
7046:
7043:
7042:
7040:
7038:
7027:
7021:
7018:
7016:
7013:
7011:
7008:
7005:
7004:
7001:
6998:
6996:
6993:
6990:
6986:
6982:
6978:
6974:
6970:
6966:
6962:
6959:
6957:
6954:
6951:
6950:
6948:
6946:
6935:
6929:
6926:
6924:
6921:
6919:
6916:
6914:
6911:
6909:
6906:
6903:
6902:
6898:
6894:
6890:
6886:
6883:
6881:
6878:
6875:
6871:
6867:
6863:
6859:
6855:
6852:
6850:
6847:
6845:
6842:
6839:
6835:
6831:
6827:
6824:
6821:
6820:
6818:
6816:
6805:
6799:
6796:
6793:
6792:
6789:
6786:
6783:
6782:
6779:
6776:
6774:
6771:
6768:
6767:
6764:
6763:Ascrinvacumab
6761:
6758:
6757:
6753:
6749:
6745:
6741:
6738:
6735:
6731:
6728:
6726:
6723:
6720:
6716:
6713:
6711:
6708:
6705:
6701:
6697:
6693:
6690:
6687:
6686:
6684:
6682:
6671:
6668:
6666:
6662:
6658:
6655:
6645:
6640:
6638:
6633:
6631:
6626:
6625:
6622:
6610:
6607:
6605:
6602:
6601:
6599:
6595:
6589:
6586:
6584:
6581:
6579:
6576:
6574:
6571:
6569:
6566:
6565:
6563:
6561:
6557:
6551:
6548:
6546:
6543:
6541:
6538:
6536:
6533:
6532:
6530:
6528:
6524:
6512:
6509:
6507:
6504:
6502:
6499:
6498:
6497:
6494:
6492:
6489:
6487:
6484:
6482:
6479:
6477:
6474:
6473:
6471:
6468:
6467:
6461:
6455:
6452:
6450:
6447:
6446:
6444:
6441:
6440:
6436:
6430:
6427:
6425:
6419:
6411:
6408:
6406:
6403:
6401:
6398:
6397:
6396:
6393:
6392:
6390:
6388:
6384:
6378:
6375:
6373:
6370:
6368:
6365:
6364:
6362:
6360:
6356:
6346:
6343:
6341:
6338:
6336:
6333:
6331:
6328:
6327:
6325:
6322:
6319:
6318:hormone-like:
6314:
6307:
6304:
6301:
6298:
6295:
6292:
6289:
6286:
6285:
6283:
6280:
6275:
6269:
6265:
6261:
6258:
6256:
6252:
6248:
6245:
6243:
6239:
6235:
6232:
6231:
6229:
6226:
6225:
6219:
6213:
6209:
6205:
6202:
6200:
6196:
6192:
6189:
6188:
6186:
6183:
6181:
6175:
6172:
6170:
6166:
6162:
6155:
6150:
6148:
6143:
6141:
6136:
6135:
6132:
6120:
6117:
6116:
6114:
6110:
6104:
6101:
6099:
6096:
6095:
6093:
6091:
6087:
6081:
6078:
6076:
6073:
6071:
6068:
6066:
6063:
6061:
6058:
6056:
6053:
6051:
6048:
6046:
6043:
6041:
6038:
6036:
6033:
6032:
6030:
6028:
6024:
6018:
6015:
6012:
6009:
6007:
6003:
6000:
5997:
5994:
5992:
5989:
5987:
5984:
5982:
5979:
5977:
5973:
5970:
5969:
5967:
5965:
5961:
5957:
5947:
5944:
5943:
5941:
5937:
5931:
5928:
5926:
5923:
5919:
5916:
5914:
5911:
5910:
5909:
5906:
5905:
5903:
5899:
5891:
5888:
5886:
5883:
5882:
5881:
5878:
5876:
5873:
5869:
5866:
5864:
5861:
5859:
5856:
5855:
5854:
5851:
5850:
5848:
5844:
5841:
5838:
5834:
5830:
5825:
5821:
5811:
5808:
5804:
5801:
5799:
5796:
5794:
5791:
5789:
5786:
5784:
5781:
5779:
5776:
5774:
5771:
5769:
5766:
5764:
5761:
5759:
5756:
5754:
5751:
5750:
5749:
5746:
5742:
5739:
5737:
5734:
5732:
5729:
5727:
5724:
5722:
5719:
5717:
5714:
5712:
5709:
5707:
5704:
5702:
5699:
5697:
5694:
5693:
5692:
5689:
5688:
5686:
5684:
5679:
5673:
5670:
5666:
5663:
5661:
5658:
5656:
5653:
5651:
5648:
5647:
5646:
5643:
5639:
5636:
5634:
5631:
5629:
5626:
5625:
5624:
5621:
5620:
5618:
5616:
5612:
5607:
5604:
5602:
5598:
5594:
5590:
5583:
5578:
5576:
5571:
5569:
5564:
5563:
5560:
5553:
5550:
5548:
5545:
5543:
5540:
5537:
5534:
5531:
5527:
5524:
5521:
5517:
5513:
5510:
5507:
5504:
5502:
5499:
5497:
5494:
5493:
5489:
5483:
5479:
5474:
5469:
5465:
5461:
5457:
5453:
5449:
5444:
5443:
5439:
5431:
5427:
5422:
5417:
5412:
5407:
5403:
5399:
5395:
5388:
5385:
5380:
5373:
5370:
5365:
5361:
5356:
5351:
5347:
5343:
5339:
5332:
5329:
5324:
5320:
5315:
5310:
5306:
5302:
5298:
5294:
5290:
5283:
5280:
5275:
5271:
5267:
5263:
5259:
5252:
5249:
5244:
5240:
5233:
5230:
5225:
5221:
5216:
5211:
5206:
5201:
5197:
5193:
5189:
5181:
5178:
5173:
5169:
5165:
5161:
5157:
5153:
5149:
5145:
5138:
5135:
5130:
5126:
5122:
5118:
5114:
5110:
5106:
5102:
5095:
5092:
5087:
5083:
5078:
5073:
5068:
5063:
5059:
5055:
5051:
5044:
5042:
5040:
5038:
5036:
5034:
5032:
5028:
5023:
5019:
5014:
5009:
5006:(5): 2830–8.
5005:
5001:
4997:
4990:
4987:
4982:
4978:
4973:
4968:
4964:
4960:
4956:
4952:
4948:
4941:
4938:
4933:
4929:
4924:
4919:
4915:
4911:
4907:
4903:
4899:
4895:
4891:
4884:
4881:
4866:
4859:
4856:
4853:
4849:
4846:
4841:
4838:
4833:
4829:
4824:
4819:
4815:
4811:
4808:(1): 98–106.
4807:
4803:
4799:
4792:
4789:
4784:
4780:
4776:
4772:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4752:
4748:
4744:
4740:
4733:
4730:
4725:
4721:
4717:
4713:
4708:
4703:
4699:
4695:
4691:
4687:
4683:
4675:
4672:
4667:
4663:
4658:
4653:
4648:
4643:
4639:
4635:
4631:
4627:
4620:
4617:
4612:
4608:
4603:
4598:
4594:
4590:
4586:
4579:
4576:
4571:
4567:
4562:
4557:
4553:
4549:
4545:
4541:
4537:
4529:
4526:
4521:
4517:
4513:
4509:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4485:
4481:
4474:
4471:
4466:
4462:
4457:
4452:
4448:
4444:
4440:
4436:
4432:
4425:
4422:
4417:
4413:
4408:
4403:
4399:
4395:
4391:
4387:
4383:
4376:
4373:
4368:
4364:
4360:
4356:
4352:
4348:
4341:
4338:
4333:
4329:
4325:
4321:
4316:
4311:
4307:
4303:
4299:
4292:
4290:
4286:
4281:
4277:
4272:
4267:
4263:
4259:
4255:
4251:
4247:
4243:
4239:
4232:
4230:
4226:
4221:
4217:
4213:
4209:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4190:
4187:
4182:
4178:
4173:
4168:
4164:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4148:
4141:
4138:
4133:
4129:
4124:
4119:
4114:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4090:
4087:
4082:
4078:
4073:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4056:
4049:
4046:
4041:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4008:
4005:
4000:
3996:
3991:
3986:
3981:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3956:
3949:
3946:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3929:
3926:(1): 99–146.
3925:
3921:
3914:
3912:
3908:
3903:
3899:
3895:
3891:
3887:
3883:
3879:
3875:
3868:
3865:
3860:
3856:
3851:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3826:
3819:
3817:
3813:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3793:(1): 105–10.
3792:
3788:
3781:
3778:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3732:
3730:
3726:
3721:
3717:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3677:
3674:
3669:
3656:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3628:
3625:
3620:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3578:
3575:
3570:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3536:
3532:
3528:
3520:
3517:
3514:
3512:
3507:
3500:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3458:
3455:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3431:
3428:
3423:
3419:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3400:(8): 708–14.
3399:
3395:
3388:
3385:
3380:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3346:
3339:
3336:
3331:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3282:
3279:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3259:(2): 105–43.
3258:
3254:
3247:
3244:
3239:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3198:
3195:
3190:
3186:
3181:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3157:
3154:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3106:
3103:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3073:(6): 737–40.
3072:
3068:
3064:
3057:
3054:
3049:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3008:
3005:
3000:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2959:
2956:
2951:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2900:
2898:
2894:
2889:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2872:(3): 319–28.
2871:
2867:
2863:
2856:
2853:
2848:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2797:
2794:
2789:
2785:
2780:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2740:
2737:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2707:(4): 507–19.
2706:
2702:
2698:
2691:
2688:
2683:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2642:
2639:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2607:
2604:
2599:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2574:(4): 923–32.
2573:
2569:
2565:
2558:
2555:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2523:
2520:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2480:
2477:
2472:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2431:
2428:
2423:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2382:
2380:
2376:
2371:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2346:(2): 163–76.
2345:
2341:
2337:
2330:
2328:
2326:
2322:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2290:
2288:
2286:
2282:
2277:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2244:
2242:
2238:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2202:
2200:
2196:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2176:(5): 265–73.
2175:
2171:
2164:
2161:
2156:
2152:
2147:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2115:
2112:
2107:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2066:
2063:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2043:(2): 99–117.
2042:
2038:
2030:
2027:
2022:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1989:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1981:
1979:
1975:
1970:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1937:
1934:
1929:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1896:
1893:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1841:
1838:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1794:
1791:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1771:(5): 461–85.
1770:
1766:
1759:
1756:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1724:
1721:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1689:
1686:
1681:
1677:
1672:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1648:
1645:
1640:
1636:
1631:
1626:
1623:(2): 117–26.
1622:
1618:
1614:
1607:
1604:
1599:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1574:(5): 515–27.
1573:
1569:
1565:
1558:
1555:
1550:
1546:
1541:
1536:
1531:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1515:(7): e11493.
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1495:
1492:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1453:
1451:
1447:
1442:
1438:
1431:
1428:
1425:
1421:
1416:
1413:
1408:
1404:
1397:
1394:
1391:
1387:
1382:
1379:
1374:
1370:
1363:
1360:
1357:
1353:
1348:
1345:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1293:
1290:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1268:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1244:
1241:
1236:
1232:
1227:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1195:
1192:
1187:
1183:
1178:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1146:
1143:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1123:(1): 137–61.
1122:
1118:
1114:
1107:
1105:
1101:
1098:
1093:
1090:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1068:10.1038/39369
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1042:
1039:
1034:
1030:
1025:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
993:
991:
987:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
947:
944:
938:
933:
930:
927:
926:Anita Roberts
924:
923:
919:
917:
915:
912:, which is a
911:
907:
903:
899:
895:
890:
886:
884:
876:
874:
871:
863:
861:
859:
858:myelin sheath
855:
839:
830:
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
804:
802:
799:
797:
789:
787:
785:
777:
775:
773:
769:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
738:
736:
733:
731:
727:
726:heart disease
723:
719:
712:Heart disease
711:
709:
706:
705:
697:
695:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
666:
663:Furthermore,
661:
659:
655:
646:
641:
639:
633:
625:
621:
613:
605:
603:
599:
592:
590:
586:
584:
576:B lymphocytes
575:
573:
551:
537:
529:
527:
526:17 cells
515:
504:T lymphocytes
503:
498:
496:
494:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
469:
460:
458:
456:
449:
447:
445:
441:
437:
433:
424:
422:
418:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
394:
391:
387:
380:
374:
366:
359:
357:
354:
346:
344:
338:
336:
329:
327:
325:
318:
316:
314:
305:
303:
296:
294:
291:
287:
283:
279:
272:
267:
265:
258:
256:
252:
249:
243:
241:
232:
230:
227:
223:
222:cysteine knot
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
190:
187:
180:
177:
174:
171:
168:
165:
164:
163:
157:
155:
152:
147:
145:
141:
137:
132:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
97:
95:
91:
87:
82:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
37:
32:
19:
8629:Gap junction
8464:Ca signaling
8427:Cell surface
8233:
8216:
8151:
8118:
8096:
8059:
8031:
7999:Antagonists:
7998:
7897:
7874:
7842:Antagonists:
7841:
7717:
7681:Antagonists:
7680:
7612:
7584:
7573:Lerdelimumab
7568:Fresolimumab
7564:
7544:
7526:
7480:
7462:Antagonists:
7461:
7433:
7395:
7311:
7228:
7217:Lerdelimumab
7212:Fresolimumab
7208:
7188:
7166:
7128:
7096:Antagonists:
7095:
7044:
7006:
6952:
6904:
6884:
6822:
6794:
6788:Dalantercept
6784:
6769:
6759:
6739:
6688:
6464:
6433:
6422:Insulin/IGF/
6394:
6387:TGFβ pathway
6317:
6278:
6222:
6180:FGF receptor
6178:
5622:
5455:
5451:
5401:
5397:
5387:
5372:
5345:
5341:
5331:
5296:
5292:
5282:
5268:: 1198–202.
5265:
5261:
5251:
5242:
5232:
5195:
5191:
5180:
5147:
5143:
5137:
5107:(1): 26–34.
5104:
5100:
5094:
5057:
5053:
5003:
4999:
4989:
4954:
4950:
4940:
4897:
4893:
4883:
4871:. Retrieved
4858:
4840:
4805:
4802:Tuberculosis
4801:
4791:
4746:
4742:
4732:
4689:
4685:
4674:
4637:
4633:
4619:
4592:
4588:
4578:
4543:
4539:
4528:
4487:
4483:
4473:
4438:
4434:
4424:
4389:
4385:
4375:
4350:
4346:
4340:
4308:(1): 57–70.
4305:
4301:
4245:
4241:
4206:(1): 55–62.
4203:
4199:
4189:
4157:(1): 66–75.
4154:
4150:
4140:
4103:
4099:
4089:
4065:(1): 31–40.
4062:
4058:
4048:
4021:
4017:
4007:
3962:
3958:
3948:
3923:
3919:
3880:(6): 471–6.
3877:
3873:
3867:
3832:
3828:
3790:
3786:
3780:
3745:
3741:
3691:
3687:
3676:
3655:cite journal
3627:
3592:
3588:
3577:
3534:
3530:
3519:
3503:
3472:
3468:
3457:
3440:
3436:
3430:
3397:
3393:
3387:
3352:
3348:
3338:
3295:
3291:
3281:
3256:
3252:
3246:
3211:
3207:
3197:
3170:
3166:
3156:
3115:
3111:
3105:
3070:
3066:
3056:
3021:
3017:
3007:
2975:(1): 29–33.
2972:
2968:
2958:
2916:(2): 770–4.
2913:
2909:
2869:
2865:
2855:
2810:
2806:
2796:
2753:
2749:
2739:
2704:
2700:
2690:
2658:(4): 921–8.
2655:
2651:
2641:
2616:
2612:
2606:
2571:
2567:
2557:
2535:(6): 551–4.
2532:
2528:
2522:
2489:
2485:
2479:
2444:
2440:
2430:
2395:
2391:
2343:
2339:
2299:
2295:
2257:
2253:
2215:
2211:
2173:
2169:
2163:
2128:
2124:
2114:
2079:
2075:
2065:
2040:
2036:
2029:
2002:
1998:
1950:
1946:
1936:
1909:
1905:
1895:
1854:
1850:
1840:
1807:
1803:
1793:
1768:
1764:
1758:
1733:
1729:
1723:
1707:10.2741/a158
1698:
1694:
1688:
1661:
1657:
1647:
1620:
1617:DNA Research
1616:
1606:
1571:
1567:
1557:
1512:
1508:
1494:
1459:
1430:
1415:
1396:
1381:
1362:
1347:
1306:
1302:
1292:
1257:
1253:
1243:
1208:
1204:
1194:
1159:
1156:FEBS Letters
1155:
1145:
1120:
1116:
1092:
1051:
1047:
1041:
1006:
1002:
956:
952:
946:
910:cathelicidin
891:
887:
880:
867:
864:Neurological
831:
808:
800:
793:
781:
765:glycoprotein
742:
734:
715:
702:
701:
698:Tuberculosis
662:
658:angiogenesis
650:
609:
600:
596:
587:
579:
538:
530:
507:
488:
484:
480:
477:H. polygyrus
476:
472:
466:
464:
455:Galunisertib
453:
428:
419:
407:cell nucleus
395:
384:
350:
342:
333:
322:
312:
309:
300:
276:
262:
253:
244:
236:
191:
188:
184:
161:
148:
133:
105:polypeptides
98:
83:
46:
42:
41:
8650:TGFβ domain
8540:By distance
8478:Assistants:
8437:Co-receptor
8217:Antibodies:
8180:Follistatin
8035:Ramatercept
7878:Sotatercept
7578:Metelimumab
7565:Antibodies:
7222:Metelimumab
7209:Antibodies:
6798:Disitertide
6760:Antibodies:
6090:Coreceptors
6050:Follistatin
5960:Transducers
5554:- IPR016319
4873:January 11,
3537:(1): 1741.
1501:Weinberg CR
932:Ziad Mallat
883:keratoconus
821:(MS) via a
718:cholesterol
593:Macrophages
514: cells
461:TGF-β mimic
210:proteolytic
198:amino acids
113:proteinases
101:macrophages
8607:Pheromones
8547:Juxtacrine
8220:Stamulumab
8170:DAN (PARN)
8089:(β-glycan)
7992:Radotermin
7835:Radotermin
7815:11 (BMP11)
7771:15 (GDF9B)
7674:Radotermin
7539:10 (BMP3B)
7449:11 (BMP11)
7389:Radotermin
7347:15 (GDF9B)
7252:LY-2109761
7183:11 (BMP11)
7179:10 (BMP3B)
7078:11 (BMP11)
6657:modulators
6609:Hepatocyte
6169:Fibroblast
5946:betaglycan
5681:Ligand of
5609:Ligand of
5522:Heidelberg
4490:: 155351.
4106:(1): 183.
3469:Oncotarget
2218:: 541–73.
1701:: a18-25.
939:References
612:cell cycle
606:Cell cycle
259:Activation
206:C-terminal
186:Lefty-A).
179:TGF beta 3
173:TGF beta 2
167:TGF beta 1
94:chemotaxis
81:lineages.
8561:Endocrine
8556:Paracrine
8552:Autocrine
8419:Receptors
8399:Cytokines
8100:Avotermin
8063:AMH (MIS)
8060:Agonists:
7971:7 (BMP12)
7967:6 (BMP13)
7963:5 (BMP14)
7898:Agonists:
7807:7 (BMP12)
7803:6 (BMP13)
7799:5 (BMP14)
7718:Agonists:
7668:7 (BMP12)
7664:6 (BMP13)
7660:5 (BMP14)
7613:Agonists:
7593:LY-364947
7530:Avotermin
7527:Agonists:
7494:SB-505124
7489:SB-431542
7434:Agonists:
7375:7 (BMP12)
7371:6 (BMP13)
7367:5 (BMP14)
7312:Agonists:
7282:SB-525334
7277:SB-505124
7272:SB-431542
7247:LY-364947
7242:GW-788388
7170:Avotermin
7167:Agonists:
7142:SB-505124
7137:SB-431542
7045:Agonists:
6956:AMH (MIS)
6953:Agonists:
6849:Avotermin
6844:AMH (MIS)
6823:Agonists:
6710:Avotermin
6689:Agonists:
4724:232217715
4520:226218796
4504:1043-4666
3647:229293860
3511:CC BY 3.0
3298:: 12300.
2815:CiteSeerX
1323:1524-475X
906:fat cells
768:fibrillin
674:) cells.
510:induced T
415:apoptosis
158:Structure
136:stem cell
8644:Category
8381:Hormones
8331:JAK-STAT
8319:MAPK/ERK
8314:TGF beta
8237:Endoglin
8145:Unsorted
8097:Ligands:
8077:Type III
7656:2 (BMP9)
7262:R-268712
6734:2 (BMP9)
6725:Cetermin
6321:FGF15/19
6182:ligands:
6035:Cerberus
5526:TGF-beta
5482:27328871
5430:30594464
5398:Immunity
5364:19594862
5323:21310385
5274:17679942
5224:31801886
5164:20692646
5129:21058811
5121:22189514
5086:22942700
5022:18292504
4981:16571647
4932:16601194
4848:Archived
4832:21195670
4775:20419122
4716:33711270
4666:29326718
4640:: 1843.
4611:17570105
4570:15102771
4512:33127257
4484:Cytokine
4465:26119834
4416:32494274
4367:10793168
4324:10647931
4280:21436399
4220:17137775
4181:15630445
4132:22943793
4059:Immunity
4040:10995749
3999:12773615
3940:16551245
3894:20485275
3859:18692464
3807:19501566
3764:19218879
3720:33929751
3619:29510118
3569:29170498
3513:license.
3499:29467918
3449:14678985
3422:20435808
3414:11483955
3330:26189595
3273:22569528
3238:27864313
3189:16123803
3167:Oncogene
3140:14534577
3097:17711163
3048:11970960
2999:18818372
2888:10025398
2731:13076974
2633:10708953
2514:28212659
2370:10652271
2316:18342983
2190:15130563
2155:10930463
2106:12208849
2057:10743502
2021:12482908
1928:15611103
1785:15062644
1750:10611753
1680:15536155
1639:16303743
1598:20734064
1549:20634891
1509:PLOS ONE
1422:(OMIM):
1388:(OMIM):
1354:(OMIM):
1331:26704519
1284:15482063
1276:11057902
1235:18692464
1186:22710171
1033:22992590
981:25871413
973:27108839
920:See also
838:17 cells
214:cysteine
140:cytokine
115:such as
61:symbols
51:cytokine
36:isoforms
27:Cytokine
18:TGF-beta
8512:General
8336:Akt/PKB
8234:Others:
8175:Decorin
8165:Chordin
8105:Inhibin
8002:Inhibin
7901:Activin
7845:Inhibin
7721:Activin
7684:Inhibin
7508:Type II
7484:A 83-01
7409:K-02288
7232:A 83-01
7132:A 83-01
7099:Inhibin
7048:Activin
7020:K-02288
6923:K-02288
6826:Activin
6773:K-02288
6692:Activin
6496:Relaxin
6435:Insulin
6055:Gremlin
6045:Decorin
6040:Chordin
5939:TGFBR3:
5901:TGFBR2:
5846:TGFBR1:
5829:Activin
5473:4930926
5421:7191997
5314:3079764
5200:bioRxiv
5172:6544784
5077:3430231
4972:2563177
4923:1482474
4902:Bibcode
4894:Science
4823:7238550
4783:1769658
4766:2855445
4707:8624870
4657:5742530
4456:4526340
4407:7260937
4332:1478778
4271:3144160
4250:Bibcode
4242:Science
4123:3494542
4081:8758892
3967:Bibcode
3902:2980102
3850:3677783
3772:1778541
3711:8453874
3610:5904571
3560:5701006
3539:Bibcode
3490:5805504
3379:9215629
3370:2989411
3321:4507259
3300:Bibcode
3229:5287080
3148:4419607
3120:Bibcode
3089:9865691
3039:2173277
2990:3188956
2950:8421714
2918:Bibcode
2847:9725916
2788:1436033
2779:3889166
2758:Bibcode
2723:9827803
2682:8666675
2673:2120829
2598:8349738
2589:2119591
2549:3680981
2506:3317840
2471:2967299
2462:2115066
2422:8294500
2413:2119892
2276:8885242
2232:8280471
1969:7737999
1887:4245501
1879:3861940
1859:Bibcode
1832:1631557
1812:Bibcode
1804:Science
1715:9230066
1589:2967297
1540:2901336
1517:Bibcode
1486:1906395
1441:UniProt
1407:UniProt
1373:UniProt
1339:4967954
1226:3677783
1177:3466472
1137:9597127
1084:4311145
1076:9335507
1056:Bibcode
1024:4027049
914:peptide
730:statins
568:1 and T
489:in vivo
313:in vivo
278:Plasmin
242:(ECM).
181:– TGFB3
175:– TGFB2
169:– TGFB1
117:plasmin
8365:Agents
8226:TRC105
8195:Noggin
8087:TGFβR3
7889:ACVR2B
7704:ACVR2A
7518:TGFβR2
7424:ACVR1C
7302:BMPR1B
7287:SD-208
7237:D-4476
7157:TGFβR1
7035:ACVR1B
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