458:
geologic and astronomical evidence for the vast antiquity of the Earth and the universe." Again, in the words of a critic, Arthur McCalla, the growth in young-earth creationism occurred not because modern fundamentalists were more ignorant than in previous generations but because young-earth creationism "better defended a plain-sense reading of the inerrant Bible than did the old-Earth creationism of Ramm and the earlier
Fundamentalists....Legions of Bible believers responded gratefully to Whitcomb and Morris because their system eliminated once and for all the need for interpretative contortions that twist and bend the words of the Bible in order to reconcile them with the findings of modern science."
263:, Whitcomb completed his dissertation in 1957 and began condensing it for publication. With no illusions about his scientific expertise, Whitcomb sought a collaborator who had a PhD in science. He could find no geologists who took Genesis seriously, and even teachers at evangelical schools at best expressed distaste for flood geology. Eventually, Henry Morris agreed to become Whitcomb's collaborator for the scientific portions of the book. Despite his heavy teaching load and administrative duties at
295:", the mainstream geological theory by which "old" rocks were presumed to have come to rest on "young" rocks. Morris argues that commonly accepted geological theories do not truly depend on scientific data but are rather a "moral and emotional decision", in which evolutionists seek "intellectual justification for escape from personal responsibility to his Creator and escape from the 'way of the Cross' as the necessary and sufficient means of his personal
291:"evidences of full divine inspiration of Scripture are far weightier than the evidences for any fact of science." Morris then argues that "fossil-bearing strata were apparently laid down in large measure during the Flood, with the apparent sequences attributed not to evolution but rather to hydrodynamic selectivity, ecologic habitats, and differential mobility and strength of the various creatures." He also dismisses the theory of "
597:(Rowman & Littlefield, 2008):"the Religious and Science Association and the Deluge Geology Society were part of the bitter fundamentalist battle that took place in theological circles as well....These organizations were often top heavy with Seventh-day Adventists, and the fighting often pitted the Adventists against fundamentalists who thought Adventism was cultish with its reverence for prophet Ellen White." (72-73)
274:, which had expressed initial interest, now hesitated. The proposed book was a long work that insisted on six literal days of creation and was certain to be criticized by segments of Moody's constituency. Whitcomb and Morris instead published with the smaller Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company, whose owner Charles H. Craig had long wanted to acquire a manuscript that supported
287:
Bernard Ramm—who has far more entries in the index than anyone else. Whitcomb concludes his section of the work with a review of how geological theories had influenced
Christian views of the Flood since the beginning of the nineteenth century and draws the "one vitally important lesson", that the biblical doctrine of the Flood cannot be harmonized with "uniformitarian theories".
392:
misquotes scientific source material and takes remarks out of context. For example, in one instance, a source which read "the sea which vanished so many million years ago" was quoted as "the sea which vanished so many years ago." Geologist John G. Solum has criticized the work for being inaccurate.
172:
was well over 20 million years. Prior to the use of radiometric dating, scientific estimates before 1900 ranged between 20 million and 3 billion years old. Most
Christians "readily conceded that the Bible allowed for an ancient earth and pre-Edenic life." With very few exceptions they accommodated
603:
would be observing the seventh-day
Sabbath in harmony with the Fourth Commandment....The Sabbath doctrine seemed to demand a literal creation week, for as Price cogently argued, if a person does not believe that there ever was a real Creation at some definite time in the past, how can we expect him
286:
After opening with the declaration that "the Bible is the infallible Word of God", Whitcomb's section provides biblical arguments for a universal flood as well as attempting to refute non-geological difficulties with the biblical account. Whitcomb specifically addresses the local flood theories of
457:
went through 29 printings and sold more than 200,000 copies. An old-earth creationist book, written specifically to challenge young-earth geological theories, called the late twentieth-century revival of interest in flood geology "astonishing and perplexing", especially "in the face of increasing
372:: "The defining characteristic of a scientific hypothesis is that it must be testable or falsifiable using reproducible observations. An idea that cannot be tested is not a scientific hypothesis. Scientific hypotheses are developed to fit data; data are not collected to fit or support hypotheses
716:
These included arguments that the Flood covered the highest mountains, that Noah was unable to disembark for a year, that there would be no purpose for building a gigantic ark and collecting animals if the Flood were local, that Jesus Christ said that all men were destroyed by the Flood, and
290:
Morris introduces his section on geology with the frank statement that Bible-believing
Christians face "a serious dilemma" because contemporary geologists present "an almost unanimous verdict" against the biblical account of creation and the Flood. Nevertheless, Morris assures believers that
221:, which attacked the notion that "biblical inspiration implied that the Bible was a reliable source of scientific data." Ramm ridiculed both flood geology and the gap theory, and one ASA member credited Ramm with providing a way for a majority of Christian biologists to accept evolution.
357:. In a talk given to the large Houston Geological Society, Morris received a whimsical introduction by the president that fell well short of praise for his work. His call for questions at the conclusion of his talk produced none; one member said the audience was "too stunned to speak".
417:(1972), saying that the craters of the moon were probably caused by a cosmic battle between the forces of Satan and the armies of the archangel Michael. In defense of their work, Whitcomb and Morris noted that the founders of modern geological science were, like them, non-specialists:
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These included the possibility of taking the Bible metaphorically, the argument that the Ark was too small to contain examples of all the world's animals, and that the animals could not have distributed themselves over the earth so quickly after the Flood. Whitcomb and Morris,
384:: "During the last decade biogeographers have come to realize that when the postulated phylogenetic relationships of organisms—both plants and animals—are examined relative to their distributions, many highly congruent, nonrandom patterns emerge." The
401:
misunderstanding of how rocks are dated relative to each other, and how the geologic column was constructed." In fact, Solum noted that Morris' explanation of relative dating was not merely "somewhat oversimplified" but "entirely incorrect".
323:
Several dozen
Christian magazines reviewed the book and generally praised its defense of the scriptural account of the Flood, although few seemed to understand that accepting Whitcomb and Morris meant rejecting the day-age and gap theories.
445:"one of postwar America's most culturally significant works about the natural world. It was read by hundreds of thousands, spawned its own research institutes, and remains absolutely rejected by every mainstream biologist and geologist."
330:, the most important evangelical magazine of the period, published a tepid review that did not address issues raised by the book but instead criticized the authors for using secondary sources and taking arguments out of context. The
1123:
Young & Stearley, 160-61. Young and
Stearley nevertheless consider the claims of these young-earth creationists to be without "scientific credibility" and a blight on the church, which "ought to be committed to truth and
346:, who called Whitcomb and Morris "pseudo-scientific" pretenders. "To ensure that no readers missed his point," the journal "ran boldfaced sidebars by evangelical geologists applauding van de Fliert's bare-knuckled approach."
693:
Numbers(2006), 224-25. Craig had majored in geology at
Princeton, but he "had always preferred catastrophism to uniformitarianism." By the following year, a second printing had been issued by the much larger
461:
Publication changed the lives of both authors. Morris especially was deluged with speaking invitations, and his notoriety became an embarrassment to
Virginia Tech. In 1963, Morris became a founder of the
267:, where he had just become head of a large civil-engineering program, Morris made steady progress on his section of the book, eventually contributing more than twice as much material as Whitcomb.
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fame, believed that the days of
Genesis were geological ages and even "allowed for the possibility of organic evolution—so long as it did not impinge on the supernatural origin of Adam and Eve."
252:—called "The Biblical Evidence for Recent Creation and Universal Deluge". Following publication of Ramm's book, Whitcomb decided to devote his Th.D. dissertation to defending flood geology.
666:
Numbers(2006), 215. The eccentric creationist and fruit farmer Dudley Joseph Whitney complained, "Why, why, why, should the saints be so prone to take positions which discredit the Bible?"
493:, produces papers of "considerable scientific and mathematical sophistication", and the movement attracts younger scholars with PhDs in the sciences, including even a few in geology.
622:
Numbers(2006), 208-09. The book was considered a model of new evangelical thought, and in 1954—just as the split between evangelicals and fundamentalists was taking place—evangelist
1088:, (February 2011), 9. Morris' son recalled that when Morris resigned to form the Institute for Creation Research, "his faculty colleagues held a cocktail party to celebrate."
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Numbers(2006), 234. By 2011, the book had sold 300,000 copies in 48 printings and had been translated into German, Korean, Serbian and Spanish. Paul J. Scharf,
413:
could refer only to "present and reproducible phenomena", not to observations made about past events. Morris filled out his own cosmology a bit further in
299:." Finally, in the longest chapter of the book, Morris addresses "problems in biblical geology", which include commonly used dating methods (such as
177:, the belief that the six days of Genesis represented vast ages, or by separating the original creation from a later Edenic creation: the so-called
509:, called Morris "one of my heroes of the faith. He is the man the Lord raised up as the father of the modern creationist movement. The famous book
368:, in describing the known age of the earth as "4.51 to 4.55 billion years with a confidence of 1% or better", defined the key ingredient needed in
486:
780:
Numbers(2006), 227. In the first two editions Whitcomb and Morris also claimed evidence for dinosaur and human footprints side-by-side in the
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201:
By the 1950s, most evangelical scientists scorned flood geology, and those who accepted the theory were increasingly marginalized within the
657:
Numbers(2006), 213. Carnell denounced even the notion of asking evangelical leaders about their beliefs concerning creation and the Flood.
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bed, some examples of which were produced by a Depression-era hoaxer. In the third printing, "they silently revised the text."(228) The
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created "hardly a ripple of recognition". Its release went unnoted by professional geology journals and periodicals covered by
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Numbers(2006), 211. The same ASA member found it curious though that Ramm "stopped short of going through that door himself."
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Scientists generally regard the book as a religious apologetic rather than a research document. The Geology Department of
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to observe the Sabbath as a memorial of that event, which in his view never occurred?'" Numbers (2006), 104.
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376:" Joel Cracraft, "Systematics, Comparative Biology and the Case Against Creationism", in Laurie R. Godfrey,
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380:(New York: Norton, 1983) attacked the Whitcomb and Morris theory of a quick dispersal of animals from
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called for a view of biblical inspiration "along the line of the recent book by Bernard Ramm." (209)
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497:, perhaps the best known young-earth creationist of the early twenty-first century, the founder of
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Numbers(2006), 231-33; J. R. van de Fliert, "Fundamentalism and the Fundamentals of Geology,"
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Whitcomb and Morris "attributed the impasse between themselves and their critics to competing
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205:(founded 1941), an evangelical organization that gradually shifted from strict creationism to
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Solum noted "Whitcomb and Morris are mistaken about the nature of the rocks associated with
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By the late nineteenth century, geologists, physicists and biologists agreed that the
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Berated almost from the beginning of his project by influential evangelicals such as
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228:, to challenge what he considered its "absurdities". Whitcomb had earlier studied
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American Evangelicals: A Contemporary History of a Mainstream Religious Movement
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189:, but he had comparatively little influence among evangelicals because he was a
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The Creationist Debate: The Encounter Between the Bible and the Historical Mind
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The PseudoScience Wars: Immanuel Velikovsky and the Birth of the Modern Fringe
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244:. At the 1953 ASA meeting, Whitcomb had been impressed by a presentation of
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and was virtually forced out of his teaching position at Virginia Tech.
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792:, (1976) Institute for Creation Research, (accessed January 05, 2009).
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During the late twentieth century, young-earth creationism sparked by
138:
The Genesis Flood: The Biblical Record and its Scientific Implications
1164:: From Scientific Creationism to Intelligent Design, Expanded Edition
1097:
Numbers(2006), 234-38. Morris was also shown the door by his liberal
1071:
Numbers (2006), 234-35. Numbers calls this section of his chapter on
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918:"Quotations and Misquotations:Classic example from The Genesis Flood"
312:
744:
Numbers(2006), 226. There are forty references to Ramm in the index.
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published a highly critical commentary by J. R. van der Fliert, a
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To Seventh-day Adventists, "the saints who greeted Christ as his
987:(San Diego, CA: Creation Life Publishers, 1972 and 1978), 66-67.
470:. He wrote many more books devoted to young-earth creationism.
122:
1084:
John D. Morris, "The Creation Movement's First Foundation,"
193:, a church treated warily by many conservative Protestants.
224:
Ramm's book sparked a young Bible teacher and seminarian,
1215:"The History and Impact of the Book, 'The Genesis Flood'"
646:"The History and Impact of the Book, 'The Genesis Flood'"
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measurements) as well as geological formations, such as
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skeptics in the last days." Whitcomb and Morris, 33-34.
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world and polarized Evangelical opinion." In 25 years,
433:(a mathematician), as well as a number of clergymen.
156:, elevated young Earth creationism "to a position of
334:featured two hostile reviews, and in 1969, the ASA
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1000:(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012), 135.
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819:Numbers(2006), 230; Donald C. Boardman, "Review,"
441:Historian of Science Michael D. Gordin has called
240:, but by the 1950s, he was teaching the Bible at
16:1961 book by John C. Whitcomb and Henry M. Morris
593:Numbers(2006), 8, 223, 241, 260; Barry Hankins,
1189:. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press.
721:3.3-7 uses the Flood as a "basis for refuting
834:Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation
315:, all of which imply great age for the earth.
1013:(London: Continuum International, 2006), 172.
8:
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219:The Christian View of Science and Scripture
1024:"The Genesis Flood, Tidal Wave of Change,"
397:. Their claim about fossils is based on a
248:—a hydraulic engineer with a PhD from the
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185:" during the early twentieth century was
1045:Davis A. Young & Ralph F. Stearley,
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173:the new geological theories either with
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487:International Conference on Creationism
73:Presbyterian & Reformed Publishing
894:National Center for Science Education
386:National Center for Science Education
270:As the manuscript neared completion,
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985:The Remarkable Birth of Planet Earth
415:The Remarkable Birth of Planet Earth
259:, the newly installed president of
568:Numbers(2006), 7-8. For instance,
449:also "became a best-seller in the
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429:(a doctor and gentleman farmer),
947:Solum, John (February 7, 2002).
786:Institute for Creation Research
468:Institute for Creation Research
378:Scientists Confront Creationism
349:Outside fundamentalist circles
332:American Scientific Affiliation
203:American Scientific Affiliation
836:, 21 (September 1969): 69-81.
523:Creation–evolution controversy
31:Cover of the paperback edition
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810:Whitcomb and Morris, 331-453.
801:Whitcomb and Morris, 328-330.
388:and other critics have shown
1185:Where Darwin Meets the Bible
1166:. Harvard University Press.
890:Reviews of Creationist Books
762:Whitcomb and Morris, 117-18.
753:Whitcomb and Morris, 113-14.
344:Free University of Amsterdam
872:"Department of Geosciences"
823:(September 11, 1961), 39-40
489:, held every fifth year in
481:and became a staple of the
409:" and argued that the term
261:Fuller Theological Seminary
181:. The primary promoter of "
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1114:Young & Stearley, 160.
613:Numbers(2006), 180-81, 191
477:was regularly featured on
242:Grace Theological Seminary
1047:The Bible, Rocks and Time
790:"The Paluxy River Tracks"
771:Whitcomb and Morris, 327.
464:Creation Research Society
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1242:Creationist publications
648:; Numbers(2006), 208-13.
491:Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
143:young Earth creationists
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1133:Henry Morris obituary,
1075:, "The Fruits of Fame."
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707:Whitcomb and Morris, 1.
466:and then, in 1970, the
399:Young Earth creationist
250:University of Minnesota
207:progressive creationism
63:Genesis flood narrative
1181:Witham, Larry (2002).
570:William Jennings Bryan
1159:(November 30, 2006).
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191:Seventh-day Adventist
187:George McCready Price
1103:Blacksburg, Virginia
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238:Princeton University
1257:Collaborative books
1051:Inter-Varsity Press
996:Michael D. Gordin,
974:Numbers(2006), 233.
896:, (1992), 131-132.
861:Numbers(2006), 236.
852:Numbers(2006), 235.
684:Numbers(2006), 224.
437:Cultural importance
257:Edward John Carnell
175:day-age creationism
152:that, according to
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1140:2008-02-06 at the
1135:Baptist Press News
1029:2010-11-30 at the
924:. February 7, 2002
840:2003-08-16 at the
821:Christianity Today
675:Numbers(2006), 222
550:Numbers(2006), 329
528:Deluge (mythology)
499:Answers in Genesis
355:Book Review Digest
327:Christianity Today
211:theistic evolution
141:is a 1961 book by
20:The Genesis Flood
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886:The Genesis Flood
559:Numbers(2006), 7.
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