569:
135:
113:
374:
456:
starts with a sharp rotation of it is body accompanied by an increase in swimming speed; it then rotates its shell in the opposite direction to initiate the recovery-stroke and swims upward, with a speed less than the power phase. There is a drop in overall speed between power and recovery strokes,
930:
Bouchet & Rocroi (2005) move the family
Limacinidae into the superfamily Cavolinioidea, making redundant the superfamily Limacinoidea erected for it in Ponder & Lindberg's taxonomy. The families Creseidae and Cuvierinidae are demoted to subfamilies of Cavoliniidae (Creseinae and
576:
The group is known within the fossil record from shells of those groups within the clade that mineralized. These carbonate shells are a major contributor to the oceanic carbon cycle, making up as much as 12% of global carbonate flux. However, the low stability of their
385:, although often very light. They are rather difficult to see, since their shell, if present, is mostly transparent, fragile, and usually tiny (less than 1 cm in length). Although their shell may be so fine as to be transparent, it is nevertheless
931:
Cuvierininae). The infraorder
Pseudothecosomata becomes the superfamily Cymbulioidea. The family Peraclididae is included in the superfamily Cymbulioidea as the family Peraclidae, making the superfamily Peraclidoidea redundant.
628:
order is not universally accepted; it fell out of favour for a number of years, but recent molecular evidence suggests that the taxon should be revived. Although most
Thecosomata have some form of calcified
605:. They are also consumed by sea birds, whales, and commercially important fish. However, if sea butterflies are consumed in large quantities fish can get "black gut", which makes them unsellable.
433:
Molluscan pteropods develop their feet into a pair of wing-like parapodia in the growing phase. These 'wings' are highly flexible, as the orientation of the muscles is different, and they have a
328:
The sea butterflies include some of the world's most abundant gastropod species; as their large numbers are an essential part of the ocean food chain, they are a significant contributor to the
492:
stage. Thus, thecosomans are most common in the top 25 metres (82 ft) of the ocean—in terms of diversity, species richness, and abundance—and become scarcer with increased depth.
787:
1189:
Karakas, F., Maas, A. E., & Murphy, D. W. (2020). A novel cylindrical overlap-and-fling mechanism used by sea butterflies. Journal of
Experimental Biology, 223(15), jeb221499.
1375:
Janssen, A.W. (2008). "Heliconoides linneensis sp. nov., a new holoplanktonic gastropod (Mollusca, Thecosomata) from the Late
Oligocene of the Aquitaine Basin (France, Landes)".
1198:
Murphy, D. W., Adhikari, D., Webster, D. R., & Yen, J. (2016). Underwater flight by the planktonic sea butterfly. Journal of
Experimental Biology, 219(4), 535-543.
1662:
518:
from day to night, so the community structure changes on a 24 hour cycle; during the day many organisms take refuge at water depths in excess of 100 m.
1701:
1793:
1636:
1675:
1394:
Lokho, K.; Kumar, K. (2008). "Fossil pteropods (Thecosomata, holoplanktonic
Mollusca) from the Eocene of Assam-Arakan Basin, northeastern India".
526:
Little is documented of the dietary habits or behaviour of sea butterflies, yet they are known to have a peculiar way of feeding. Being generally
549:
through the water column in their pursuit of planktonic prey. At night, they forage at the surface and return to deeper waters by the morning.
581:
shells means that few end up being preserved within sediments as viable fossils; rather, they are mostly deposited in shallow, tropical seas.
1018:
1215:"Distribution of pteropods (Mollusca: Gastropoda: Thecosomata) in surface waters (0–100 m) of the Western Caribbean Sea (winter, 2007)"
542:
web measuring up to 5 cm wide—many times larger than their own bodies. If disturbed, they simply abandon the web and flap slowly away.
1415:"Systematic position of the pelagic Thecosomata and Gymnosomata within Opisthobranchia (Mollusca, Gastropoda) - revival of the Pteropoda"
473:; the extreme shell rotation also assists in raising the wingtips at the end of each stroke to create a figure-eight pattern, common for
214:
1455:
511:
Thecosomata beat their wing-like parapodia to "fly" through the water. When descending to deeper water, they hold their wings up.
1760:
1360:
Bé, A.W.H.; Gilmer, R.W. (1977). "A zoogeographic and taxonomic review of euthecosomatous pteropoda". In Ramsey, A.T.S. (ed.).
1097:
Hunt, B.P.V.; Pakhomov, E.A.; Hosie, G.W.; Siegel, V.; Ward, P.; Bernard, K. (2008). "Pteropods in
Southern Ocean ecosystems".
1680:
1688:
477:. In contrast, flying insects and shell-less pteropods encounter higher resistance forces that limit the body rotation.
593:- to orange-sized, are eaten by various marine species, including a wide variety of fish that are, in turn, consumed by
134:
1788:
1706:
1041:
445:" maneuver; additionally, it aids in carrying the extra weight of a shell and ascending the water column for the
1046:
546:
446:
1576:
1737:
1530:
568:
538:-side up; some may more actively forage, at times. They ensnare planktonic food by entangling it in a
1716:
1623:
1152:
1106:
437:
filled with a pressurized fluid. Thus, the high bending-angle supports the parapodia to diminish the
434:
329:
1765:
1255:"Metabolic temperature compensation and coevolution of locomotory performance in pteropod molluscs"
940:
730:
515:
394:
286:
283:
129:
1742:
1724:
1451:
1317:
1276:
1014:
946:
724:
500:
495:
Occasionally, thecosomans swarm in large numbers, and can sometimes be found washed ashore in
189:
121:
1614:
1054:
1752:
1729:
1667:
1426:
1307:
1266:
1226:
1170:
1160:
1114:
1008:
757:
714:
397:
and can vary widely in shape, ranging from coiled or needle-like to triangular or globular.
249:
1542:
1475:
630:
618:
382:
322:
318:
311:
1156:
1110:
971:
462:
438:
557:
Geologically-speaking, Thecosomata is a rather young group, being known from the Late
1782:
1431:
1414:
765:
681:
671:
655:
646:
458:
442:
417:
401:
390:
349:
301:
261:
70:
1628:
1231:
1214:
534:-feeders, they live their lives according to the currents and find food by floating
348:, sea butterflies float and swim freely through the ocean, traveling along with the
112:
1552:
1494:
Euthecosomata, a group with remarkable developmental stages (Gastropoda, Pteropoda)
1335:
979:
747:
708:
687:
661:
481:
405:
298:
253:
245:
233:
1035:
1118:
1693:
1649:
1608:
753:
667:
614:
602:
409:
257:
229:
45:
356:
in their bodies, including complete or near-complete loss of the shell and the
736:
598:
578:
386:
353:
345:
176:
90:
55:
1599:
1478:
1135:
Comeau, S.; Gorsky, G.; Jeffree, R.; Teyssié, J.-L.; Gattuso, J.-P. (2009).
769:
702:
621:
558:
527:
474:
366:
361:
341:
314:
304:
294:
241:
199:
146:
95:
1321:
1280:
1165:
1136:
373:
17:
1474:
Bé, A.W.H.; Gilmer, R.W. (1977). "A zoogeographic and taxonomic review of
1593:
1271:
1254:
967:
625:
562:
531:
485:
166:
85:
80:
65:
60:
50:
601:. The sea butterflies form the sole food source of their relatives, the
1312:
1295:
1175:
975:
696:
594:
535:
496:
470:
307:
290:
237:
100:
75:
370:, which propel the animal through the sea by slow flapping movements.
1654:
590:
156:
1570:
1641:
567:
539:
489:
372:
1137:"Impact of ocean acidification on a key Arctic pelagic mollusc (
1010:
Pelagic Snails: The
Biology of Holoplanktonic Gastropod Mollusks
966:
Compare the sea butterflies unusual whole-life residence in the
357:
1574:
480:
Sea butterflies range from the tropics to the poles. They are "
408:(pseudothecosomata), adult Peraclididae also bear shells; the
1485:. Vol. 1. London, UK: Academic Press. pp. 733–808.
1364:. Vol. 1. London, UK: Academic Press. pp. 733–808.
1508:
Pseudothecosomata, Gymnosomata, and
Heteropoda (Gastropoda)
1450:. Utrecht: Bohn, Scheltema & Holkema. pp. 484 pp.
1419:
Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research
1448:
Pseudothecosomata, Gymnosomata and Heteropoda (Gastropoda)
1130:
1128:
617:), the sea butterflies (Thecosomata) are included in the
982:, but who leave the plankton once they reach adult form.
364:
foot has also taken the form of two wing-like lobes, or
1294:
Murphy, D.; Adhikari, D.; Webster, D.; Yen, J. (2016).
412:
shed their larval shells and develop a cartilaginous
400:
The shell is present in all life cycle stages of the
325:, although it is often very light, even translucent.
1583:
1296:"Underwater flight by the planktonic sea butterfly"
1253:Seibel, B.A.; Dymowska, A.; Rosenthal, J. (2007).
1034:
1208:
1206:
1204:
790:(2005) Thecosomata is treated differently :
469:diminishes the rotational drag and the moment of
488:, rather than remaining planktonic during their
484:"—they spend all their lives floating amongst
321:). Most pteropods have some form of calcified
613:Along with its sister group, the sea angels (
8:
1248:
1246:
1244:
1242:
970:with the more common behavior of most other
381:Most thecosomes have some form of calcified
1092:
1090:
1088:
1086:
1084:
1082:
1080:
1078:
1076:
1007:Lalli, Carol M.; Gilmer, Ronald W. (1989).
1002:
1000:
998:
352:. This has led to a number of evolutionary
1571:
1517:(2003). "Regarding the raising of ranks".
111:
31:
1510:. Utrecht: Bohn, Scheltema & Holkema.
1430:
1413:Klussmann-Kolb, A.; Dinapoli, A. (2006).
1311:
1270:
1230:
1219:Revista de Biología Marina y Oceanografía
1174:
1164:
317:(also included within the informal group
465:. The hyper-pitch of the round shell of
994:
959:
389:, and an important part of the oceanic
1538:
1528:
420:lack any rigid covering when mature.
7:
1717:ed88d1d0-4f0e-4024-afda-7d86ec1b6c56
1213:Parra-Flores, A.; Gasca, R. (2009).
1055:participating institution membership
499:, especially along the coastline of
1496:(Thesis). University of Amsterdam.
1259:Integrative and Comparative Biology
545:Each day, they embark on a regular
1794:Extant Thanetian first appearances
1067:
589:These creatures, which range from
25:
278:, meaning "case/shell-body"), or
1432:10.1111/j.1439-0469.2006.00351.x
788:taxonomy of Bouchet & Rocroi
633:, mature Gymnosomata have none.
133:
1300:Journal of Experimental Biology
1232:10.4067/s0718-19572009000300011
1070:, belonging to the Thecosomata"
878:A. Janssen & Maxwell, 1995
1:
865:(formerly : Spirialidae
842:(formerly : Cuvieriidae
1481:". In Ramsey, A.T.S. (ed.).
1119:10.1016/j.pocean.2008.06.001
585:Importance in the food chain
360:in several families. Their
1810:
1506:van der Spoel, S. (1976).
1492:van der Spoel, S. (1967).
1446:van der Spoel, S. (1976).
799:Superfamily Cavolinioidea
507:Diurnal vertical migration
441:generated by the classic "
1483:Oceanic Micropaleontology
1362:Oceanic Micropaleontology
1042:Oxford English Dictionary
921:(formerly Procymbuliidae
884:Superfamily Cymbulioidea
846:(nom. inv.); Tripteridae
572:Sea butterfly pseudoconch
424:Behavior and distribution
227:
222:
130:Scientific classification
128:
119:
110:
34:
1498:Gorinchem (J. Noorduijn)
1377:Zoologische Mededelingen
1099:Progress in Oceanography
876:† Family Sphaerocinidae
794:Clade Thecosomata :
404:(euthecosomata). In the
1047:Oxford University Press
978:larvae are part of the
888:( = Pseudothecosomata)
838:Subfamily Cuvierininae
547:diel vertical migration
447:diel vertical migration
416:in adulthood. Only the
1166:10.5194/bg-6-1877-2009
897:Subfamily Cymbuliinae
827:(formerly Cleodoridae
812:Subfamily Cavoliinae
624:. The validity of the
573:
378:
377:Unidentified thecosome
1738:Paleobiology Database
911:Family Desmopteridae
816:(formerly Hyalaeidae
691:H. and A. Adams, 1854
637:Ponder & Lindberg
571:
530:, and mostly passive
452:The power-stroke for
395:bilaterally symmetric
376:
41:Late Paleocene–recent
1557:Our Breathing Planet
1340:Our Breathing Planet
905:van der Spoel, 1976
853:Subfamily Creseinae
840:van der Spoel, 1967
806:Family Cavoliniidae
782:Bouchet & Rocroi
435:hydrostatic skeleton
330:oceanic carbon cycle
274:(collective/plural:
27:Suborder of molluscs
1157:2009BGeo....6.1877C
1111:2008PrOce..78..193H
1045:(Online ed.).
941:Ocean acidification
903:Subfamily Glebinae
891:Family Cymbuliidae
861:Family Limacinidae
823:Subfamily Clioinae
803:( = Euthecosomata)
429:Swimming kinematics
393:. Their shells are
1541:has generic name (
1519:Cainozoic Research
1313:10.1242/jeb.129205
1272:10.1093/icb/icm089
974:gastropods, whose
917:Family Peraclidae
814:Gray, 1850 (1815)
808:Gray, 1850 (1815)
574:
516:migrate vertically
461:trajectory in the
379:
1789:Euopisthobranchia
1776:
1775:
1725:Open Tree of Life
1577:Taxon identifiers
1139:Limacina helicina
1053:(Subscription or
1020:978-0-8047-1490-7
947:Clione antarctica
924:
920:
914:
906:
900:
894:
887:
879:
872:
868:
864:
856:
849:
845:
841:
830:
826:
819:
818:Rafinesque, 1815
815:
809:
802:
773:
761:
741:
725:Pseudothecosomata
692:
675:
650:
501:eastern Australia
268:
267:
218:
190:Euopisthobranchia
122:Limacina helicina
16:(Redirected from
1801:
1769:
1768:
1756:
1755:
1746:
1745:
1733:
1732:
1720:
1719:
1710:
1709:
1697:
1696:
1694:NHMSYS0021056309
1684:
1683:
1671:
1670:
1658:
1657:
1645:
1644:
1632:
1631:
1619:
1618:
1617:
1604:
1603:
1602:
1572:
1567:
1565:
1563:
1546:
1540:
1536:
1534:
1526:
1511:
1500:
1486:
1462:
1461:
1443:
1437:
1436:
1434:
1410:
1404:
1403:
1391:
1385:
1384:
1372:
1366:
1365:
1357:
1351:
1350:
1348:
1346:
1332:
1326:
1325:
1315:
1291:
1285:
1284:
1274:
1250:
1237:
1236:
1234:
1210:
1199:
1196:
1190:
1187:
1181:
1180:
1178:
1168:
1132:
1123:
1122:
1094:
1071:
1069:
1058:
1050:
1038:
1031:
1025:
1024:
1004:
983:
964:
922:
918:
912:
904:
898:
892:
885:
877:
870:
869:; Spiratellidae
866:
862:
854:
847:
843:
839:
828:
824:
817:
813:
807:
800:
768:
756:
739:
715:Praecuvierinidae
690:
670:
645:
457:which develop a
293:, free-swimming
250:Praecuvierinidae
213:
138:
137:
115:
105:
42:
38:Temporal range:
32:
21:
1809:
1808:
1804:
1803:
1802:
1800:
1799:
1798:
1779:
1778:
1777:
1772:
1764:
1759:
1751:
1749:
1741:
1736:
1728:
1723:
1715:
1713:
1705:
1700:
1692:
1687:
1679:
1674:
1666:
1661:
1653:
1648:
1640:
1635:
1627:
1622:
1613:
1612:
1607:
1598:
1597:
1592:
1579:
1561:
1559:
1553:"Sea Butterfly"
1551:
1537:
1527:
1525:(1–2): 163–170.
1516:
1505:
1491:
1476:euthecosomatous
1473:
1470:
1465:
1458:
1445:
1444:
1440:
1412:
1411:
1407:
1396:Current Science
1393:
1392:
1388:
1374:
1373:
1369:
1359:
1358:
1354:
1344:
1342:
1336:"Sea Butterfly"
1334:
1333:
1329:
1293:
1292:
1288:
1252:
1251:
1240:
1212:
1211:
1202:
1197:
1193:
1188:
1184:
1134:
1133:
1126:
1096:
1095:
1074:
1052:
1033:
1032:
1028:
1021:
1006:
1005:
996:
992:
987:
986:
965:
961:
956:
937:
825:Jeffreys, 1869
784:
639:
611:
587:
555:
524:
509:
431:
426:
338:
319:Opisthobranchia
280:sea butterflies
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
212:
132:
106:
104:
103:
98:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
63:
58:
53:
48:
40:
39:
36:
35:Sea butterflies
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1807:
1805:
1797:
1796:
1791:
1781:
1780:
1774:
1773:
1771:
1770:
1757:
1747:
1734:
1721:
1711:
1698:
1685:
1672:
1659:
1646:
1633:
1620:
1605:
1589:
1587:
1581:
1580:
1575:
1569:
1568:
1548:
1547:
1513:
1512:
1502:
1501:
1488:
1487:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1463:
1456:
1438:
1405:
1386:
1367:
1352:
1327:
1306:(4): 535–543.
1286:
1265:(6): 880–891.
1238:
1225:(3): 647–662.
1200:
1191:
1182:
1145:Biogeosciences
1124:
1072:
1065:thecoˈsomatous
1026:
1019:
993:
991:
988:
985:
984:
958:
957:
955:
952:
951:
950:
943:
936:
933:
928:
927:
926:
925:
915:
909:
908:
907:
901:
882:
881:
880:
874:
859:
858:
857:
851:
836:
821:
783:
780:
779:
778:
777:
776:
775:
774:
762:
744:
743:
742:
721:
720:
719:
718:
717:
711:
705:
699:
693:
678:
677:
676:
638:
635:
610:
607:
586:
583:
554:
551:
523:
520:
508:
505:
482:holoplanktonic
475:flying insects
463:sagittal plane
443:clap-and-fling
430:
427:
425:
422:
337:
334:
299:holoplanktonic
266:
265:
225:
224:
220:
219:
207:
203:
202:
197:
193:
192:
187:
180:
179:
174:
170:
169:
164:
160:
159:
154:
150:
149:
144:
140:
139:
126:
125:
117:
116:
108:
107:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
64:
59:
54:
49:
44:
43:
37:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1806:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1786:
1784:
1767:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1748:
1744:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1712:
1708:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1625:
1621:
1616:
1610:
1606:
1601:
1595:
1591:
1590:
1588:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1573:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1549:
1544:
1539:|author=
1532:
1524:
1520:
1515:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1490:
1489:
1484:
1480:
1477:
1472:
1471:
1467:
1459:
1457:90-313-0176-0
1453:
1449:
1442:
1439:
1433:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1409:
1406:
1402:(5): 647–652.
1401:
1397:
1390:
1387:
1382:
1378:
1371:
1368:
1363:
1356:
1353:
1341:
1337:
1331:
1328:
1323:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1290:
1287:
1282:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1249:
1247:
1245:
1243:
1239:
1233:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1209:
1207:
1205:
1201:
1195:
1192:
1186:
1183:
1177:
1172:
1167:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1140:
1131:
1129:
1125:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
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833:nomen oblitum
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766:Desmopteridae
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731:Peraclidoidea
728:
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682:Cavolinioidea
679:
673:
672:de Blainville
669:
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656:Euthecosomata
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647:de Blainville
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398:
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391:calcium cycle
388:
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340:Unlike other
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1556:
1531:cite journal
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1061:thecoˈsomate
1060:
1059:Sub-entry: "
1040:
1029:
1009:
980:meroplankton
962:
945:
929:
923:Tesch, 1913
919:Tesch, 1913
867:Chenu, 1859
855:Curry, 1982
832:
793:
792:
785:
748:Cymbulioidea
746:Superfamily
729:Superfamily
709:Cuvierinidae
688:Cavoliniidae
680:Superfamily
662:Limacinoidea
660:Superfamily
642:
640:
612:
588:
575:
556:
544:
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494:
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451:
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413:
406:Cymbulioidea
399:
380:
365:
339:
327:
279:
275:
271:
269:
254:Peraclididae
246:Cuvierinidae
234:Cavoliniidae
228:
209:
183:
120:
29:
1650:iNaturalist
1629:Thecosomata
1615:Thecosomata
1609:Wikispecies
1585:Thecosomata
1383:(9): 69–72.
1176:10453/14721
1151:(9): 1877.
913:Chun, 1889
899:Gray, 1840
893:Gray, 1840
886:Gray, 1840
871:Dall, 1921
863:Gray, 1840
848:Gray, 1850
844:Gray, 1840
829:Gray, 1840
801:Gray, 1850
786:In the new
754:Cymbuliidae
740:Tesch, 1913
723:Infraorder
668:Limacinidae
654:Infraorder
643:Thecosomata
615:Gymnosomata
603:Gymnosomata
599:polar bears
528:herbivorous
467:L. helicina
454:L. helicina
439:drag forces
414:pseudoconch
410:Cymbuliidae
362:gastropodal
354:adaptations
346:land snails
272:Thecosomata
258:Cymbuliidae
230:Limacinidae
210:Thecosomata
18:Thecosomata
1783:Categories
1562:12 October
1425:(2): 118.
1345:12 October
1105:(3): 193.
1057:required.)
990:References
737:Peraclidae
579:aragonitic
387:calcareous
344:, or even
342:sea snails
336:Morphology
295:sea snails
289:of small,
276:thecosomes
215:Blainville
206:Suborder:
177:Gastropoda
1479:pteropoda
954:Footnotes
703:Creseidae
622:Pteropoda
559:Paleocene
367:parapodia
315:Pteropoda
310:, in the
305:gastropod
297:known as
284:taxonomic
242:Creseidae
223:Families
200:Pteropoda
153:Kingdom:
147:Eukaryota
1594:Wikidata
1322:26889002
1281:21669767
1036:"theco-"
968:plankton
935:See also
626:pteropod
609:Taxonomy
595:penguins
563:Cenozoic
532:plankton
486:plankton
459:sawtooth
350:currents
308:mollusks
287:suborder
282:, are a
167:Mollusca
163:Phylum:
157:Animalia
143:Domain:
1600:Q772011
1468:Sources
1153:Bibcode
1107:Bibcode
976:veliger
764:Family
752:Family
735:Family
713:Family
707:Family
701:Family
697:Cliidae
695:Family
686:Family
666:Family
561:of the
536:ventral
522:Feeding
497:flotsam
471:inertia
291:pelagic
238:Cliidae
196:Order:
173:Class:
1753:425113
1750:uBio:
1730:823292
1714:NZOR:
1707:158030
1454:
1320:
1279:
1017:
972:marine
772:, 1921
760:, 1840
674:, 1823
649:, 1824
641:Order
591:lentil
540:mucous
490:larval
217:, 1824
1766:13703
1761:WoRMS
1743:12231
1681:76333
1668:12095
1663:IRMNG
1655:49152
1068:adjs.
1051:
631:shell
619:order
565:Era.
514:They
383:shell
323:shell
312:order
184:Clade
1702:NCBI
1676:ITIS
1637:GBIF
1564:2016
1543:help
1452:ISBN
1347:2016
1318:PMID
1277:PMID
1015:ISBN
770:Dall
758:Gray
597:and
358:gill
270:The
46:PreꞒ
1689:NBN
1642:448
1624:ADW
1427:doi
1308:doi
1304:219
1267:doi
1227:doi
1171:hdl
1161:doi
1115:doi
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101:N
91:K
86:J
81:T
76:P
71:C
66:D
61:S
56:O
51:Ꞓ
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