Transforming growth factor beta

660:, which makes the cancer more invasive. TGF-β1 has been implicated in the process of activating Hepatic Stellate Cells (HSCs) with the magnitude of hepatic fibrosis being in proportion to increase in TGF-β levels. Studies have shown that ACTA2 is associated with TGF-β pathway that enhances contractile properties of HSCs leading to Liver fibrosis. TGF-β also converts effector T-cells, which normally attack cancer with an inflammatory (immune) reaction, into regulatory (suppressor) T-cells, which turn off the inflammatory reaction. Normal tissue integrity is preserved by feedback interactions between different cell types that express adhesion molecules and secrete cytokines. Disruption of these feedback mechanisms in cancer damages a tissue. When TGF-β signaling fails to control NF-κB activity in cancer cells, this has at least two potential effects: first, it enables the malignant tumor to persist in the presence of activated immune cells, and second, the cancer cell outlasts immune cells because it survives in the presence of apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory mediators. 264:

are seen in multiple cell types and tissues. Proteases, integrins, pH, and reactive oxygen species are just few of the currently known factors that can activate TGF-β, as discussed below. It is well known that perturbations of these activating factors can lead to unregulated TGF-β signaling levels that may cause several complications including inflammation, autoimmune disorders, fibrosis, cancer and cataracts. In most cases, an activated TGF-β ligand will initiate the TGF-β signaling cascade as long as TGF-β receptors I and II are available for binding. This is due to a high affinity between TGF-β and its receptors, suggesting why the TGF-β signaling recruits a latency system to mediate its signaling.

343:αVβ6 integrin was the first integrin to be identified as TGF-β1 activator. LAPs contain an RGD motif which is recognized by vast majority of αV containing integrins, and αVβ6 integrin can activate TGF-β1 by binding to the RGD motif present in LAP-β1 and LAP-β3. Upon binding, it induces adhesion-mediated cell forces that are translated into biochemical signals which can lead to liberation/activation of TGFb from its latent complex. This pathway has been demonstrated for activation of TGF-β in epithelial cells and does not associate MMPs. 31: 3506: 255:

LTBP isoforms have a propensity to associate with specific LAP•TGF-β isoforms. For example, LTBP-4 is reported to bind only to TGF-β1, thus, mutation in LTBP-4 can lead to TGF-β associated complications which are specific to tissues that predominantly involves TGF-β1. Moreover, the structural differences within the LAP's provide different latent TGF-β complexes which are selective but to specific stimuli generated by specific activators.

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extracellular-regulated kinases (ERK1 and 2), Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) and p38 MAPK play an important role in the TGF-β signaling. ERK 1 and 2 are activated via the Raf-Ras-MEK1/2 pathway induced by mitogenic stimuli such as epidermal growth factor, whereas the JNK and p38 MAPK are activated by the MAPK kinase, activated themselves by the TGF-β-activated kinase-1 (TAK1) upon stress stimuli.

92:. TGF-β receptors are composed of both type 1 and type 2 receptor subunits. After the binding of TGF-β, the type 2 receptor kinase phosphorylates and activates the type 1 receptor kinase that activates a signaling cascade. This leads to the activation of different downstream substrates and regulatory proteins, inducing transcription of different target genes that function in differentiation, 326:(TSP-1) is a matricellular glycoprotein found in plasma of healthy patients with levels in the range of 50–250 ng/ml. TSP-1 levels are known to increase in response to injury and during development. TSP-1 activates latent TGF-beta by forming direct interactions with the latent TGF-β complex and induces a conformational rearrangement preventing it from binding to the matured TGF-β. 365: 373: 581:

regulator of cell cycle progression through the G1 and S phase), and repressing other key regulatory genes such as c-myc and ATM. CD40, a key surface molecule in the activation of the innate immune response, can induce Smad7 expression to reverse the growth inhibition of B cells induced by TGF-β. TGF-β also blocks B cell activation and promotes class switching

438:, there is evidence of association and binding between DAXX and type 2 TGF-β receptor kinase, wherein DAXX binds to the C-terminal region of the type 2 TGF-β receptor. The exact molecular mechanism is unknown, but as a general overview, DAXX is then phosphorylated by homeodomain-interacting protein kinase 2 (HIPK2), which then activates 774:, it has been shown that the Marfan syndrome phenotype can be relieved by addition of a TGF-β antagonist in affected mice. This suggests that while the symptoms of Marfan syndrome may seem consistent with a connective tissue disorder, the mechanism is more likely related to reduced sequestration of TGF-β by fibrillin. 417:. The SMAD pathway is regulated by feedback inhibition. SMAD6 and SMAD7 may block type I receptors. There is also substantial evidence that TGF-β-dependent signaling via the SMAD-3 pathway is responsible for many of the inhibitory functions of TGF-β discussed in later sections and thus it is implicated in oncogenesis. 127:(TSP-1). Inflammatory stimuli that activate macrophages enhance the release of active TGF-β by promoting the activation of plasmin. Macrophages can also endocytose IgG-bound latent TGF-β complexes that are secreted by plasma cells and then release active TGF-β into the extracellular fluid. Among its key functions is 601:

TGF-β is thought to play a role in alternative macrophage activation seen in lean mice, and these macrophages maintain an anti-inflammatory phenotype. This phenotype is lost in obese mice, who have not only more macrophages than lean mice but also classically activated macrophages which release TNF-α

588:

TGF-β also induces apoptosis of immature or resting B cells; the mechanism is unknown, but may overlap with its anti-proliferation pathway. TGF-β has been shown to downregulate c-myc as it does in the inhibition of B cell proliferation. It is also known to induce NF-κB inhibitor IKBa, inhibiting

355:

of the latent TGF beta complex, αV containing integrins activate TGF-β1 by creating a close connection between the latent TGF-β complex and MMPs. Integrins αVβ6 and αVβ3 are suggested to simultaneously bind the latent TGF-β1 complex and proteinases, simultaneous inducing conformational changes of the

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There are four different LTBP isoforms known, LTBP-1, LTBP-2, LTBP-3 and LTBP-4. Mutation or alteration of LAP or LTBP can result in improper TGF-β signaling. Mice lacking LTBP-3 or LTBP-4 demonstrate phenotypes consistent to phenotypes seen in mice with altered TGF-β signaling. Furthermore, specific

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containing both the LTBP and the LAP which need to be further processed in order to release active TGF-β. The attachment of TGF-β to the LTBP is by disulfide bond which allows it to remain inactive by preventing it from binding to its receptors . Because different cellular mechanisms require distinct

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Senatorov VV, Friedman, AR, Milikovsky DZ, Ofer J, Saar-Ashkenazy R, Charbash A, Jahan N, Chin G, Mihaly E, Lin JM, Ramsay HJ, Moghbel A, Preininger MK, Eddings CR, Harrison HV, Patel R, Shen Y, Ghanim H, Sheng H, Veksler R, Sudmant PH, Becker A, Hart B, Rogawski MA, Dillin A, Friedman A, and Kaufer

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infection, or tuberculosis, has been shown to result in increased levels of active TGF-β within the lung. Due to the broad range of suppressive effects of TGF-β on immune cells, computer modeling has predicted that TGF-β blockade may improve immune responses and infection outcome. Research in animal

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The general theme of integrins participating in latent TGF-β1 activation arose from studies that examined mutations/knockouts of β6 integrin, αV integrin, β8 integrin and in LAP. These mutations produced phenotypes that were similar to phenotypes seen in TGF-β1 knockout mice. Currently there are two

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All three TGF-βs are synthesized as precursor molecules containing a propeptide region in addition to the TGF-β homodimer. After it is synthesized, the TGF-β homodimer interacts with a Latency-Associated Peptide (LAP), a protein derived from the N-terminal region of the TGF-β gene product, forming a

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Johnston, Chris J. C.; Smyth, Danielle J.; Kodali, Ravindra B.; White, Madeleine P. J.; Harcus, Yvonne; Filbey, Kara J.; Hewitson, James P.; Hinck, Cynthia S.; Ivens, Alasdair; Kemter, Andrea M.; Kildemoes, Anna O.; Le Bihan, Thierry; Soares, Dinesh C.; Anderton, Stephen M.; Brenn, Thomas; Wigmore,

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17 cells goes against its dominant conceptualization as an anti-inflammatory cytokine; however, the shared requirement between inflammatory and anti-inflammatory immune cells suggests that an imbalance between these two cell types can be an important link to autoimmunity. Co-activation by IL-6 from

310:

The structure of LAP is important in maintaining its function. Structure modification of LAP can lead to disturb the interaction between LAP and TGF-β and thus activating it. Factors that may cause such modification may include hydroxyl radicals from reactive oxygen species (ROS). TGF-β was rapidly

263:

Although TGF-β is important in regulating crucial cellular activities, only a few TGF-β activating pathways are currently known, and the full mechanism behind the suggested activation pathways is not yet well understood. Some of the known activating pathways are cell or tissue specific, while some

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Yingling, Jonathan M.; McMillen, William T.; Yan, Lei; Huang, Huocong; Sawyer, J. Scott; Graff, Jeremy; Clawson, David K.; Britt, Karen S.; Anderson, Bryan D.; Beight, Douglas W.; Desaiah, Durisala; Lahn, Michael M.; Benhadji, Karim A.; Lallena, Maria J.; Holmgaard, Rikke B.; Xu, Xiaohong; Zhang,

651:

In normal cells, TGF-β, acting through its signaling pathway, stops the cell cycle at the G1 stage to stop proliferation, induce differentiation, or promote apoptosis. In many cancer cells, parts of the TGF-β signaling pathway are mutated, and TGF-β no longer controls the cell. These cancer cells

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with the ninth cysteine of another TGF-β protein to produce a dimer. Many other conserved residues in TGF-β are thought to form secondary structure through hydrophobic interactions. The region between the fifth and sixth conserved cysteines houses the most divergent area of TGF-β proteins that is

392:

characterized in the activation of cytokine receptors implicated, for example, in the B cell isotype switching pathway. As previously stated, the binding of the TGF-β ligand to the TGF-β receptor, the type 2 receptor kinase phosphorylates and activates the type 1 receptor kinase that activates a

185:

A fourth member, TGF beta 4, has been identified in birds – TGRB4 (synonyms: endometrial bleeding associated factor beta-4 (EBAF), Lefty preproprotein, LEFTA; Left-Right Determination Factor 2; LEFTYA; Left-Right Determination Factor A; Transforming Growth Factor Beta-4; Protein Lefty-2; Protein

597:

The general consensus in the literature is that TGF-β stimulates resting monocytes and inhibits activated macrophages. For monocytes, TGF-β has been shown to function as a chemoattractant as well as an upregulator of anti-inflammatory response. However, TGF-β has also been shown to downregulate

580:

TGF-β has mainly inhibitory effects on B lymphocytes. TGF-β inhibits B cell proliferation. The exact mechanism is unknown, but there is evidence that TGF-β inhibits B cell proliferation by inducing the transcription factor Id3, inducing expression of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 21 (a

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are known to cleave latent TGF-β. The LAP complex contains a protease-sensitive hinge region which can be the potential target for this liberation of TGF-β. Despite the fact that MMPs have been proven to play a key role in activating TGF-β, mice with mutations in MMP-9 and MMP-2 genes can still

420:

The Smads are not the only TGF-β-regulated signaling pathways. Non-Smad signaling proteins can initiate parallel signaling that eventually cooperate with the Smads or crosstalk with other major signaling pathways. Among them, the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family that include the

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includes endogenous growth inhibiting proteins; an increase in expression of TGF-β often correlates with the malignancy of many cancers and a defect in the cellular growth inhibition response to TGF-β. Its immunosuppressive functions then come to dominate, contributing to oncogenesis. The

1457:

Roberts, Anita B.; Kim, Seong-Jin; Noma, Takafumi; Glick, Adam B.; Lafyatis, Robert; Lechleider, Robert; Jakowlew, Sonia B.; Geiser, Andrew; O'Reilly, Michael A.; Danielpour, David; Sporn, Michael B. (2007). "Multiple Forms of TGF-β: Distinct Promoters and Differential Expression".

284:(MMP) play a key role in promoting tumor invasion and tissue remodeling by inducing proteolysis of several ECM components. The TGF-β activation process involves the release of the LLC from the matrix, followed by further proteolysis of the LAP to release TGF-β to its receptors. 429:

TGF-β induces apoptosis, or programmed cell death, in human lymphocytes and hepatocytes. The importance of this function is clear in TGF-β deficient mice which experience hyperproliferation and unregulated autoimmunity. In a separate apoptotic pathway from the association of

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Bonecini-Almeida, M. Glória; Ho, John L.; Boéchat, Neio; Huard, Richard C.; Chitale, Sadhana; Doo, Howard; Geng, Jiayuan; Rego, Lorena; Lazzarini, Luiz Claudio Oliveira; Kritski, Afrânio L.; Johnson, Warren D.; McCaffrey, Timothy A.; Silva, José R. Lapa e (May 2004).

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Acidic conditions can denature the LAP. Treatment of the medium with extremes of pH (1.5 or 12) resulted in significant activation of TGF-β as shown by radio-receptor assays, while mild acid treatment (pH 4.5) yielded only 20-30% of the activation achieved by pH 1.5.

4679:

Gern, Benjamin H.; Adams, Kristin N.; Plumlee, Courtney R.; Stoltzfus, Caleb R.; Shehata, Laila; Moguche, Albanus O.; Busman-Sahay, Kathleen; Hansen, Scott G.; Axthelm, Michael K.; Picker, Louis J.; Estes, Jacob D.; Urdahl, Kevin B.; Gerner, Michael Y. (March 2021).

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signaling cascade. In the case of Smad, receptor-activated Smads are phosphorylated by the type 1 TGF-β receptor kinase, and these go on to complex with other Smads, which is able to translocate into the cell nucleus to induce transcription of different effectors.

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proposed models of how αV containing integrins can activate latent TGF-β1; the first proposed model is by inducing conformational change to the latent TGF-β1 complex and hence releasing the active TGF-β1 and the second model is by a protease-dependent mechanism.

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models has further shown that TGF-β impairs immune responses and elimination of TGF-β signaling results in and enhanced T cell response and lower bacterial burdens. Thus, therapies which block TGF-β may have the potential to improve therapy for tuberculosis.

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complex called Small Latent Complex (SLC). This complex remains in the cell until it is bound by another protein called Latent TGF-β-Binding Protein (LTBP), forming a larger complex called Large Latent Complex (LLC). It is this LLC that gets secreted to the

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differentiation from activated T helper cells, and the mechanism for this differentiation is unknown for both induced T regulatory cells as well as natural T regulatory cells. In mouse models, the effect of TGF-β1 appears to be age-dependent.

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Mukundan, Ananya; Byeon, Chang-Hyeock; Hinck, Cynthia S.; Smyth, Danielle J.; Maizels, Rick M.; Hinck, Andrew P. (2020-12-09). "Structure-based mapping of the TβRI and TβRII receptor binding sites of the parasitic TGF-β mimic, Hp-TGM".

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proliferate. The surrounding stromal cells (fibroblasts) also proliferate. Both cells increase their production of TGF-β. This TGF-β acts on the surrounding stromal cells, immune cells, endothelial and smooth-muscle cells. It causes

3681:

Cook, Laura; Reid, Kyle T; Häkkinen, Elmeri; de Bie, Brett; Tanaka, Shigeru; Smyth, Danielle J; White, Madeleine PJ; Wong, May Q; Huang, Qing; Gillies, Jana K; Zeigler, Steven F; Maizels, Rick M; Levings, Megan K (2021-04-30).

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There is substantial evidence in animal and some human studies that TGF-β in breast milk may be a key immunoregulatory factor in the development of infant immune response, moderating the risk of atopic disease or autoimmunity.

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inflammatory cytokine production in monocytes and macrophages, likely by the aforementioned inhibition of NF-κB. This contradiction may be due to the fact that the effect of TGF-β has been shown to be highly context-dependent.

872:

as compared to control subjects, suggesting a possible role in the neurodegenerative cascade leading to Alzheimer's disease symptoms and pathology. The role of TGF-β in neuronal dysfunction remains an active area of research.

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Smyth, Danielle J.; Harcus, Yvonne; White, Madeleine P.J.; Gregory, William F.; Nahler, Janina; Stephens, Ian; Toke-Bjolgerud, Edward; Hewitson, James P.; Ivens, Alasdair; McSorley, Henry J.; Maizels, Rick M. (April 2018).

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In most cases, before the LLC is secreted, the TGF-β precursor is cleaved from the propeptide but remains attached to it by noncovalent bonds. After its secretion, it remains in the extracellular matrix as an in

6641: 396:

More specifically, activated TGF-β complexes bind to the type 2 domain of the TGF-β receptor which then recruits and phosphorylates a type 1 receptor. The type 1 receptor then recruits and phosphorylates a

2034:

Saharinen J, Hyytiäinen M, Taipale J, Keski-Oja J (June 1999). "Latent transforming growth factor-beta binding proteins (LTBPs)--structural extracellular matrix proteins for targeting TGF-beta action".

3435:

Hofmann TG, Stollberg N, Schmitz ML, Will H (December 2003). "HIPK2 regulates transforming growth factor-beta-induced c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase activation and apoptosis in human hepatoma cells".

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NF-κB activation. NF-κB is a transcription factor that regulates the production of cytokines like IL-1, TNF-a, and defensins, although its function in apoptosis may be separate from this function.

154:

dysregulation of its immunosuppressive functions is also implicated in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases, although their effect is mediated by the environment of other cytokines present.

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LAP and sequestering proteases to close proximity. Regardless of involving MMPs, this mechanism still necessitate the association of integrins and that makes it a non proteolytic pathway.

832:

Decreased levels of TGF-β have been observed in patients diagnosed with multiple sclerosis. Its role in multiple sclerosis can be explained due to TGF-β role in regulating apoptosis of

204:

of 20–30 amino acids that they require for secretion from a cell, a pro-region called latency-associated peptide (LAP - Alias: Pro-TGF beta 1, LAP/TGF beta 1), and a 112-114 amino acid

293:

activate TGF-β and do not show any TGF-β deficiency phenotypes, this may reflect redundancy among the activating enzymes suggesting that other unknown proteases might be involved.

6634: 1654:"Regulation of matrix metalloproteinase-9/gelatinase B expression and activation by ovarian steroids and LEFTY-A/endometrial bleeding-associated factor in the human endometrium" 1046:

Nakao A, Afrakhte M, Morén A, Nakayama T, Christian JL, Heuchel R, et al. (October 1997). "Identification of Smad7, a TGFbeta-inducible antagonist of TGF-beta signalling".

3392:

Perlman R, Schiemann WP, Brooks MW, Lodish HF, Weinberg RA (August 2001). "TGF-beta-induced apoptosis is mediated by the adapter protein Daxx that facilitates JNK activation".

2072:"Disruption of the gene encoding the latent transforming growth factor-beta binding protein 4 (LTBP-4) causes abnormal lung development, cardiomyopathy, and colorectal cancer" 483:-TGM consists of 5 domains, with the first three shown to crucial for interaction with the TGFβR complex, with functions for domains 4 and 5 not yet known. Importantly, 3785:

Morishima N, Mizoguchi I, Takeda K, Mizuguchi J, Yoshimoto T (August 2009). "TGF-beta is necessary for induction of IL-23R and Th17 differentiation by IL-6 and IL-23".

5238: 6627: 4536:"Down-Modulation of Lung Immune Responses by Interleukin-10 and Transforming Growth Factor β (TGF-β) and Analysis of TGF-β Receptors I and II in Active Tuberculosis" 801:

As noted above in the section about macrophages, loss of TGF-β signaling in obesity is one contributor to the inflammatory milieu generated in the case of obesity.

388:

are a class of intracellular signalling proteins and transcription factors for the TGF-β family of signalling molecules. This pathway conceptually resembles the

8269: 1763:

Herpin A, Lelong C, Favrel P (May 2004). "Transforming growth factor-beta-related proteins: an ancestral and widespread superfamily of cytokines in metazoans".

4996:"Mitigation of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis by TGF-β induced FOXP3 regulatory T cells through the induction of anergy and infectious tolerance" 2121:"Specific sequence motif of 8-Cys repeats of TGF-beta binding proteins, LTBPs, creates a hydrophobic interaction surface for binding of small latent TGF-beta" 1613:"Signal sequence and keyword trap in silico for selection of full-length human cDNAs encoding secretion or membrane proteins from oligo-capped cDNA libraries" 572:

2 lineages in that they have been shown to be capable of regulatory functions, this is further evidence of TGF-β1's regulatory function in the immune system.

471:

secretes a molecule that mimics the ability of mammalian TGF-β to bind to the TGFβR complex and trigger downstream signalling pathways. This molecule, termed

6118: 5579: 4478:

Ezzeddini R, Somi MH, Taghikhani M, Moaddab SY, Masnadi Shirazi K, Shirmohammadi M, Eftekharsadat AT, Sadighi Moghaddam B, Salek Farrokhi A (February 2021).

5879: 5600: 1693:

Tabibzadeh S, Kothapalli R, Buyuksal I (July 1997). "Distinct tumor specific expression of TGFB4 (ebaf)*, a novel human gene of the TGF-beta superfamily".

5500: 3288:"Polyubiquitination of Transforming Growth Factor β-activated Kinase 1 (TAK1) at Lysine 562 Residue Regulates TLR4-mediated JNK and p38 MAPK Activation" 1505:"Maternal genes and facial clefts in offspring: a comprehensive search for genetic associations in two population-based cleft studies from Scandinavia" 6016: 6010: 6005: 5995: 5990: 5985: 5980: 5975: 5511: 814: 402: 4737:

Jayaswal, Shilpi; Kamal, Md. Azhar; Dua, Raina; Gupta, Shashank; Majumdar, Tanmay; Das, Gobardhan; Kumar, Dhiraj; Rao, Kanury V. S. (15 April 2010).

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catalyze the release of active TGF-β from the complex. This often occurs on the surface of macrophages where the latent TGF-β complex is bound to

5378: 8199: 6376: 5495: 4796:

Rosas-Taraco, Adrian G.; Higgins, David M.; Sánchez-Campillo, Joaquín; Lee, Eric J.; Orme, Ian M.; González-Juarrero, Mercedes (January 2011).

4382:"Dysregulated epidermal growth factor and tumor growth factor-beta receptor signaling through GFAP-ACTA2 protein interaction in liver fibrosis" 848:

17 cells secretes TNF-α, which induces demyelination of the oligodendroglial via TNF receptor 1. The decreased TGF-β levels lead to increased T

150: 54: 3463:

Faming; Manro, Jason R.; Iversen, Philip W.; Iyer, Chandrasekar V.; Brekken, Rolf A.; Kalos, Michael D.; Driscoll, Kyla E. (23 January 2018).

5519: 5142:

Swardfager W, Lanctôt K, Rothenburg L, Wong A, Cappell J, Herrmann N (November 2010). "A meta-analysis of cytokines in Alzheimer's disease".

2803:"Interactions between growth factors and integrins: latent forms of transforming growth factor-beta are ligands for the integrin alphavbeta1" 1475: 4014:"Smad7 is induced by CD40 and protects WEHI 231 B-lymphocytes from transforming growth factor-beta -induced growth inhibition and apoptosis" 6577: 6572: 6567: 5832: 5099:

Nakahara J, Maeda M, Aiso S, Suzuki N (February 2012). "Current concepts in multiple sclerosis: autoimmunity versus oligodendrogliopathy".

131:, particularly in the gut. TGF-β also plays a crucial role in stem cell differentiation as well as T-cell regulation and differentiation. 3465:"Preclinical assessment of galunisertib (LY2157299 monohydrate), a first-in-class transforming growth factor-β receptor type I inhibitor" 2648:"Inactivation of the integrin beta 6 subunit gene reveals a role of epithelial integrins in regulating inflammation in the lung and skin" 2294:

Wipff PJ, Hinz B (September 2008). "Integrins and the activation of latent transforming growth factor beta1 - an intimate relationship".

8516: 5682: 1419: 1385: 1351: 852:

17 cells and subsequently increased TNFα levels. As a result, demyelination of neurons occurs. TGF-β have also been observed to induce

8484: 6559: 5924: 4798:"Local pulmonary immunotherapy with siRNA targeting TGFβ1 enhances antimicrobial capacity in Mycobacterium tuberculosis infected mice" 212:

cleavage. The mature TGF-β protein dimerizes to produce a 25 KDa active protein with many conserved structural motifs. TGF-β has nine

8262: 6179: 3918:

Li MO, Wan YY, Sanjabi S, Robertson AK, Flavell RA (2006-01-01). "Transforming growth factor-beta regulation of immune responses".

2862:"The integrin alpha v beta 6 binds and activates latent TGF beta 1: a mechanism for regulating pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis" 2336:"Cell surface-localized matrix metalloproteinase-9 proteolytically activates TGF-beta and promotes tumor invasion and angiogenesis" 192:

The peptide structures of the TGF-β isoforms are highly similar (homologies on the order of 70–80%). They are all encoded as large

5188:"Blood-brain barrier dysfunction in aging induces hyperactivation of TGFβ signaling and chronic yet reversible neural dysfunction" 732:, drugs that lower cholesterol levels, may enhance the responsiveness of cardiovascular cells to the protective actions of TGF-β. 5572: 5541: 410: 58: 6465: 6064: 5787: 2564:"Thrombospondin causes activation of latent transforming growth factor-beta secreted by endothelial cells by a novel mechanism" 108: 3525:

Stephen J.; Woodcock, Hannah V.; Chambers, Rachel C.; Hinck, Andrew P.; McSorley, Henry J.; Maizels, Rick M. (December 2017).

251:

levels of TGF-β signaling, the inactive complex of this cytokine gives opportunity for a proper mediation of TGF-β signaling.

6526: 6194: 2388:"Latent transforming growth factor-beta 1 associates to fibroblast extracellular matrix via latent TGF-beta binding protein" 934:, identified a major atheroprotective role of regulatory T cells and associated anti-inflammatory cytokines, IL-10 and TGF-β 7950: 7786: 7651: 7534: 7436: 7362: 7174: 7065: 6729: 6074: 5747: 5740: 5735: 5730: 5725: 4585:"Immunotherapeutics for Tuberculosis in Experimental Animals: Is There a Common Pathway Activated by Effective Protocols?" 4055:"TGF beta 1 inhibits NF-kappa B/Rel activity inducing apoptosis of B cells: transcriptional activation of I kappa B alpha" 908:; with fewer fat cells underneath to provide support, the skin becomes saggy and wrinkled. Subcutaneous fat also produces 8511: 8255: 8076: 7986: 7922: 7742: 7619: 7507: 7318: 6964: 6664: 6650: 6453: 6448: 6144: 5720: 5715: 5710: 5705: 5700: 5695: 4739:"Identification of Host-Dependent Survival Factors for Intracellular Mycobacterium tuberculosis through an siRNA Screen" 5394:"Age-Related Loss of Innate Immune Antimicrobial Function of Dermal Fat Is Mediated by Transforming Growth Factor Beta" 1096: 6582: 6344: 5565: 4147:"Human intestinal macrophages display profound inflammatory anergy despite avid phagocytic and bacteriocidal activity" 2611:

Murphy-Ullrich JE, Poczatek M (2000). "Activation of latent TGF-beta by thrombospondin-1: mechanisms and physiology".

3872:

O'Connor W, Zenewicz LA, Flavell RA (June 2010). "The dual nature of T(H)17 cells: shifting the focus to function".

2746:"Targeted disruption of the mouse transforming growth factor-beta 1 gene results in multifocal inflammatory disease" 8330: 8313: 8296: 7918: 7738: 7615: 7314: 6960: 6853: 6714: 6438: 6421: 6386: 6223: 6026: 5690: 2697:"Extensive vasculogenesis, angiogenesis, and organogenesis precede lethality in mice lacking all alpha v integrins" 703: 431: 389: 3110:

Derynck R, Zhang YE (October 2003). "Smad-dependent and Smad-independent pathways in TGF-beta family signalling".

951:

Meng, Xiao-ming; Nikolic-Paterson, David J.; Lan, Hui Yao (June 2016). "TGF-β: the master regulator of fibrosis".

8526: 8521: 8335: 8062: 6955: 6843: 5809: 5592: 1847:"Human transforming growth factor-beta complementary DNA sequence and expression in normal and transformed cells" 794:

TGF-β/SMAD3 signaling pathway is important in regulating glucose and energy homeostasis and might play a role in

467: 5338:"A systematic review of the importance of milk TGF-beta on immunological outcomes in the infant and young child" 2906:"Transforming growth factor beta 1 null mutation in mice causes excessive inflammatory response and early death" 860:

producing cells) growth. Hence, the decreased TGF-β levels during MS may also prevent remyelination of neurons.

783: 8618: 8308: 6608: 6168: 5907: 5852: 5836: 5529: 443: 281: 38:, which regulates many cellular functions including cell proliferation, differentiation, adhesion and migration 3527:"A structurally distinct TGF-β mimic from an intestinal helminth parasite potently induces regulatory T cells" 3014:"The integrin alpha(v)beta8 mediates epithelial homeostasis through MT1-MMP-dependent activation of TGF-beta1" 539:

Studies show that neutralization of TGF-β1 in vitro inhibits the differentiation of helper T cells into T

4480:"Association of Foxp3 rs3761548 polymorphism with cytokines concentration in gastric adenocarcinoma patients" 8649: 8446: 8418: 8345: 8325: 6587: 6371: 6137: 1902:"Latent transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) binding proteins: orchestrators of TGF-beta availability" 829:

mediated response. This suggests a possible role for TGF-β and iTreg in the regulation and treatment of MS.

352: 85: 4945:

Robinson PN, Arteaga-Solis E, Baldock C, Collod-Béroud G, Booms P, De Paepe A, et al. (October 2006).

4847: 720:

suppresses the responsiveness of cardiovascular cells to TGF-β and its protective qualities, thus allowing

8458: 8431: 4345:

Blobe GC, Schiemann WP, Lodish HF (May 2000). "Role of transforming growth factor beta in human disease".

4145:

Smythies LE, Sellers M, Clements RH, Mosteller-Barnum M, Meng G, Benjamin WH, et al. (January 2005).

2814: 869: 623: 4630:"Deletion of TGF-β1 Increases Bacterial Clearance by Cytotoxic T Cells in a Tuberculosis Granuloma Model" 189:

A fourth member of the subfamily, TGFB4, has been identified in birds and a fifth, TGFB5, only in frogs.

8584: 8546: 8426: 8372: 8350: 8303: 3654: 756: 4479: 229:

exposed at the surface of the protein and is implicated in receptor binding and specificity of TGF-β.

8555: 8551: 8503: 5515: 5199: 4901: 4249: 4238:"Eosinophils sustain adipose alternatively activated macrophages associated with glucose homeostasis" 3966: 3538: 3299: 3119: 2917: 2757: 2437:"Proteolytic activation of latent transforming growth factor-beta from fibroblast-conditioned medium" 1858: 1811: 1516: 1055: 795: 622:. TGF-β causes synthesis of p15 and p21 proteins, which block the cyclin:CDK complex responsible for 239: 3585:"TGF-β mimic proteins form an extended gene family in the murine parasite Heligmosomoides polygyrus" 2819: 8613: 8596: 8282: 8209: 6603: 5959: 5644: 5258:"Active transforming growth factor-beta2 is increased in the aqueous humor of keratoconus patients" 881:

Overactive TGF-β pathway, with an increase of TGF-β2, was reported in the studies of patients with

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in both human and mouse B cells and has an otherwise inhibitory function for antibody production.

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Higher concentrations of TGF-β are found in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid of patients with

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and other pro-inflammatory cytokines that contribute to a chronically pro-inflammatory milieu.

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through influencing Tregs function and the secretion of immunomodulatory cytokines such as

409:

where it acts as a transcription factor for various genes, including those to activate the

208:

region that becomes the mature TGF-β molecule following its release from the pro-region by

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regulatory T cells that had much greater stability than those induced by TGF-β.

5525: 5128: 4551: 3421: 3096: 2730: 2513: 1283: 980: 667:(FOXP3) as a transcription factor is an essential molecular marker of regulatory T ( 8628: 8393: 8389: 8189: 7572: 7567: 7256: 7216: 7211: 6787: 5171: 5155: 4782: 4331: 3901: 3771: 3147: 1886: 1845:

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Rook, Graham A. W.; Lowrie, Douglas B.; Hernàndez-Pando, Rogelio (15 July 2007).

3754: 3737: 3600: 2540: 1529: 487:-TGM shows promise as a novel therapeutic as it induces less fibrosis than TGF-β 200:

and TGF-β2 and TGF-β3 each contain 412 amino acids. They each have an N-terminal

8623: 8436: 8179: 7877: 7577: 7221: 6089: 6049: 5551: 5463: 5012: 4995: 4358: 3219: 1299:"Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) isoforms in wound healing and fibrosis" 931: 882: 717: 209: 4813: 4697: 4495: 3959:

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structure characteristic of the TGF-β superfamily. The ninth cysteine forms a

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Huang XZ, Wu JF, Cass D, Erle DJ, Corry D, Young SG, et al. (May 1996).

1959: 1942: 1322: 548:

activated dendritic cells, which serves to activate the transcription factor

8606: 8340: 8112: 8108: 8099: 8009: 8005: 7976: 7908: 7904: 7852: 7848: 7824: 7728: 7724: 7691: 7687: 7529: 7488: 7271: 7169: 7136: 7106: 7102: 7083: 7055: 7051: 6848: 6833: 6829: 6709: 6699: 6695: 6510: 6366: 5782: 4962: 4913: 4397: 4261: 3979: 1823: 1298: 905: 767: 763:. While the underlying defect in Marfan syndrome is faulty synthesis of the 414: 364: 135: 8085: 7516: 5481: 5429: 5363: 5322: 5273: 5223: 5163: 5120: 5085: 5050:"The neuroprotective functions of transforming growth factor beta proteins" 5021: 4980: 4931: 4831: 4774: 4715: 4665: 4610: 4569: 4511: 4464: 4415: 4366: 4323: 4279: 4219: 4180: 4131: 4039: 4030: 4013: 3998: 3939: 3893: 3858: 3806: 3763: 3719: 3618: 3568: 3498: 3448: 3413: 3329: 3272: 3237: 3188: 3179: 3163:"TGF-beta signaling in T cells: roles in lymphoid and epithelial neoplasia" 3162: 3139: 3047: 2998: 2887: 2632: 2497: 2452: 2369: 2315: 2189: 2154: 2105: 2056: 2020: 1927: 1918: 1901: 1784: 1749: 1679: 1638: 1597: 1548: 1330: 1275: 1234: 1185: 1032: 972: 964: 809:

Induced T regulatory cells (iTreg), stimulated by TGF-β in the presence of

5289:"Transforming growth factor-β signaling pathway activation in Keratoconus" 5256:

Maier P, Broszinski A, Heizmann U, Böhringer D, Reinhardau T (July 2007).

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Computer graphic of TGF-beta. TGF-beta is a cytokine with three different

8398: 8355: 8236: 6320: 5379:"UC San Diego Researchers Identify How Skin Ages, Loses Fat and Immunity" 5066: 3684:"Induction of stable human FOXP3 Tregs by a parasite-derived TGF-β mimic" 2828: 2351: 1670: 1653: 1436: 1402: 1368: 1297:

Lichtman, Michael K.; Otero-Vinas, Marta; Falanga, Vincent (March 2016).

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TGF-β signaling also likely plays a major role in the pathogenesis of

678:

polymorphism (rs3761548) might be involved in cancer progression like

8225: 8023: 8019: 7887: 7866: 7862: 7702: 7472: 7468: 7266: 7120: 7116: 6102: 6001: 5971: 5917: 5912: 5889: 5884: 5874: 5867: 5862: 4162: 3405: 2769: 1870: 729: 398: 4195: 4094:

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TGF-β1 plays a role in the induction from CD4 T cells of both

8154: 8086: 8044: 7981: 7829: 7818: 7814: 7770: 7766: 7762: 7635: 7603: 7602: 7538: 7517: 7454: 7448: 7382: 7346: 7342: 7338: 7182: 7178: 7156: 7088: 7077: 6988: 6984: 6873: 6869: 6718: 6549: 6544: 6539: 6534: 6490: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6339: 6334: 6329: 6305: 6299: 6293: 6287: 6267: 6263: 6254: 6250: 6241: 6237: 6097: 5929: 5857: 5802: 5797: 5792: 5671: 5664: 5659: 5654: 1067: 822: 687: 675: 664: 631: 626:(Rb) phosphorylation. Thus, TGF-β blocks advancement through the G 549: 492: 371: 363: 289: 285: 70: 66: 62: 6129: 5448:"The Discovery and Early Days of TGF-β: A Historical Perspective" 4947:"The molecular genetics of Marfan syndrome and related disorders" 1706: 928:, a molecular biologist who made pioneering observations of TGF-β 7970: 7966: 7962: 7958: 7954: 7934: 7930: 7926: 7810: 7806: 7802: 7798: 7794: 7790: 7758: 7754: 7750: 7746: 7667: 7663: 7659: 7655: 7631: 7627: 7623: 7444: 7440: 7418: 7378: 7374: 7370: 7366: 7334: 7330: 7326: 7322: 7296: 7151: 7073: 7069: 7029: 6980: 6976: 6972: 6968: 6937: 6865: 6861: 6857: 6807: 6733: 6673: 6259: 6246: 6233: 6211: 6207: 6203: 6198: 6190: 5777: 5772: 5767: 5762: 5757: 5752: 5649: 4844: 2801:

Munger JS, Harpel JG, Giancotti FG, Rifkin DB (September 1998).

1423: 1389: 1355: 630:

phase of the cycle. In doing so, TGF-β suppresses expression of

552:, is required in addition to TGF-β1 for the differentiation of T 439: 405:

and forms a heterodimeric complex. This complex then enters the

120: 57:

that includes three different mammalian isoforms (TGF-β 1 to 3,

8251: 6623: 6133: 5561: 5496:

Description of the TGF beta producing genes at ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

3738:"The T(reg)/Th17 cell balance: a new paradigm for autoimmunity" 8045: 5536:

Biochemists Solve Structure Of TGF-Beta And Its Receptor. 2008

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Ciba Foundation Symposium 157 - Clinical Applications of TGF-β

582: 475:-TGM, shares no sequence homology to TGF-β and is secreted by 1728:

Khalil N (December 1999). "TGF-beta: from latent to active".

2243: 2241: 401:(R-SMAD). The R-SMAD then binds to the common SMAD (coSMAD) 3343:

Yang X, Khosravi-Far R, Chang HY, Baltimore D (June 1997).

339:

Conformation change mechanism pathway (without proteolysis)

103:, in a latent form in which it is complexed with two other 2695:

Bader BL, Rayburn H, Crowley D, Hynes RO (November 1998).

138:

regulation and differentiation, it is a highly researched

5501:

Diagram of the TGF beta signaling pathway at genome.ad.jp

3063:"Smads: transcriptional activators of TGF-beta responses" 1097:

AfCS signaling gateway – data center – ligand description

840:. When TGF-β levels decrease, they are unable to induce T 216:

residues that are conserved among its family. Eight form

4380:

Hassan, Sobia; Shah, Hussain; Shawana, Summayya (2020).

3286:

Chen IT, Hsu PH, Hsu WC, Chen NJ, Tseng PH (July 2015).

543:

17 cells. The role of TGF-β1 in the generation of T

8049: 6651: 2206:

Stetler-Stevenson WG, Aznavoorian S, Liotta LA (1993).

531:

TGF-β1 alone precipitates the expression of FOXP3 and T

491:

in mice and can be used to induce populations of human

84:

Activated TGF-β complexes with other factors to form a

7419: 7297: 7152: 7030: 6938: 6808: 6678: 6674: 747:, a disease characterized by disproportionate height, 735:

TGF-β is involved in regeneration of zebrafish heart.

96:, proliferation, and activation of many immune cells. 4865:"TGFBR2 transforming growth factor, beta receptor II" 457:

is the selective and potent TGFβRI kinase inhibitor.

5381:(Press release). University of California San Diego. 1658:

The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism

786:

which is caused by mutations in the TGF-β receptor.

759:

and aortic enlargement increasing the likelihood of

610:

TGF-β plays a crucial role in the regulation of the

560:

17 differentiation is not well understood. Because T

520: cells), which have a regulatory function, and 8569: 8539: 8502: 8477: 8445: 8417: 8371: 8364: 8289: 8144: 8084: 8075: 8043: 7886: 7701: 7601: 7515: 7506: 7417: 7295: 7150: 7028: 6936: 6806: 6672: 6663: 6596: 6558: 6525: 6462: 6431: 6420: 6385: 6357: 6315: 6276: 6220: 6176: 6167: 6111: 6088: 6025: 5958: 5938: 5900: 5845: 5822: 5680: 5608: 5599: 4196:"Transforming growth factor-beta: innately bipolar" 3787:

Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications

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However, the molecular mechanism of T 8263: 6635: 6145: 5573: 5446:Moses HL, Roberts AB, Derynck R (July 2016). 3061:Derynck R, Zhang Y, Feng XH (December 1998). 8: 5101:Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology 4291: 4289: 2435:Lyons RM, Keski-Oja J, Moses HL (May 1988). 2248:Barcellos-Hoff MH, Dix TA (September 1996). 1435:Universal protein resource accession number 1401:Universal protein resource accession number 1367:Universal protein resource accession number 1248:Massagué J, Blain SW, Lo RS (October 2000). 1113:"Regulation of immune responses by TGF-beta" 1106: 1104: 528:, which secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines. 5054:International Journal of Molecular Sciences 4053:Arsura M, Wu M, Sonenshein GE (July 1996). 1995:"Making sense of latent TGFbeta activation" 330:Activation by Alpha(V) containing integrins 306:Activation by reactive oxygen species (ROS) 8451: 8368: 8270: 8256: 8248: 8081: 7512: 6669: 6642: 6628: 6620: 6428: 6173: 6152: 6138: 6130: 5842: 5605: 5580: 5566: 5558: 5452:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology 5237:Daniela Kaufer; Alon Friedman (May 2021). 3208:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology 2289: 2287: 2285: 1988: 1986: 1984: 1982: 1980: 1978: 273:Activation by protease and metalloprotease 5528:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine 5471: 5419: 5409: 5353: 5312: 5213: 5203: 5075: 5065: 5011: 4970: 4921: 4821: 4764: 4754: 4705: 4655: 4645: 4600: 4559: 4454: 4405: 4313: 4269: 4170: 4121: 4111: 4070: 4029: 3988: 3978: 3848: 3825:"TGF-beta: a master of all T cell trades" 3753: 3709: 3699: 3608: 3558: 3488: 3368: 3319: 3227: 3178: 3078: 3037: 2988: 2939: 2929: 2877: 2836: 2818: 2777: 2712: 2671: 2587: 2460: 2411: 2359: 2265: 2144: 2095: 2010: 1958: 1917: 1669: 1628: 1587: 1538: 1528: 1265: 1224: 1201:"TGF-beta: a master of all T cell trades" 1175: 1022: 815:experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis 3932:10.1146/annurev.immunol.24.021605.090737 2529:The Journal of Investigative Dermatology 2119:Saharinen J, Keski-Oja J (August 2000). 1765:Developmental and Comparative Immunology 900:does this by blocking the conversion of 29: 4296:Hanahan D, Weinberg RA (January 2000). 3953:Roes J, Choi BK, Cazac BB (June 2003). 3736:Eisenstein EM, Williams CB (May 2009). 943: 5508:—Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology 3663: 3652: 3589:International Journal for Parasitology 1111:Letterio JJ, Roberts AB (April 1998). 1003:Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology 770:I, normally an important component of 442:(ASK1), which goes on to activate the 55:transforming growth factor superfamily 5538:– shows TGF-β3 dimer in TGFB-receptor 5520:European Molecular Biology Laboratory 4994:Selvaraj RK, Geiger TL (March 2008). 4231: 4229: 4151:The Journal of Clinical Investigation 3913: 3911: 3818: 3816: 3731: 3729: 2486:Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis 2329: 2327: 2325: 782:TGF-β signaling is also disturbed in 381:Canonical signaling: The SMAD pathway 7: 5336:Oddy WH, Rosales F (February 2010). 4435:Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews 4386:Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences 2613:Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews 2334:Yu Q, Stamenkovic I (January 2000). 2037:Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews 390:Jak-STAT signal transduction pathway 129:regulation of inflammatory processes 77:. TGFB proteins are produced by all 8517:Transcription preinitiation complex 4347:The New England Journal of Medicine 4018:The Journal of Biological Chemistry 2224:10.1146/annurev.cb.09.110193.002545 1947:The Journal of Biological Chemistry 1906:The Journal of Biological Chemistry 1420:Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man 1386:Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man 1352:Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man 162:The primary 3 mammalian types are: 8485:Signal transducing adaptor protein 8152:Endogenous antagonists/inhibitors: 5542:Measurement of Human Latent TGF-β1 4589:The Journal of Infectious Diseases 916:that fights bacterial infections. 440:apoptosis signal-inducing kinase 1 134:Because of its role in immune and 25: 5293:American Journal of Ophthalmology 4100:Journal of Translational Medicine 3823:Li MO, Flavell RA (August 2008). 1199:Li MO, Flavell RA (August 2008). 5355:10.1111/j.1399-3038.2009.00913.x 5342:Pediatric Allergy and Immunology 3504: 2296:European Journal of Cell Biology 1129:10.1146/annurev.immunol.16.1.137 892:Skin aging is caused in part by 813:, suppressed the development of 755:and heart complications such as 411:mitogen-activated protein kinase 6466:Relaxin family peptide hormones 5601:TGF beta superfamily of ligands 4552:10.1128/IAI.72.5.2628-2634.2004 716:One animal study suggests that 634:, a gene which is involved in G 479:in a biologically active form. 434:(DAXX) with the death receptor 268:Integrin-independent activation 220:within the protein to create a 109:latent TGF-beta binding protein 43:Transforming growth factor beta 6928:ML-347 (LDN-193719, VU0469381) 6778:ML-347 (LDN-193719, VU0469381) 5748:Growth differentiation factors 5377:Galindo, Yadira (2018-12-26). 5192:Science Translational Medicine 5156:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.06.012 2170:Trends in Biochemical Sciences 1150:Massagué J, Xi Q (July 2012). 425:Apoptosis via the DAXX pathway 319:Activation by thrombospondin-1 1: 4447:10.1016/j.cytogfr.2015.06.001 4315:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81683-9 4200:Current Opinion in Immunology 4072:10.1016/S1074-7613(00)80307-6 3688:Immunology & Cell Biology 3361:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80294-9 3080:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81696-7 2879:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80545-0 2807:Molecular Biology of the Cell 2714:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81618-9 2625:10.1016/S1359-6101(99)00029-5 2212:Annual Review of Cell Biology 2125:Molecular Biology of the Cell 2049:10.1016/S1359-6101(99)00010-6 1742:10.1016/S1286-4579(99)00259-2 1303:Wound Repair and Regeneration 1267:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)00121-5 1168:10.1016/j.febslet.2012.03.023 614:by blocking progress through 5411:10.1016/j.immuni.2018.11.003 5215:10.1126/scitranslmed.aaw8283 4756:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000839 3755:10.1203/PDR.0b013e31819e76c7 3601:10.1016/j.ijpara.2017.12.004 2969:Journal of Leukocyte Biology 2541:10.1111/1523-1747.ep12461198 1530:10.1371/journal.pone.0011493 999:"TGFβ signalling in context" 564:17 cells are distinct from T 7267:RepSox (E-616452, SJN-2511) 5691:Bone morphogenetic proteins 5464:10.1101/cshperspect.a021865 5013:10.4049/jimmunol.180.5.2830 4951:Journal of Medical Genetics 4359:10.1056/NEJM200005043421807 3920:Annual Review of Immunology 3220:10.1101/cshperspect.a022129 3161:Letterio JJ (August 2005). 3018:The Journal of Cell Biology 2652:The Journal of Cell Biology 2568:The Journal of Cell Biology 2441:The Journal of Cell Biology 2392:The Journal of Cell Biology 1503:, et al. (July 2010). 1117:Annual Review of Immunology 997:Massagué J (October 2012). 8666: 6439:Insulin-like growth factor 4814:10.1016/j.tube.2010.11.004 4698:10.1016/j.chom.2021.02.005 4496:10.1016/j.cyto.2020.155351 3841:10.1016/j.cell.2008.07.025 3799:10.1016/j.bbrc.2009.05.140 3551:10.1038/s41467-017-01886-6 3265:10.1016/j.phrs.2012.04.005 3202:Zhang YE (February 2017). 2963:Taylor AW (January 2009). 2308:10.1016/j.ejcb.2008.01.012 2182:10.1016/j.tibs.2004.03.008 1217:10.1016/j.cell.2008.07.025 817:(EAE), an animal model of 704:Mycobacterium tuberculosis 432:death-associated protein 6 413:8 pathway, which triggers 8454: 7257:Galunisertib (LY-2157299) 5305:10.1016/j.ajo.2010.11.008 5113:10.1007/s12016-011-8287-6 4298:"The hallmarks of cancer" 4212:10.1016/j.coi.2006.11.008 4194:Wahl SM (February 2007). 3639:10.1101/2020.12.08.416701 3481:10.18632/oncotarget.23795 2267:10.1210/mend.10.9.8885242 1777:10.1016/j.dci.2003.09.007 1580:10.1007/s00439-010-0878-4 1468:10.1002/9780470514061.ch2 953:Nature Reviews Nephrology 468:Heligmosomoides polygyrus 444:Jun amino-terminal kinase 282:matrix metalloproteinases 8597:Neuroendocrine signaling 8205:Thrombospondin 1 (THBS1) 7987:Osteogenin (BMP3, BMP3A) 5908:Activin type 2 receptors 5853:Activin type 1 receptors 5547:TGF beta pathway diagram 5530:Medical Subject Headings 4647:10.3389/fimmu.2017.01843 4113:10.1186/1479-5876-10-183 3253:Pharmacological Research 1960:10.1074/jbc.270.18.10618 1900:Rifkin DB (March 2005). 638:cell cycle progression. 465:The parasitic roundworm 450:TGFβ receptor inhibitors 315:radiation exposure ROS. 6279:FGF homologous factors: 4963:10.1136/jmg.2005.039669 4914:10.1126/science.1124287 4686:Cell Host & Microbe 4634:Frontiers in Immunology 4398:10.12669/pjms.36.4.1845 4262:10.1126/science.1201475 3980:10.1073/pnas.0731875100 2340:Genes & Development 2254:Molecular Endocrinology 2076:Genes & Development 1999:Journal of Cell Science 1824:10.1126/science.1631557 1695:Frontiers in Bioscience 1630:10.1093/dnares/12.2.117 499:Effects on immune cells 399:receptor regulated SMAD 353:proteolytic degradation 86:serine/threonine kinase 49:) is a multifunctional 8459:cAMP-dependent pathway 7404:Dorsomorphin (BML-275) 7015:Dorsomorphin (BML-275) 6918:Dorsomorphin (BML-275) 5810:Anti-müllerian hormone 5593:TGFβ signaling pathway 5516:TGFB domain annotation 4540:Infection and Immunity 4031:10.1074/jbc.M004861200 3662:Cite journal requires 3180:10.1038/sj.onc.1208922 2498:10.1055/s-2007-1003505 2453:10.1083/jcb.106.5.1659 1919:10.1074/jbc.R400029200 1730:Microbes and Infection 965:10.1038/nrneph.2016.48 665:forkhead box protein 3 624:retinoblastoma protein 377: 369: 196:; TGF-β1 contains 390 88:complex that binds to 39: 8585:Synaptic transmission 8581:Neurocrine signaling 8504:Transcription factors 8351:PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway 5144:Biological Psychiatry 5000:Journal of Immunology 3531:Nature Communications 3030:10.1083/jcb.200109100 2931:10.1073/pnas.90.2.770 2664:10.1083/jcb.133.4.921 2580:10.1083/jcb.122.4.923 2404:10.1083/jcb.124.1.171 2137:10.1091/mbc.11.8.2691 844:17 cells apoptosis. T 757:mitral valve prolapse 642:Clinical significance 375: 367: 33: 6654:receptor superfamily 6560:Vascular endothelial 5067:10.3390/ijms13078219 4863:Entrez Gene (2007). 4628:(20 December 2017). 4626:Kirschner, Denise E. 2829:10.1091/mbc.9.9.2627 2352:10.1101/gad.14.2.163 1671:10.1210/jc.2004-1277 796:diabetic nephropathy 790:Obesity and diabetes 784:Loeys–Dietz syndrome 778:Loeys–Dietz syndrome 240:extracellular matrix 233:Latent TGF-β complex 8614:Mechanotransduction 8602:Exocrine signalling 8409:Signaling molecules 8283:Signal transduction 8222:(against myostatin) 5645:Activin and inhibin 5506:The TGF-beta system 5243:Scientific American 5186:D (December 2019). 4906:2006Sci...312..117H 4868:(Entrez gene entry) 4254:2011Sci...332..243W 3971:2003PNAS..100.7241R 3748:(5 Pt 2): 26R–31R. 3543:2017NatCo...8.1741J 3394:Nature Cell Biology 3304:2015NatSR...512300C 3132:10.1038/nature02006 3124:2003Natur.425..577D 2981:10.1189/jlb.0708415 2922:1993PNAS...90..770K 2762:1992Natur.359..693S 1863:1985Natur.316..701D 1816:1992Sci...257..369D 1521:2010PLoSO...511493J 1060:1997Natur.389..631N 870:Alzheimer's disease 8624:Ion channel gating 8356:Integrin receptors 8290:Signaling pathways 8228:(against endoglin) 7585:Kinase inhibitors: 7481:Kinase inhibitors: 7396:Kinase inhibitors: 7229:Kinase inhibitors: 7129:Kinase inhibitors: 7007:Kinase inhibitors: 6905:Kinase inhibitors: 6770:Kinase inhibitors: 5824:TGF beta receptors 4850:2007-11-12 at the 3742:Pediatric Research 3701:10.1111/imcb.12475 3292:Scientific Reports 2088:10.1101/gad.229102 902:dermal fibroblasts 819:multiple sclerosis 805:Multiple Sclerosis 728:to develop, while 378: 370: 360:Signaling pathways 194:protein precursors 144:infectious disease 75:signaling proteins 40: 8637: 8636: 8619:Phototransduction 8577:Intracrine action 8535: 8534: 8498: 8497: 8386:Neurotransmitters 8245: 8244: 8140: 8139: 8071: 8070: 7502: 7501: 6795:Other inhibitors: 6617: 6616: 6521: 6520: 6353: 6352: 6127: 6126: 6027:Ligand inhibitors 5954: 5953: 5818: 5817: 5404:(1): 121–136.e5. 5348:(1 Pt 1): 47–59. 5299:(5): 752–759.e2. 5198:(521): eaaw8283. 4692:(4): 594–606.e6. 3874:Nature Immunology 3312:10.1038/srep12300 2012:10.1242/jcs.00229 1477:978-0-470-51406-1 1315:10.1111/wrr.12398 761:aortic dissection 654:immunosuppression 248:activated complex 151:TGF-β superfamily 73:) and many other 53:belonging to the 16:(Redirected from 8657: 8590:Chemical synapse 8490:Scaffold protein 8452: 8447:Second messenger 8373:Receptor ligands 8369: 8272: 8265: 8258: 8249: 8088: 8082: 8051: 8047: 8032:Decoy receptors: 7977:Myostatin (GDF8) 7890: 7875:Decoy receptors: 7825:Myostatin (GDF8) 7709: 7705: 7605: 7519: 7513: 7425: 7421: 7303: 7299: 7158: 7154: 7084:Myostatin (GDF8) 7036: 7032: 6944: 6940: 6814: 6810: 6785:Decoy receptors: 6680: 6676: 6670: 6653: 6644: 6637: 6630: 6621: 6527:Platelet-derived 6469: 6442: 6429: 6323: 6281: 6227: 6184: 6174: 6154: 6147: 6140: 6131: 5843: 5606: 5582: 5575: 5568: 5559: 5485: 5475: 5434: 5433: 5423: 5413: 5389: 5383: 5382: 5374: 5368: 5367: 5357: 5333: 5327: 5326: 5316: 5284: 5278: 5277: 5262:Molecular Vision 5253: 5247: 5246: 5234: 5228: 5227: 5217: 5207: 5182: 5176: 5175: 5139: 5133: 5132: 5096: 5090: 5089: 5079: 5069: 5045: 5026: 5025: 5015: 4991: 4985: 4984: 4974: 4942: 4936: 4935: 4925: 4900:(5770): 117–21. 4885: 4879: 4878: 4876: 4874: 4869: 4860: 4854: 4842: 4836: 4835: 4825: 4793: 4787: 4786: 4768: 4758: 4734: 4728: 4727: 4709: 4676: 4670: 4669: 4659: 4649: 4621: 4615: 4614: 4604: 4580: 4574: 4573: 4563: 4546:(5): 2628–2634. 4530: 4524: 4523: 4475: 4469: 4468: 4458: 4426: 4420: 4419: 4409: 4377: 4371: 4370: 4342: 4336: 4335: 4317: 4293: 4284: 4283: 4273: 4233: 4224: 4223: 4191: 4185: 4184: 4174: 4163:10.1172/JCI19229 4142: 4136: 4135: 4125: 4115: 4091: 4085: 4084: 4074: 4050: 4044: 4043: 4033: 4024:(49): 38363–70. 4009: 4003: 4002: 3992: 3982: 3950: 3944: 3943: 3915: 3906: 3905: 3869: 3863: 3862: 3852: 3820: 3811: 3810: 3782: 3776: 3775: 3757: 3733: 3724: 3723: 3713: 3703: 3678: 3672: 3671: 3665: 3660: 3658: 3650: 3629: 3623: 3622: 3612: 3579: 3573: 3572: 3562: 3521: 3515: 3508: 3502: 3492: 3475:(6): 6659–6677. 3459: 3453: 3452: 3432: 3426: 3425: 3406:10.1038/35087019 3389: 3383: 3382: 3372: 3340: 3334: 3333: 3323: 3283: 3277: 3276: 3248: 3242: 3241: 3231: 3199: 3193: 3192: 3182: 3158: 3152: 3151: 3118:(6958): 577–84. 3107: 3101: 3100: 3082: 3058: 3052: 3051: 3041: 3009: 3003: 3002: 2992: 2960: 2954: 2953: 2943: 2933: 2901: 2892: 2891: 2881: 2857: 2851: 2850: 2840: 2822: 2798: 2792: 2791: 2781: 2770:10.1038/359693a0 2741: 2735: 2734: 2716: 2692: 2686: 2685: 2675: 2643: 2637: 2636: 2608: 2602: 2601: 2591: 2559: 2553: 2552: 2524: 2518: 2517: 2481: 2475: 2474: 2464: 2432: 2426: 2425: 2415: 2383: 2374: 2373: 2363: 2331: 2320: 2319: 2291: 2280: 2279: 2269: 2245: 2236: 2235: 2203: 2194: 2193: 2165: 2159: 2158: 2148: 2116: 2110: 2109: 2099: 2067: 2061: 2060: 2031: 2025: 2024: 2014: 2005:(Pt 2): 217–24. 1990: 1973: 1972: 1962: 1953:(18): 10618–24. 1938: 1932: 1931: 1921: 1897: 1891: 1890: 1871:10.1038/316701a0 1842: 1836: 1835: 1810:(5068): 369–73. 1795: 1789: 1788: 1760: 1754: 1753: 1725: 1719: 1718: 1690: 1684: 1683: 1673: 1649: 1643: 1642: 1632: 1608: 1602: 1601: 1591: 1559: 1553: 1552: 1542: 1532: 1496: 1490: 1489: 1454: 1445: 1444: 1432: 1426: 1417: 1411: 1410: 1398: 1392: 1383: 1377: 1376: 1364: 1358: 1349: 1343: 1342: 1294: 1288: 1287: 1269: 1245: 1239: 1238: 1228: 1196: 1190: 1189: 1179: 1147: 1141: 1140: 1108: 1099: 1094: 1088: 1087: 1043: 1037: 1036: 1026: 994: 985: 984: 948: 376:The DAXX Pathway 368:The SMAD Pathway 324:Thrombospondin-1 311:activated after 297:Activation by pH 280:and a number of 125:thrombospondin-1 123:via its ligand, 79:white blood cell 21: 8665: 8664: 8660: 8659: 8658: 8656: 8655: 8654: 8640: 8639: 8638: 8633: 8565: 8531: 8494: 8473: 8469:Lipid signaling 8441: 8413: 8360: 8285: 8276: 8246: 8241: 8160:Cerberus (CER1) 8136: 8067: 8039: 7946:Eptotermin alfa 7941:Dibotermin alfa 7882: 7782:Eptotermin alfa 7777:Dibotermin alfa 7697: 7647:Eptotermin alfa 7642:Dibotermin alfa 7597: 7498: 7413: 7358:Eptotermin alfa 7353:Dibotermin alfa 7291: 7146: 7024: 7000:Eptotermin alfa 6995:Dibotermin alfa 6932: 6880:Eptotermin alfa 6802: 6659: 6648: 6618: 6613: 6592: 6554: 6517: 6463: 6458: 6432: 6423: 6416: 6381: 6359:EGF-like domain 6349: 6316: 6311: 6277: 6272: 6221: 6216: 6177: 6163: 6158: 6128: 6123: 6107: 6084: 6021: 5950: 5934: 5896: 5826: 5814: 5676: 5623:TGF beta family 5595: 5586: 5492: 5445: 5442: 5440:Further reading 5437: 5391: 5390: 5386: 5376: 5375: 5371: 5335: 5334: 5330: 5286: 5285: 5281: 5255: 5254: 5250: 5236: 5235: 5231: 5184: 5183: 5179: 5141: 5140: 5136: 5098: 5097: 5093: 5047: 5046: 5029: 4993: 4992: 4988: 4944: 4943: 4939: 4887: 4886: 4882: 4872: 4870: 4867: 4862: 4861: 4857: 4852:Wayback Machine 4843: 4839: 4795: 4794: 4790: 4749:(4): e1000839. 4736: 4735: 4731: 4678: 4677: 4673: 4623: 4622: 4618: 4582: 4581: 4577: 4532: 4531: 4527: 4477: 4476: 4472: 4428: 4427: 4423: 4379: 4378: 4374: 4344: 4343: 4339: 4295: 4294: 4287: 4248:(6026): 243–7. 4235: 4234: 4227: 4193: 4192: 4188: 4144: 4143: 4139: 4093: 4092: 4088: 4052: 4051: 4047: 4011: 4010: 4006: 3952: 3951: 3947: 3917: 3916: 3909: 3886:10.1038/ni.1882 3871: 3870: 3866: 3822: 3821: 3814: 3784: 3783: 3779: 3735: 3734: 3727: 3680: 3679: 3675: 3661: 3651: 3631: 3630: 3626: 3581: 3580: 3576: 3523: 3522: 3518: 3461: 3460: 3456: 3437:Cancer Research 3434: 3433: 3429: 3391: 3390: 3386: 3342: 3341: 3337: 3285: 3284: 3280: 3250: 3249: 3245: 3201: 3200: 3196: 3173:(37): 5701–12. 3160: 3159: 3155: 3109: 3108: 3104: 3060: 3059: 3055: 3011: 3010: 3006: 2962: 2961: 2957: 2903: 2902: 2895: 2859: 2858: 2854: 2820:10.1.1.492.5809 2800: 2799: 2795: 2756:(6397): 693–9. 2743: 2742: 2738: 2694: 2693: 2689: 2645: 2644: 2640: 2610: 2609: 2605: 2561: 2560: 2556: 2526: 2525: 2521: 2483: 2482: 2478: 2434: 2433: 2429: 2398:(1–2): 171–81. 2385: 2384: 2377: 2333: 2332: 2323: 2302:(8–9): 601–15. 2293: 2292: 2283: 2247: 2246: 2239: 2205: 2204: 2197: 2167: 2166: 2162: 2131:(8): 2691–704. 2118: 2117: 2113: 2082:(17): 2264–73. 2069: 2068: 2064: 2033: 2032: 2028: 1992: 1991: 1976: 1940: 1939: 1935: 1899: 1898: 1894: 1857:(6030): 701–5. 1844: 1843: 1839: 1797: 1796: 1792: 1762: 1761: 1757: 1736:(15): 1255–63. 1727: 1726: 1722: 1692: 1691: 1687: 1651: 1650: 1646: 1610: 1609: 1605: 1561: 1560: 1556: 1498: 1497: 1493: 1478: 1456: 1455: 1448: 1434: 1433: 1429: 1418: 1414: 1400: 1399: 1395: 1384: 1380: 1366: 1365: 1361: 1350: 1346: 1296: 1295: 1291: 1247: 1246: 1242: 1198: 1197: 1193: 1149: 1148: 1144: 1110: 1109: 1102: 1095: 1091: 1054:(6651): 631–5. 1045: 1044: 1040: 1015:10.1038/nrm3434 996: 995: 988: 950: 949: 945: 941: 922: 879: 866: 854:oligodendrocyte 851: 847: 843: 837: 807: 792: 780: 745:Marfan syndrome 741: 739:Marfan syndrome 722:atherosclerosis 714: 700: 672: 649: 644: 637: 629: 619: 608: 595: 578: 571: 567: 563: 559: 555: 546: 542: 534: 525: 519: 513: 506: 501: 463: 452: 427: 383: 362: 349: 341: 332: 321: 308: 299: 275: 270: 261: 235: 218:disulfide bonds 160: 90:TGF-β receptors 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8663: 8661: 8653: 8652: 8642: 8641: 8635: 8634: 8632: 8631: 8626: 8621: 8616: 8611: 8610: 8609: 8599: 8594: 8593: 8592: 8587: 8579: 8573: 8571: 8570:Other concepts 8567: 8566: 8564: 8563: 8558: 8549: 8543: 8541: 8537: 8536: 8533: 8532: 8530: 8529: 8524: 8519: 8514: 8508: 8506: 8500: 8499: 8496: 8495: 8493: 8492: 8487: 8481: 8479: 8475: 8474: 8472: 8471: 8466: 8461: 8455: 8449: 8443: 8442: 8440: 8439: 8434: 8429: 8423: 8421: 8415: 8414: 8412: 8411: 8406: 8404:Growth factors 8401: 8396: 8383: 8377: 8375: 8366: 8362: 8361: 8359: 8358: 8353: 8348: 8343: 8338: 8333: 8328: 8323: 8322: 8321: 8316: 8306: 8301: 8299: 8293: 8291: 8287: 8286: 8279:Cell signaling 8277: 8275: 8274: 8267: 8260: 8252: 8243: 8242: 8240: 8239: 8230: 8229: 8223: 8213: 8212: 8207: 8202: 8197: 8192: 8187: 8182: 8177: 8172: 8167: 8162: 8157: 8148: 8146: 8142: 8141: 8138: 8137: 8135: 8134: 8116: 8102: 8093: 8091: 8079: 8073: 8072: 8069: 8068: 8066: 8065: 8056: 8054: 8041: 8040: 8038: 8037: 8028: 8027: 8013: 7995: 7994: 7989: 7984: 7979: 7974: 7948: 7943: 7938: 7916: 7894: 7892: 7884: 7883: 7881: 7880: 7871: 7870: 7856: 7838: 7837: 7832: 7827: 7822: 7784: 7779: 7774: 7736: 7714: 7712: 7699: 7698: 7696: 7695: 7677: 7676: 7671: 7649: 7644: 7639: 7609: 7607: 7599: 7598: 7596: 7595: 7590: 7581: 7580: 7575: 7570: 7561: 7560: 7542: 7532: 7523: 7521: 7510: 7504: 7503: 7500: 7499: 7497: 7496: 7491: 7486: 7477: 7476: 7458: 7457: 7452: 7430: 7428: 7415: 7414: 7412: 7411: 7406: 7401: 7392: 7391: 7386: 7360: 7355: 7350: 7308: 7306: 7293: 7292: 7290: 7289: 7284: 7279: 7274: 7269: 7264: 7259: 7254: 7249: 7244: 7239: 7234: 7225: 7224: 7219: 7214: 7205: 7204: 7186: 7172: 7163: 7161: 7148: 7147: 7145: 7144: 7139: 7134: 7125: 7124: 7110: 7092: 7091: 7086: 7081: 7063: 7041: 7039: 7026: 7025: 7023: 7022: 7017: 7012: 7003: 7002: 6997: 6992: 6958: 6949: 6947: 6934: 6933: 6931: 6930: 6925: 6920: 6915: 6910: 6901: 6900: 6882: 6877: 6851: 6846: 6841: 6819: 6817: 6804: 6803: 6801: 6800: 6791: 6790: 6781: 6780: 6775: 6766: 6765: 6756: 6755: 6737: 6727: 6722: 6712: 6707: 6685: 6683: 6667: 6661: 6660: 6649: 6647: 6646: 6639: 6632: 6624: 6615: 6614: 6612: 6611: 6606: 6600: 6598: 6594: 6593: 6591: 6590: 6585: 6580: 6575: 6570: 6564: 6562: 6556: 6555: 6553: 6552: 6547: 6542: 6537: 6531: 6529: 6523: 6522: 6519: 6518: 6516: 6515: 6514: 6513: 6508: 6503: 6493: 6488: 6483: 6478: 6472: 6470: 6460: 6459: 6457: 6456: 6451: 6445: 6443: 6426: 6424:Relaxin family 6418: 6417: 6415: 6414: 6413: 6412: 6407: 6402: 6391: 6389: 6383: 6382: 6380: 6379: 6374: 6369: 6363: 6361: 6355: 6354: 6351: 6350: 6348: 6347: 6342: 6337: 6332: 6326: 6324: 6313: 6312: 6310: 6309: 6303: 6297: 6291: 6284: 6282: 6274: 6273: 6271: 6270: 6257: 6244: 6230: 6228: 6218: 6217: 6215: 6214: 6201: 6187: 6185: 6171: 6165: 6164: 6161:Growth factors 6159: 6157: 6156: 6149: 6142: 6134: 6125: 6124: 6122: 6121: 6115: 6113: 6109: 6108: 6106: 6105: 6100: 6094: 6092: 6086: 6085: 6083: 6082: 6077: 6072: 6067: 6062: 6057: 6052: 6047: 6042: 6037: 6031: 6029: 6023: 6022: 6020: 6019: 6014: 6008: 5999: 5993: 5988: 5983: 5978: 5968: 5966: 5956: 5955: 5952: 5951: 5949: 5948: 5942: 5940: 5936: 5935: 5933: 5932: 5927: 5922: 5921: 5920: 5915: 5904: 5902: 5898: 5897: 5895: 5894: 5893: 5892: 5887: 5877: 5872: 5871: 5870: 5865: 5860: 5849: 5847: 5840: 5820: 5819: 5816: 5815: 5813: 5812: 5807: 5806: 5805: 5800: 5795: 5790: 5785: 5783:Myostatin/GDF8 5780: 5775: 5770: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5745: 5744: 5743: 5738: 5733: 5728: 5723: 5718: 5713: 5708: 5703: 5698: 5687: 5685: 5678: 5677: 5675: 5674: 5669: 5668: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5652: 5642: 5641: 5640: 5635: 5630: 5619: 5617: 5603: 5597: 5596: 5589:Cell signaling 5587: 5585: 5584: 5577: 5570: 5562: 5556: 5555: 5552:IntroPro Entry 5549: 5544: 5539: 5533: 5523: 5509: 5503: 5498: 5491: 5490:External links 5488: 5487: 5486: 5458:(7): a021865. 5441: 5438: 5436: 5435: 5384: 5369: 5328: 5279: 5248: 5229: 5205:10.1101/537431 5177: 5150:(10): 930–41. 5134: 5091: 5060:(7): 8219–58. 5027: 4986: 4957:(10): 769–87. 4937: 4880: 4855: 4837: 4788: 4743:PLOS Pathogens 4729: 4671: 4616: 4602:10.1086/518937 4595:(2): 191–198. 4575: 4525: 4470: 4441:(4): 389–403. 4421: 4392:(4): 782–787. 4372: 4353:(18): 1350–8. 4337: 4285: 4225: 4186: 4137: 4086: 4045: 4004: 3965:(12): 7241–6. 3945: 3907: 3864: 3835:(3): 392–404. 3812: 3777: 3725: 3694:(8): 833–847. 3673: 3664:|journal= 3624: 3595:(5): 379–385. 3574: 3516: 3454: 3443:(23): 8271–7. 3427: 3384: 3355:(7): 1067–76. 3335: 3278: 3243: 3214:(2): a022129. 3194: 3153: 3102: 3053: 3024:(3): 493–507. 3004: 2955: 2893: 2852: 2813:(9): 2627–38. 2793: 2736: 2687: 2638: 2619:(1–2): 59–69. 2603: 2554: 2519: 2492:(3): 298–306. 2476: 2447:(5): 1659–65. 2427: 2375: 2321: 2281: 2260:(9): 1077–83. 2237: 2195: 2160: 2111: 2062: 2026: 1974: 1933: 1912:(9): 7409–12. 1892: 1837: 1790: 1755: 1720: 1685: 1664:(2): 1001–11. 1644: 1603: 1568:Human Genetics 1554: 1491: 1476: 1446: 1427: 1412: 1393: 1378: 1359: 1344: 1309:(2): 215–222. 1289: 1260:(2): 295–309. 1240: 1211:(3): 392–404. 1191: 1162:(14): 1953–8. 1142: 1100: 1089: 1038: 1009:(10): 616–30. 986: 959:(6): 325–338. 942: 940: 937: 936: 935: 929: 921: 918: 878: 875: 865: 862: 849: 845: 841: 835: 806: 803: 791: 788: 779: 776: 772:elastic fibers 753:ectopia lentis 749:arachnodactyly 740: 737: 713: 710: 699: 696: 680:gastric cancer 670: 648: 645: 643: 640: 635: 627: 617: 607: 604: 594: 591: 577: 574: 569: 565: 561: 557: 553: 544: 540: 532: 523: 517: 511: 505: 502: 500: 497: 462: 459: 451: 448: 426: 423: 382: 379: 361: 358: 348: 345: 340: 337: 331: 328: 320: 317: 307: 304: 298: 295: 274: 271: 269: 266: 260: 257: 234: 231: 226:disulfide bond 202:signal peptide 183: 182: 176: 170: 159: 156: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8662: 8651: 8648: 8647: 8645: 8630: 8627: 8625: 8622: 8620: 8617: 8615: 8612: 8608: 8605: 8604: 8603: 8600: 8598: 8595: 8591: 8588: 8586: 8583: 8582: 8580: 8578: 8575: 8574: 8572: 8568: 8562: 8559: 8557: 8553: 8550: 8548: 8545: 8544: 8542: 8538: 8528: 8525: 8523: 8520: 8518: 8515: 8513: 8510: 8509: 8507: 8505: 8501: 8491: 8488: 8486: 8483: 8482: 8480: 8476: 8470: 8467: 8465: 8462: 8460: 8457: 8456: 8453: 8450: 8448: 8444: 8438: 8435: 8433: 8432:Intracellular 8430: 8428: 8425: 8424: 8422: 8420: 8416: 8410: 8407: 8405: 8402: 8400: 8397: 8395: 8394:Neurohormones 8391: 8390:Neuropeptides 8387: 8384: 8382: 8379: 8378: 8376: 8374: 8370: 8367: 8363: 8357: 8354: 8352: 8349: 8347: 8344: 8342: 8341:Fas apoptosis 8339: 8337: 8334: 8332: 8329: 8327: 8324: 8320: 8317: 8315: 8312: 8311: 8310: 8307: 8305: 8302: 8300: 8298: 8295: 8294: 8292: 8288: 8284: 8280: 8273: 8268: 8266: 8261: 8259: 8254: 8253: 8250: 8238: 8235: 8232: 8231: 8227: 8224: 8221: 8218: 8215: 8214: 8211: 8210:Tomoregulin 1 8208: 8206: 8203: 8201: 8198: 8196: 8193: 8191: 8188: 8186: 8185:Gremlin (Drm) 8183: 8181: 8178: 8176: 8173: 8171: 8168: 8166: 8163: 8161: 8158: 8156: 8153: 8150: 8149: 8147: 8143: 8132: 8128: 8124: 8120: 8117: 8114: 8110: 8106: 8103: 8101: 8098: 8095: 8094: 8092: 8090: 8083: 8080: 8078: 8074: 8064: 8061: 8058: 8057: 8055: 8053: 8042: 8036: 8033: 8030: 8029: 8025: 8021: 8017: 8014: 8011: 8007: 8003: 8000: 7997: 7996: 7993: 7990: 7988: 7985: 7983: 7980: 7978: 7975: 7972: 7968: 7964: 7960: 7956: 7952: 7949: 7947: 7944: 7942: 7939: 7936: 7932: 7928: 7924: 7920: 7917: 7914: 7910: 7906: 7902: 7899: 7896: 7895: 7893: 7891: 7885: 7879: 7876: 7873: 7872: 7868: 7864: 7860: 7857: 7854: 7850: 7846: 7843: 7840: 7839: 7836: 7833: 7831: 7828: 7826: 7823: 7820: 7816: 7812: 7808: 7804: 7800: 7796: 7792: 7788: 7785: 7783: 7780: 7778: 7775: 7772: 7768: 7764: 7760: 7756: 7752: 7748: 7744: 7740: 7737: 7734: 7730: 7726: 7722: 7719: 7716: 7715: 7713: 7711: 7700: 7693: 7689: 7685: 7682: 7679: 7678: 7675: 7672: 7669: 7665: 7661: 7657: 7653: 7650: 7648: 7645: 7643: 7640: 7637: 7633: 7629: 7625: 7621: 7617: 7614: 7611: 7610: 7608: 7606: 7600: 7594: 7591: 7589: 7586: 7583: 7582: 7579: 7576: 7574: 7571: 7569: 7566: 7563: 7562: 7558: 7554: 7550: 7546: 7543: 7540: 7536: 7533: 7531: 7528: 7525: 7524: 7522: 7520: 7514: 7511: 7509: 7505: 7495: 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7479: 7478: 7474: 7470: 7466: 7463: 7460: 7459: 7456: 7453: 7450: 7446: 7442: 7438: 7435: 7432: 7431: 7429: 7427: 7416: 7410: 7407: 7405: 7402: 7400: 7397: 7394: 7393: 7390: 7387: 7384: 7380: 7376: 7372: 7368: 7364: 7361: 7359: 7356: 7354: 7351: 7348: 7344: 7340: 7336: 7332: 7328: 7324: 7320: 7316: 7313: 7310: 7309: 7307: 7305: 7294: 7288: 7285: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7265: 7263: 7260: 7258: 7255: 7253: 7250: 7248: 7245: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7235: 7233: 7230: 7227: 7226: 7223: 7220: 7218: 7215: 7213: 7210: 7207: 7206: 7202: 7198: 7194: 7190: 7187: 7184: 7180: 7176: 7173: 7171: 7168: 7165: 7164: 7162: 7160: 7149: 7143: 7140: 7138: 7135: 7133: 7130: 7127: 7126: 7122: 7118: 7114: 7111: 7108: 7104: 7100: 7097: 7094: 7093: 7090: 7087: 7085: 7082: 7079: 7075: 7071: 7067: 7064: 7061: 7057: 7053: 7049: 7046: 7043: 7042: 7040: 7038: 7027: 7021: 7018: 7016: 7013: 7011: 7008: 7005: 7004: 7001: 6998: 6996: 6993: 6990: 6986: 6982: 6978: 6974: 6970: 6966: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6954: 6951: 6950: 6948: 6946: 6935: 6929: 6926: 6924: 6921: 6919: 6916: 6914: 6911: 6909: 6906: 6903: 6902: 6898: 6894: 6890: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6878: 6875: 6871: 6867: 6863: 6859: 6855: 6852: 6850: 6847: 6845: 6842: 6839: 6835: 6831: 6827: 6824: 6821: 6820: 6818: 6816: 6805: 6799: 6796: 6793: 6792: 6789: 6786: 6783: 6782: 6779: 6776: 6774: 6771: 6768: 6767: 6764: 6763:Ascrinvacumab 6761: 6758: 6757: 6753: 6749: 6745: 6741: 6738: 6735: 6731: 6728: 6726: 6723: 6720: 6716: 6713: 6711: 6708: 6705: 6701: 6697: 6693: 6690: 6687: 6686: 6684: 6682: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6662: 6658: 6655: 6645: 6640: 6638: 6633: 6631: 6626: 6625: 6622: 6610: 6607: 6605: 6602: 6601: 6599: 6595: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6581: 6579: 6576: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6566: 6565: 6563: 6561: 6557: 6551: 6548: 6546: 6543: 6541: 6538: 6536: 6533: 6532: 6530: 6528: 6524: 6512: 6509: 6507: 6504: 6502: 6499: 6498: 6497: 6494: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6474: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6467: 6461: 6455: 6452: 6450: 6447: 6446: 6444: 6441: 6440: 6436: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6419: 6411: 6408: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6397: 6396: 6393: 6392: 6390: 6388: 6384: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6365: 6364: 6362: 6360: 6356: 6346: 6343: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6331: 6328: 6327: 6325: 6322: 6319: 6318:hormone-like: 6314: 6307: 6304: 6301: 6298: 6295: 6292: 6289: 6286: 6285: 6283: 6280: 6275: 6269: 6265: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6252: 6248: 6245: 6243: 6239: 6235: 6232: 6231: 6229: 6226: 6225: 6219: 6213: 6209: 6205: 6202: 6200: 6196: 6192: 6189: 6188: 6186: 6183: 6181: 6175: 6172: 6170: 6166: 6162: 6155: 6150: 6148: 6143: 6141: 6136: 6135: 6132: 6120: 6117: 6116: 6114: 6110: 6104: 6101: 6099: 6096: 6095: 6093: 6091: 6087: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6063: 6061: 6058: 6056: 6053: 6051: 6048: 6046: 6043: 6041: 6038: 6036: 6033: 6032: 6030: 6028: 6024: 6018: 6015: 6012: 6009: 6007: 6003: 6000: 5997: 5994: 5992: 5989: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5979: 5977: 5973: 5970: 5969: 5967: 5965: 5961: 5957: 5947: 5944: 5943: 5941: 5937: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5919: 5916: 5914: 5911: 5910: 5909: 5906: 5905: 5903: 5899: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5882: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5873: 5869: 5866: 5864: 5861: 5859: 5856: 5855: 5854: 5851: 5850: 5848: 5844: 5841: 5838: 5834: 5830: 5825: 5821: 5811: 5808: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5750: 5749: 5746: 5742: 5739: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5717: 5714: 5712: 5709: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5697: 5694: 5693: 5692: 5689: 5688: 5686: 5684: 5679: 5673: 5670: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5648: 5647: 5646: 5643: 5639: 5636: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5625: 5624: 5621: 5620: 5618: 5616: 5612: 5607: 5604: 5602: 5598: 5594: 5590: 5583: 5578: 5576: 5571: 5569: 5564: 5563: 5560: 5553: 5550: 5548: 5545: 5543: 5540: 5537: 5534: 5531: 5527: 5524: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5510: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5494: 5493: 5489: 5483: 5479: 5474: 5469: 5465: 5461: 5457: 5453: 5449: 5444: 5443: 5439: 5431: 5427: 5422: 5417: 5412: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5388: 5385: 5380: 5373: 5370: 5365: 5361: 5356: 5351: 5347: 5343: 5339: 5332: 5329: 5324: 5320: 5315: 5310: 5306: 5302: 5298: 5294: 5290: 5283: 5280: 5275: 5271: 5267: 5263: 5259: 5252: 5249: 5244: 5240: 5233: 5230: 5225: 5221: 5216: 5211: 5206: 5201: 5197: 5193: 5189: 5181: 5178: 5173: 5169: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5153: 5149: 5145: 5138: 5135: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5102: 5095: 5092: 5087: 5083: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5044: 5042: 5040: 5038: 5036: 5034: 5032: 5028: 5023: 5019: 5014: 5009: 5006:(5): 2830–8. 5005: 5001: 4997: 4990: 4987: 4982: 4978: 4973: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4948: 4941: 4938: 4933: 4929: 4924: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4884: 4881: 4866: 4859: 4856: 4853: 4849: 4846: 4841: 4838: 4833: 4829: 4824: 4819: 4815: 4811: 4808:(1): 98–106. 4807: 4803: 4799: 4792: 4789: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4767: 4762: 4757: 4752: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4733: 4730: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4708: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4675: 4672: 4667: 4663: 4658: 4653: 4648: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4627: 4620: 4617: 4612: 4608: 4603: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4579: 4576: 4571: 4567: 4562: 4557: 4553: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4529: 4526: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4474: 4471: 4466: 4462: 4457: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4425: 4422: 4417: 4413: 4408: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4376: 4373: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4341: 4338: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4316: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4292: 4290: 4286: 4281: 4277: 4272: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4255: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4232: 4230: 4226: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4190: 4187: 4182: 4178: 4173: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4141: 4138: 4133: 4129: 4124: 4119: 4114: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4090: 4087: 4082: 4078: 4073: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4049: 4046: 4041: 4037: 4032: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4008: 4005: 4000: 3996: 3991: 3986: 3981: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3949: 3946: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3926:(1): 99–146. 3925: 3921: 3914: 3912: 3908: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3868: 3865: 3860: 3856: 3851: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3819: 3817: 3813: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3793:(1): 105–10. 3792: 3788: 3781: 3778: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3756: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3732: 3730: 3726: 3721: 3717: 3712: 3707: 3702: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3677: 3674: 3669: 3656: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3628: 3625: 3620: 3616: 3611: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3578: 3575: 3570: 3566: 3561: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3520: 3517: 3514: 3512: 3507: 3500: 3496: 3491: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3458: 3455: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3431: 3428: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3400:(8): 708–14. 3399: 3395: 3388: 3385: 3380: 3376: 3371: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3339: 3336: 3331: 3327: 3322: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3282: 3279: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3259:(2): 105–43. 3258: 3254: 3247: 3244: 3239: 3235: 3230: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3198: 3195: 3190: 3186: 3181: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3157: 3154: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3106: 3103: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3081: 3076: 3073:(6): 737–40. 3072: 3068: 3064: 3057: 3054: 3049: 3045: 3040: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3008: 3005: 3000: 2996: 2991: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2959: 2956: 2951: 2947: 2942: 2937: 2932: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2900: 2898: 2894: 2889: 2885: 2880: 2875: 2872:(3): 319–28. 2871: 2867: 2863: 2856: 2853: 2848: 2844: 2839: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2821: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2797: 2794: 2789: 2785: 2780: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2740: 2737: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2715: 2710: 2707:(4): 507–19. 2706: 2702: 2698: 2691: 2688: 2683: 2679: 2674: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2642: 2639: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2607: 2604: 2599: 2595: 2590: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2574:(4): 923–32. 2573: 2569: 2565: 2558: 2555: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2523: 2520: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2480: 2477: 2472: 2468: 2463: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2431: 2428: 2423: 2419: 2414: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2382: 2380: 2376: 2371: 2367: 2362: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2346:(2): 163–76. 2345: 2341: 2337: 2330: 2328: 2326: 2322: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2290: 2288: 2286: 2282: 2277: 2273: 2268: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2244: 2242: 2238: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2202: 2200: 2196: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2176:(5): 265–73. 2175: 2171: 2164: 2161: 2156: 2152: 2147: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2115: 2112: 2107: 2103: 2098: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2066: 2063: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2043:(2): 99–117. 2042: 2038: 2030: 2027: 2022: 2018: 2013: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1989: 1987: 1985: 1983: 1981: 1979: 1975: 1970: 1966: 1961: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1937: 1934: 1929: 1925: 1920: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1896: 1893: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1841: 1838: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1794: 1791: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1771:(5): 461–85. 1770: 1766: 1759: 1756: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1724: 1721: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1689: 1686: 1681: 1677: 1672: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1648: 1645: 1640: 1636: 1631: 1626: 1623:(2): 117–26. 1622: 1618: 1614: 1607: 1604: 1599: 1595: 1590: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1574:(5): 515–27. 1573: 1569: 1565: 1558: 1555: 1550: 1546: 1541: 1536: 1531: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1515:(7): e11493. 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1495: 1492: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1453: 1451: 1447: 1442: 1438: 1431: 1428: 1425: 1421: 1416: 1413: 1408: 1404: 1397: 1394: 1391: 1387: 1382: 1379: 1374: 1370: 1363: 1360: 1357: 1353: 1348: 1345: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1293: 1290: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1268: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1244: 1241: 1236: 1232: 1227: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1195: 1192: 1187: 1183: 1178: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1146: 1143: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1123:(1): 137–61. 1122: 1118: 1114: 1107: 1105: 1101: 1098: 1093: 1090: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1068:10.1038/39369 1065: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1042: 1039: 1034: 1030: 1025: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 993: 991: 987: 982: 978: 974: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 947: 944: 938: 933: 930: 927: 926:Anita Roberts 924: 923: 919: 917: 915: 912:, which is a 911: 907: 903: 899: 895: 890: 886: 884: 876: 874: 871: 863: 861: 859: 858:myelin sheath 855: 839: 830: 828: 824: 820: 816: 812: 804: 802: 799: 797: 789: 787: 785: 777: 775: 773: 769: 766: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 738: 736: 733: 731: 727: 726:heart disease 723: 719: 712:Heart disease 711: 709: 706: 705: 697: 695: 693: 689: 685: 681: 677: 673: 666: 663:Furthermore, 661: 659: 655: 646: 641: 639: 633: 625: 621: 613: 605: 603: 599: 592: 590: 586: 584: 576:B lymphocytes 575: 573: 551: 537: 529: 527: 526:17 cells 515: 504:T lymphocytes 503: 498: 496: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 474: 470: 469: 460: 458: 456: 449: 447: 445: 441: 437: 433: 424: 422: 418: 416: 412: 408: 404: 400: 394: 391: 387: 380: 374: 366: 359: 357: 354: 346: 344: 338: 336: 329: 327: 325: 318: 316: 314: 305: 303: 296: 294: 291: 287: 283: 279: 272: 267: 265: 258: 256: 252: 249: 243: 241: 232: 230: 227: 223: 222:cysteine knot 219: 215: 211: 207: 203: 199: 195: 190: 187: 180: 177: 174: 171: 168: 165: 164: 163: 157: 155: 152: 147: 145: 141: 137: 132: 130: 126: 122: 118: 114: 110: 106: 102: 97: 95: 91: 87: 82: 80: 76: 72: 68: 64: 60: 56: 52: 48: 44: 37: 32: 19: 8629:Gap junction 8464:Ca signaling 8427:Cell surface 8233: 8216: 8151: 8118: 8096: 8059: 8031: 7999:Antagonists: 7998: 7897: 7874: 7842:Antagonists: 7841: 7717: 7681:Antagonists: 7680: 7612: 7584: 7573:Lerdelimumab 7568:Fresolimumab 7564: 7544: 7526: 7480: 7462:Antagonists: 7461: 7433: 7395: 7311: 7228: 7217:Lerdelimumab 7212:Fresolimumab 7208: 7188: 7166: 7128: 7096:Antagonists: 7095: 7044: 7006: 6952: 6904: 6884: 6822: 6794: 6788:Dalantercept 6784: 6769: 6759: 6739: 6688: 6464: 6433: 6422:Insulin/IGF/ 6394: 6387:TGFβ pathway 6317: 6278: 6222: 6180:FGF receptor 6178: 5622: 5455: 5451: 5401: 5397: 5387: 5372: 5345: 5341: 5331: 5296: 5292: 5282: 5268:: 1198–202. 5265: 5261: 5251: 5242: 5232: 5195: 5191: 5180: 5147: 5143: 5137: 5107:(1): 26–34. 5104: 5100: 5094: 5057: 5053: 5003: 4999: 4989: 4954: 4950: 4940: 4897: 4893: 4883: 4871:. Retrieved 4858: 4840: 4805: 4802:Tuberculosis 4801: 4791: 4746: 4742: 4732: 4689: 4685: 4674: 4637: 4633: 4619: 4592: 4588: 4578: 4543: 4539: 4528: 4487: 4483: 4473: 4438: 4434: 4424: 4389: 4385: 4375: 4350: 4346: 4340: 4308:(1): 57–70. 4305: 4301: 4245: 4241: 4206:(1): 55–62. 4203: 4199: 4189: 4157:(1): 66–75. 4154: 4150: 4140: 4103: 4099: 4089: 4065:(1): 31–40. 4062: 4058: 4048: 4021: 4017: 4007: 3962: 3958: 3948: 3923: 3919: 3880:(6): 471–6. 3877: 3873: 3867: 3832: 3828: 3790: 3786: 3780: 3745: 3741: 3691: 3687: 3676: 3655:cite journal 3627: 3592: 3588: 3577: 3534: 3530: 3519: 3503: 3472: 3468: 3457: 3440: 3436: 3430: 3397: 3393: 3387: 3352: 3348: 3338: 3295: 3291: 3281: 3256: 3252: 3246: 3211: 3207: 3197: 3170: 3166: 3156: 3115: 3111: 3105: 3070: 3066: 3056: 3021: 3017: 3007: 2975:(1): 29–33. 2972: 2968: 2958: 2916:(2): 770–4. 2913: 2909: 2869: 2865: 2855: 2810: 2806: 2796: 2753: 2749: 2739: 2704: 2700: 2690: 2658:(4): 921–8. 2655: 2651: 2641: 2616: 2612: 2606: 2571: 2567: 2557: 2535:(6): 551–4. 2532: 2528: 2522: 2489: 2485: 2479: 2444: 2440: 2430: 2395: 2391: 2343: 2339: 2299: 2295: 2257: 2253: 2215: 2211: 2173: 2169: 2163: 2128: 2124: 2114: 2079: 2075: 2065: 2040: 2036: 2029: 2002: 1998: 1950: 1946: 1936: 1909: 1905: 1895: 1854: 1850: 1840: 1807: 1803: 1793: 1768: 1764: 1758: 1733: 1729: 1723: 1707:10.2741/a158 1698: 1694: 1688: 1661: 1657: 1647: 1620: 1617:DNA Research 1616: 1606: 1571: 1567: 1557: 1512: 1508: 1494: 1459: 1430: 1415: 1396: 1381: 1362: 1347: 1306: 1302: 1292: 1257: 1253: 1243: 1208: 1204: 1194: 1159: 1156:FEBS Letters 1155: 1145: 1120: 1116: 1092: 1051: 1047: 1041: 1006: 1002: 956: 952: 946: 910:cathelicidin 891: 887: 880: 867: 864:Neurological 831: 808: 800: 793: 781: 765:glycoprotein 742: 734: 715: 702: 701: 698:Tuberculosis 662: 658:angiogenesis 650: 609: 600: 596: 587: 579: 538: 530: 507: 488: 484: 480: 477:H. polygyrus 476: 472: 466: 464: 455:Galunisertib 453: 428: 419: 407:cell nucleus 395: 384: 350: 342: 333: 322: 312: 309: 300: 276: 262: 253: 244: 236: 191: 188: 184: 161: 148: 133: 105:polypeptides 98: 83: 46: 42: 41: 8650:TGFβ domain 8540:By distance 8478:Assistants: 8437:Co-receptor 8217:Antibodies: 8180:Follistatin 8035:Ramatercept 7878:Sotatercept 7578:Metelimumab 7565:Antibodies: 7222:Metelimumab 7209:Antibodies: 6798:Disitertide 6760:Antibodies: 6090:Coreceptors 6050:Follistatin 5960:Transducers 5554:- IPR016319 4873:January 11, 3537:(1): 1741. 1501:Weinberg CR 932:Ziad Mallat 883:keratoconus 821:(MS) via a 718:cholesterol 593:Macrophages 514: cells 461:TGF-β mimic 210:proteolytic 198:amino acids 113:proteinases 101:macrophages 8607:Pheromones 8547:Juxtacrine 8220:Stamulumab 8170:DAN (PARN) 8089:(β-glycan) 7992:Radotermin 7835:Radotermin 7815:11 (BMP11) 7771:15 (GDF9B) 7674:Radotermin 7539:10 (BMP3B) 7449:11 (BMP11) 7389:Radotermin 7347:15 (GDF9B) 7252:LY-2109761 7183:11 (BMP11) 7179:10 (BMP3B) 7078:11 (BMP11) 6657:modulators 6609:Hepatocyte 6169:Fibroblast 5946:betaglycan 5681:Ligand of 5609:Ligand of 5522:Heidelberg 4490:: 155351. 4106:(1): 183. 3469:Oncotarget 2218:: 541–73. 1701:: a18-25. 939:References 612:cell cycle 606:Cell cycle 259:Activation 206:C-terminal 186:Lefty-A). 179:TGF beta 3 173:TGF beta 2 167:TGF beta 1 94:chemotaxis 81:lineages. 8561:Endocrine 8556:Paracrine 8552:Autocrine 8419:Receptors 8399:Cytokines 8100:Avotermin 8063:AMH (MIS) 8060:Agonists: 7971:7 (BMP12) 7967:6 (BMP13) 7963:5 (BMP14) 7898:Agonists: 7807:7 (BMP12) 7803:6 (BMP13) 7799:5 (BMP14) 7718:Agonists: 7668:7 (BMP12) 7664:6 (BMP13) 7660:5 (BMP14) 7613:Agonists: 7593:LY-364947 7530:Avotermin 7527:Agonists: 7494:SB-505124 7489:SB-431542 7434:Agonists: 7375:7 (BMP12) 7371:6 (BMP13) 7367:5 (BMP14) 7312:Agonists: 7282:SB-525334 7277:SB-505124 7272:SB-431542 7247:LY-364947 7242:GW-788388 7170:Avotermin 7167:Agonists: 7142:SB-505124 7137:SB-431542 7045:Agonists: 6956:AMH (MIS) 6953:Agonists: 6849:Avotermin 6844:AMH (MIS) 6823:Agonists: 6710:Avotermin 6689:Agonists: 4724:232217715 4520:226218796 4504:1043-4666 3647:229293860 3511:CC BY 3.0 3298:: 12300. 2815:CiteSeerX 1323:1524-475X 906:fat cells 768:fibrillin 674:) cells. 510:induced T 415:apoptosis 158:Structure 136:stem cell 8644:Category 8381:Hormones 8331:JAK-STAT 8319:MAPK/ERK 8314:TGF beta 8237:Endoglin 8145:Unsorted 8097:Ligands: 8077:Type III 7656:2 (BMP9) 7262:R-268712 6734:2 (BMP9) 6725:Cetermin 6321:FGF15/19 6182:ligands: 6035:Cerberus 5526:TGF-beta 5482:27328871 5430:30594464 5398:Immunity 5364:19594862 5323:21310385 5274:17679942 5224:31801886 5164:20692646 5129:21058811 5121:22189514 5086:22942700 5022:18292504 4981:16571647 4932:16601194 4848:Archived 4832:21195670 4775:20419122 4716:33711270 4666:29326718 4640:: 1843. 4611:17570105 4570:15102771 4512:33127257 4484:Cytokine 4465:26119834 4416:32494274 4367:10793168 4324:10647931 4280:21436399 4220:17137775 4181:15630445 4132:22943793 4059:Immunity 4040:10995749 3999:12773615 3940:16551245 3894:20485275 3859:18692464 3807:19501566 3764:19218879 3720:33929751 3619:29510118 3569:29170498 3513:license. 3499:29467918 3449:14678985 3422:20435808 3414:11483955 3330:26189595 3273:22569528 3238:27864313 3189:16123803 3167:Oncogene 3140:14534577 3097:17711163 3048:11970960 2999:18818372 2888:10025398 2731:13076974 2633:10708953 2514:28212659 2370:10652271 2316:18342983 2190:15130563 2155:10930463 2106:12208849 2057:10743502 2021:12482908 1928:15611103 1785:15062644 1750:10611753 1680:15536155 1639:16303743 1598:20734064 1549:20634891 1509:PLOS ONE 1422:(OMIM): 1388:(OMIM): 1354:(OMIM): 1331:26704519 1284:15482063 1276:11057902 1235:18692464 1186:22710171 1033:22992590 981:25871413 973:27108839 920:See also 838:17 cells 214:cysteine 140:cytokine 115:such as 61:symbols 51:cytokine 36:isoforms 27:Cytokine 18:TGF beta 8512:General 8336:Akt/PKB 8234:Others: 8175:Decorin 8165:Chordin 8105:Inhibin 8002:Inhibin 7901:Activin 7845:Inhibin 7721:Activin 7684:Inhibin 7508:Type II 7484:A 83-01 7409:K-02288 7232:A 83-01 7132:A 83-01 7099:Inhibin 7048:Activin 7020:K-02288 6923:K-02288 6826:Activin 6773:K-02288 6692:Activin 6496:Relaxin 6435:Insulin 6055:Gremlin 6045:Decorin 6040:Chordin 5939:TGFBR3: 5901:TGFBR2: 5846:TGFBR1: 5829:Activin 5473:4930926 5421:7191997 5314:3079764 5200:bioRxiv 5172:6544784 5077:3430231 4972:2563177 4923:1482474 4902:Bibcode 4894:Science 4823:7238550 4783:1769658 4766:2855445 4707:8624870 4657:5742530 4456:4526340 4407:7260937 4332:1478778 4271:3144160 4250:Bibcode 4242:Science 4123:3494542 4081:8758892 3967:Bibcode 3902:2980102 3850:3677783 3772:1778541 3711:8453874 3610:5904571 3560:5701006 3539:Bibcode 3490:5805504 3379:9215629 3370:2989411 3321:4507259 3300:Bibcode 3229:5287080 3148:4419607 3120:Bibcode 3089:9865691 3039:2173277 2990:3188956 2950:8421714 2918:Bibcode 2847:9725916 2788:1436033 2779:3889166 2758:Bibcode 2723:9827803 2682:8666675 2673:2120829 2598:8349738 2589:2119591 2549:3680981 2506:3317840 2471:2967299 2462:2115066 2422:8294500 2413:2119892 2276:8885242 2232:8280471 1969:7737999 1887:4245501 1879:3861940 1859:Bibcode 1832:1631557 1812:Bibcode 1804:Science 1715:9230066 1589:2967297 1540:2901336 1517:Bibcode 1486:1906395 1441:UniProt 1407:UniProt 1373:UniProt 1339:4967954 1226:3677783 1177:3466472 1137:9597127 1084:4311145 1076:9335507 1056:Bibcode 1024:4027049 914:peptide 730:statins 568:1 and T 489:in vivo 313:in vivo 278:Plasmin 242:(ECM). 181:– TGFB3 175:– TGFB2 169:– TGFB1 117:plasmin 8365:Agents 8226:TRC105 8195:Noggin 8087:TGFβR3 7889:ACVR2B 7704:ACVR2A 7518:TGFβR2 7424:ACVR1C 7302:BMPR1B 7287:SD-208 7237:D-4476 7157:TGFβR1 7035:ACVR1B 6943:BMPR1A 6813:ACVR1A 6679:ACVRL1 6665:Type I 6583:VEGF-D 6578:VEGF-C 6573:VEGF-B 6568:VEGF-A 6377:HB-EGF 6308:(FHF4) 6302:(FHF2) 6296:(FHF1) 6290:(FHF3) 6103:Cripto 6070:Noggin 6002:I-SMAD 5972:R-SMAD 5918:ACVR2B 5913:ACVR2A 5890:BMPR1B 5885:BMPR1A 5875:ACVRL1 5868:ACVR1C 5863:ACVR1B 5837:family 5638:TGF-β3 5633:TGF-β2 5628:TGF-β1 5532:(MeSH) 5480: 5470: 5428: 5418: 5362: 5321: 5311: 5272: 5222: 5202: 5170: 5162: 5127: 5119: 5084: 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