Theognis of Megara

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and Aristotle, though the rest of the corpus could still contain some authentic verses. West however acknowledges that the whole collection is valuable since it represents a cross-section of elegiac poetry composed in the sixth and early fifth centuries. According to another view, the quest for authentically Theognidean elegies is rather beside the point—the collection owes its survival to the political motivations of Athenian intellectuals in the 5th and 4th century, disappointed with democracy and sympathetic to old aristocratic values: "The persona of the poet is traditionally based, ideologically conditioned and generically expressed." According to this view, the verses were drinking songs in so far as the symposium was understood to be a microcosm of society, where multiple views were an aspect of adaptive behaviour by the embattled aristocracy, and where even eroticism had political symbolism: "As the polis envisaged by Theognis is degenerate, erotic relationships are filled with pain..."

1012:-head, since what is past seems so beautiful and enviable, that which is coming—something that basically has an equal entitlement—seems disgusting and repulsive; a typical head for all those noble figures who represent the aristocracy prior to a popular revolution and who struggle for the existence of the class of nobles as for their individual existence."—from a biography of Nietzsche by Curt Paul Zanz, quoted and translated by Maudemarie Clark and Alan Swensen in their edition, 458:), a dichotomy based on a class distinction between aristocrats and "others", typical of the period but usually implicit in the works of earlier poets such as Homer—"In Theognis it amounts to an obsession". The verses are addressed to Cyrnus and other individuals of unknown identity, such as Scythes, Simonides, Clearistus, Onomacritus, Democles, Academus, Timagoras, Demonax and Argyris and "Boy". Poems are also addressed to his own heart or spirit, and deities such as 494:

populace surrounding Megara has resulted in heightened social pressures within the city. His writings are thought by modern scholars to largely represent the aristocratic viewpoint of the Megarian elite. However, it is difficult for modern scholars to ascertain both Theognis' position in Megarian society and his role in writing these lines due to possible later additions to his works and the confusion surrounding his origins.

688: 4985: 1820: 435: 4995: 5005: 2059: 2071: 1008:"Theognis appears as a finely formed nobleman who has fallen on bad times...full of fatal hatred toward the upward striving masses, tossed about by a sad fate that wore him down and made him milder in many respects. He is a characteristic image of that old, ingenious somewhat spoiled and no longer firmly rooted blood nobility, placed at the boundary of an old and a new era, a distorted 369:), which features some hundred additional couplets and which "harps on the same theme throughout—boy love." The quality of the verse in the end section is radically diverse, ranging from "exquisite and simple beauty" to "the worst specimens of the bungler's art", and many scholars have rejected it as a spurious addition, including the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (see 2047: 320:... a man of standing in his city, whose public actions however arouse some discontent; a man who sings to his drinking-comrades of his anxieties about the political situation; a man of cliques who finds himself betrayed by those he trusted, dispossessed of his lands in a democratic revolution, an impoverished and embittered exile dreaming of revenge. 305:, Loeb Classical Library (1999), page 171–3, yet Plato's Socrates cites some Theognidean verses to dismiss the poet as a confused and self-contradictory sophist whose teachings are not to be trusted, while a modern scholar excuses self-contradictions as typical of a lifelong poet writing over many years and at the whim of inspiration. The 519:, even using his Ionian dialect rather than the Dorian spoken in Megara, and possibly borrowing inspiration and entire lines from other elegiac poets, such as Tyrtaeus, Mimnermus and Solon. His verses are not always melodious or carefully constructed but he often places key words for good effect and he employs linguistic devices such as 358:, for example, mentions 2800 lines of elegiacs, twice the number preserved in medieval manuscripts. Different scholars have different theories about the transmission of the text to account for the discrepancy. The surviving manuscripts of Theognis preserve an anthology of ancient elegy, including selections from other elegists such as 585:. Theognis himself might be imitating others: each of the longer hexameter lines is loosely paraphrased in the shorter pentameter lines, as if he borrowed the longer lines from some unknown source(s) and added the shorter lines to create an elegiac version. Moreover, the last line could be imitating an image from Homer's 716:) concerned the historical transmission of the collected verses. Nietzsche was an ardent exponent of "catchword theory", which explains the arrangement of the Theognidean verses as pairs of poems, each pair linked by a shared word or catchword that could be placed anywhere in either poem, as for example in these pairs: 666:

songs, in which some verses of Theognis happen to be strongly represented. Quite recently Martin Litchfield West identified 306 lines as a core sequence of verses that can be reliably attributed to Theognis since they contain mention of Cyrnus and are attested by 4th century authorities such as Plato

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In lines 19–22, the poet announces his intention of placing a "seal" on the verses to protect them from theft and corruption. The lines are among the most controversial in Theognidean scholarship and there is a large body of literature dedicated to their explanation. The 'seal' has been theorized to

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The collection of verses attributed to Theognis has no overall structure, being a continuous series of elegiac couplets featuring frequent, sudden changes in subject and theme, in which different people are addressed and even the speaker seems to change persona, voicing contradictory statements and,

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the 57th Olympiad (552–49 BC)—yet it is not clear whether Suda in this case means a date of birth or some other significant event in the poet's life. Some scholars have argued that the sources could have derived their dates from lines 773–82 under the assumption that these refer to Harpagus's attack

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Theognis also details the heightened political tensions within Megara during the seventh century. His works depict the arrival of "other men" that have challenged and displaced former members of the elite. His works, particularly lines 53-58, demonstrate that increasing urbanization among the rural

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though a suitable context for the poems could be found just about anywhere in archaic Greece and there are options for mix-and-match, such as a birth in mainland Megara and then migration to Sicilian Megara (lines 1197–1201 mention dispossession/exile and lines 783–88 journeys to Sicily, Euboea and

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Example of political theme:"Cyrnus, this city is pregnant and I am afraid she will give birth to a man who will set right our wicked insolence. The townsmen are still of sound mind but their leaders have changed and fallen into the depths of depravity."—lines 39–42, translated by Douglas Gerber,

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includes him among "the best advisers for human life", although all consider words of advice both in poetry and in prose to be most useful, they certainly do not derive the greatest pleasure from listening to them, but their attitude towards them is the same as their attitude towards those who

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1902) subsequently defended the authenticity of the collection, and thus the scholarly world divided into two camps, which one recent scholar half-jokingly referred to as "separatists" and "unitarians" There have also been divisions within the camps. Separatists have agreed with

362:; scholars disagree over which parts were written by Theognis. The collection is preserved in more than forty manuscripts, comprising a continuous series of elegiac couplets that modern editors now separate into some 300 to 400 "poems", according to personal preferences. 902:

Example of a love theme: "Don't show affection for me in your words but keep your mind and heart elsewhere, if you love me and the mind within you is loyal. Either love me sincerely or renounce me, hate me and quarrel openly,"—lines 87–90, translated by Douglas Gerber,

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Example of war theme: "This is excellence, this the best human prize and the fairest for a man to win. This is a common benefit for the state and all the people, whenever a man with firm stance holds his ground among the front ranks."—lines 1003–6 (also attributed to

662:(1843) that the collection was originally assembled as the work of Theognis, into which a large admixture of foreign matter has somehow found its way, or they have believed it was compiled originally as a textbook for use in schools or else as a set of aristocratic 888:

Example of Wealth theme: "O wretched poverty, why do you delay to leave me and go to another man? Don't be attached to me against my will, but go, visit another house, and don't always share this miserable life with me.—lines 351–54, translated by Douglas Gerber,

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Example of a wine-theme: "Two demons of drink beset wretched mortals, enfeebling thirst and harsh drunkenness. I'll steer a middle course between them and you won't persuade me either not to drink or to drink too much."—lines 837–40, translated by Douglas Gerber,

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It was probably his reputation as a moralist, significant enough to deserve comment by Aristotle and Plato, that guaranteed the survival of his work through the Byzantine period. However, it is clear that we do not possess his total output. The Byzantine

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Example of human nature theme: "It is easier to beget and rear a man than to put good sense in him. No one has yet devised a means whereby one has made the fool wise and a noble man out of one who is base."—lines 429–31, translated by Douglas Gerber,

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Authors as distant from each other as Theognis and Plato agree in seeing the symposium as a model for the city, a gathering where men may examine themselves in a playful but nonethless important way. Here we should note the repeated use of the word

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The verses preserved under Theognis' name are written from the viewpoint of an aristocrat confronted by social and political revolution typical of Greek cities in the archaic period. Part of his work is addressed to Cyrnus, who is presented as his

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A woman's voice for example here: "My friends betray me and refuse to give me anything when men appear. Well, of my own accord I'll go out at evening and return at dawn, when the roosters awake and crow"—lines 861–64 translated by Douglas Gerber,

523:, familiar in common speech. He was capable of arresting imagery and memorable statements in the form of terse epigrams. Some of these qualities are evident in the following lines , considered to be "the classic formulation of Greek pessimism": 373:

below). However, many modern scholars consider the verses of Book 2 an integral part of the collection. The rest of the work also raises issues about authenticity, since some couplets look like lines attributed by ancient sources to other poets

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style. An "elegy" in English is associated with lamentation. In ancient Greece it was a much more flexible medium, suitable for performance at drinking parties and public festivals, urging courage in war and surrender in love. It gave the

747:, he describes the poet as a 'mouthpiece' of the Greek nobility: Theognis represents superior virtues as traits of the aristocracy and thus distinguishes (in Nietzsche's own words) the "truthful" aristocrat from the "lying common man". 649:

on a couple of occasions, even changing sex. It looks like a miscellaneous collection by different authors (some verses are in fact attributed elsewhere to other poets) but it is not known when or how the collection was finalized.

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Even some modern scholars have interpreted those lines in that time-frame, deducing a birth date on or just before 600 BC, while others place his birth around 550 BC to fit in with the Persian invasion under either

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and Tyrtaeus). and other couplets are repeated with few or no changes elsewhere in the text. Ironically, Theognis mentions to his friend Cyrnus precautions that he has taken to ensure the fidelity of his legacy:

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In spite of such self-disclosures, almost nothing is known about Theognis the man: little is recorded by ancient sources and modern scholars question the authorship of most of the poems preserved under his name.

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be the name of Theognis or of Cyrnus or, more generally, the distinct poetic style or else the political or ethical content of the 'poems', or even a literal seal on a copy entrusted to some temple, just as

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The field of Theognidean studies is battle-scarred, strewn with theories dead or dying, the scene of bitter passions and blind partisanship...combat has been continuous, except for interruptions due to real

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quite typical of the time, featuring ethical maxims and practical advice about life. He was the first Greek poet known to express concern over the eventual fate and survival of his own work and, along with

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Ancient commentators, the poems themselves and even modern scholars offer mixed signals about the poet's life. Some of the poems respond in a personal and immediate way to events widely dispersed in time.

391:"Cyrnus, as I compose my poems for you, let a seal be placed on the verses; if stolen they will never pass undetected nor will anyone exchange their present good content for worse, but everyone will say: 297:; for people say that they have been the best advisers for human life, but while saying this they prefer to occupy themselves with one another's follies than with the precepts of those poets."—Isocrates, 124:. The author of the poems celebrated him in his verse and educated him in the aristocratic values of the time, yet Cyrnus came to symbolize much about his imperfect world that the poet bitterly resented: 653:, sometime known as "the father of Theognidean criticism", was the first modern scholar to edit the collection with a view to separating authentic verses from spurious additions (1826), Ernest Harrison ( 759:

The Grecian poet, Theognis ... saw how important selection, if carefully applied, would be for the improvement of mankind. He saw likewise that wealth often checks the proper action of sexual selection.

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649d10, 650a2, 650b4) to describe the symposium. Moreover at the symposium poetry plays a significant part in teaching the participants the characteristics required of them to be good men.—N.T. Croally

712:, the subject of his thesis entitled De Theognide Megarensi, an activity which he continued during his studies at Leipzig University. His first published article (in an influential classical journal, 289:

admonish: for although they praise the latter, they prefer to associate with those who share in their follies and not with those who seek to dissuade them. As proof one could cite the poetry of

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One forms a clear impression of his personality, sometimes high-spirited but more often despondent, and cynical even in his love poetry; a man of strong feelings and candid in their expression.

114:. Some of these verses inspired ancient commentators to value him as a moralist yet the entire corpus is valued today for its "warts and all" portrayal of aristocratic life in archaic Greece. 826:

Example of friendship theme: "Many in truth are your comrades when there's food and drink, but not so many when the enterprise is serious."—lines 115–16, translated by Douglas Gerber,

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Chronological evidence from the poems themselves is hampered by their uncertain authenticity. Lines 29–52, if composed by Theognis, seem to portray the political situation in

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Sympotic topics covered by Theognis include wine, politics, friendship, war, life's brevity, human nature, wealth and love. Distinctions are frequently made between "good" (

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However a later scholar has observed that the catchword principle can be made to work for just about any anthology as a matter of coincidence due to thematic association.

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Repeated lines: 87–90≈1082cf, 116≈644, 39–42≈1081–82b, 209–10≈332ab, 509–10≈211–12, 853–54≈1038ab, 877–78≈1070ab, 415–18≈1164eh, and including Book Two 1151–52≈1238ab.

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theme: "Enjoy your youth, my dear heart: soon it will be the turn of other men, and I'll be dead and become dark earth."—lines 877–78, translated by Douglas Gerber,

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Nietzsche valued Theognis as an archetype of the embattled aristocrat, describing him as "...a finely formed nobleman who has fallen on bad times", and "a distorted

2132: 269:, and ventures the opinion that Theognis might have later migrated to the Sicilian Megara (a similar theory had assigned an Attic birthplace to the Spartan poet 2085: 1544: 106:

is included in the approximately 1,400 lines of verse attributed to him, though several poems traditionally attributed to him were composed by others, e.g.

1924: 3732: 1557: 737:-head" at the crossroads of social change. Not all the verses in the collection however fitted Nietzsche's notion of Theognis, the man, and he rejected 755:

Charles Darwin represented a widespread preference for a biological interpretation of such statements when he commented on the above lines thus:

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line of epic verse a lyrical impulse by the addition of a shorter "pentameter" line, in a series of couplets accompanied by the music of the

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The elegiac verses attributed to Theognis present him as a complex character and an exponent of traditional Greek morality. Thus for example

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Solon (lines 315–18, 585–90), Euenus (lines 467–96, 667–82, 1341–50), Mimnermus (lines 795–56, 1020–22) and Tyrtaeus (lines 1003–6),

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The best of these manuscripts, dated to the early 10th century, includes an end section titled "Book 2" (sometimes referred to as

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quoted in a biography on Nietzsche by Curt Paul Janz and cited in a note by Maudemarie Clark and Alan Swensen in their edition,

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Nietzsche, On Theognis of Megara, edited by Renato Cristi & Oscar Velasquez, Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2015

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or pipe. Theognis was conservative and unadventurous in his use of language, frequently imitating the epic phrasing of

94:, he is among the earliest poets whose work has been preserved in a continuous manuscript tradition (the work of other 3989: 3597: 3473: 3135: 3089: 3044: 2820: 2509: 119: 4528: 5049: 4650: 4523: 3656: 3651: 3627: 3537: 3054: 2152: 1963: 650: 5008: 4951: 3907: 3710: 3695: 3617: 3552: 3021: 2872: 2767: 2241: 2175: 1721: 31: 3705: 3668: 3602: 3268: 3155: 1387:, "The Pederastic Elegies and the Authorship of the Theognidea", Classical Quarterly 61 (2011), pages 378-93. 4988: 4112: 3912: 3897: 3700: 3683: 3663: 3632: 3532: 3468: 3084: 3069: 3039: 3000: 2877: 2729: 2231: 4946: 3949: 3720: 3678: 3612: 3577: 3029: 3013: 2709: 2650: 2499: 2494: 2002: 1957: 741:

or "Book 2" as the interpolation of a malicious editor out to discredit him. In one of his seminal works,

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Two modern authorities have drawn these portraits of Theognis, based on their own selections of his work:

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The nature of this seal and its effectiveness in preserving his work is much disputed by scholars (see

1908:(Berlin; New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2008) (Untersuchungen zur antiken Literatur und Geschichte, 95). 4470: 4464: 4450: 3934: 3892: 3864: 3749: 3562: 2792: 2588: 621: 262: 42: 4601: 4571: 3959: 3854: 3849: 3286: 2601: 2514: 2484: 2438: 2201: 705: 211: 4994: 2034: 1914: 4818: 4715: 4621: 4265: 4182: 4070: 3572: 2912: 2892: 2749: 2620: 2504: 2299: 2226: 1657: 1166: 239: 227: 191: 103: 313:

below) and the "life" that emerges from them depends on which poems editors consider authentic.

49:, Boeotia, c. 500 BC. A symposiast sings ὦ παίδων κάλλιστε, the beginning of a verse by Theognis 4893: 4480: 4029: 3877: 3829: 3673: 3642: 3587: 3504: 3381: 3253: 3074: 2907: 2860: 2800: 2674: 2656: 2632: 2614: 2524: 2519: 2170: 2017: 1845: 1837: 471: 411:

All the poetry attributed to Theognis deals with subjects typically discussed at aristocratic

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active in approximately the sixth century BC. The work attributed to him consists of

1856: 4773: 4725: 4591: 4445: 4315: 3954: 3790: 3296: 3258: 2957: 1952: 1264: 434: 136::ἔσσῃ ὁμῶς, ὄφρ᾽ ἂν γῆ τε καὶ ἠέλιος, αὐτὰρ ἐγὼν ὀλίγης παρὰ σεῦ οὐ τυγχάνω αἰδοῦς, 1984: 1979: 1400:, Cambridge University Press (1985), P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), page 138–9 98:

poets is preserved as scattered fragments). In fact more than half of the extant

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But, since he is born, a man should make utmost haste through the gates of Death

1685:, Cambridge University Press (1985), P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), page 139 1630:, Cambridge University Press (1985), P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), page 139 1587:, Cambridge University Press (1985), P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), page 137 1487:, Cambridge University Press (1985), P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), page 144 1362:, Cambridge University Press (1985), P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), page 137 1323:, Cambridge University Press (1985), P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), page 158 1242:, Cambridge University Press (1985), P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), page 138 1083:, Cambridge University Press (1985), P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), page 140 4730: 4700: 4695: 4680: 4566: 4533: 4202: 4172: 3839: 3567: 3401: 3243: 3238: 3228: 3213: 3198: 3188: 3163: 2539: 2294: 2249: 2075: 2070: 1815: 858: 676: 294: 1996:

The elegies of Theognis and other elegies included in the Theognidean sylloge

1966:(1826); both these are epoch-making books which no serious student can ignore 1611:

The elegies of Theognis and other elegies included in the Theognidean sylloge

1524:

The elegies of Theognis and other elegies included in the Theognidean sylloge

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might in fact be a collection of elegiac poems by different authors (see

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They are the verses of Theognis of Megara, a name known to all mankind.

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A papyrus fragment covering lines 917–33, part of a poem addressed to

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lines 11–14 ("daughter of God) and lines 15–18 ("daughters of God");

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Mackil, Emily, "Tyrtaeus and Theognis", Lecture, September 11, 2018

533:Πάντων μὲν μὴ φῦναι ἐπιχθονίοισιν ἄριστον, 4878: 4853: 4750: 4690: 4675: 4543: 4503: 4255: 4167: 4162: 4132: 4127: 4102: 3785: 3326: 3281: 3233: 2805: 2757: 2458: 2428: 2375: 2350: 2289: 2259: 1948: 1886: 1009: 734: 686: 675:

was said once to have sealed and stored a copy of his work at the

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Modern scholars in general opt for a birthplace in mainland Greek

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To all to whom there is pleasure in song and to people yet unborn

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M.F. Ashley Montagu, 'Theognis, Darwin and Social Selection' in

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Euripidean Polemic: The Trojan Women and the function of tragedy

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lines 1–10 ("child of God") and lines 11–14 ("daughter of God");

475: 459: 426:('touchstone', 'test': Theog. 415–18, 447–52, 1105–6, 1164; Pl. 355: 187: 30:"Theognis" redirects here. For other people named Theognis, see 4923: 4065: 3494: 2998: 2345: 2165: 2114: 551:

Best of all for mortal beings is never to have been born at all

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Yet I am treated by you without even the least mark of respect

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On the History of the Collection of the Theognidean Anthology

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