381:
126:
118:
64:
1054:, simply a 360° backflip rotation, allowing all areas of the vehicle to be photographed from ISS. Two gap fillers were protruding from the orbiter's underside more than the nominally allowed distance, and the agency cautiously decided it would be best to attempt to remove the fillers or cut them flush rather than risk the increased heating they would cause. Even though each one protruded less than 3 cm (1.2 in), it was believed that leaving them could cause heating increases of 25% upon reentry.
604:
than the tiles and was also used around the socket of the forward attach point of the orbiter to the
External Tank to accommodate the shock loads of the explosive bolt detonation. RCC was the only TPS material that also served as structural support for part of the orbiter's aerodynamic shape: the wing leading edges and the nose cap. All other TPS components (tiles and blankets) were mounted onto structural materials that supported them, mainly the aluminium frame and skin of the orbiter.
38:
869:
238:
293:
as it burned off during reentry, and require significant maintenance to reapply after each mission. (Unfortunately, TPS tile, which was originally specified never to take debris strikes during launch, in practice also needed to be closely inspected and repaired after each landing, due to damage invariably incurred during ascent, even before new on-orbit inspection policies were established following the
966:
before the 1981 STS-1 launch, NASA decided the repair capability was not worth the additional risk and training, so discontinued development. There were unresolved problems with the repair tools and techniques; also further tests indicated the tiles were unlikely to come off. The first shuttle mission did suffer several tile losses, but they were in non-critical areas, and no "zipper effect" occurred.
313:
1065:. Because the TPS tiles were quite fragile, there had been concern that anyone working under the vehicle could cause more damage to the vehicle than was already there, but NASA officials felt that leaving the gap fillers alone was a greater risk. In the event, Robinson was able to pull the gap fillers free by hand, and caused no damage to the TPS on
218:
401:
purity silica fibers. Ninety percent of the volume of the tile was empty space, giving it a very low density (9 lb/cu ft or 140 kg/m) making it light enough for spaceflight. The uncoated tiles were bright white in appearance and looked more like a solid ceramic than the foam-like material that they were.
425:
471:
manufactured in the same manner as the HRSI tiles, except that the tiles were 8 by 8 inches (20 by 20 cm) square and had a white RCG coating made of silica compounds with shiny aluminium oxide. The white color was by design and helped to manage heat on orbit when the orbiter was exposed to direct sunlight.
965:
Another element was a maneuverable work platform which would secure an MMU-propelled spacewalking astronaut to the fragile tiles beneath the orbiter. The concept used electrically controlled adhesive cups which would lock the work platform into position on the featureless tile surface. About one year
935:
The tile TPS was an area of concern during shuttle development, mainly concerning adhesion reliability. Some engineers thought a failure mode could exist whereby one tile could detach, and resulting aerodynamic pressure would create a "zipper effect" stripping off other tiles. Whether during ascent
645:
While reinforced carbon–carbon had the best heat protection characteristics, it was also much heavier than the silica tiles and FIBs, so it was limited to relatively small areas. In general the goal was to use the lightest weight insulation consistent with the required thermal protection. Density of
625:
The filler materials were made of either white AB312 fibers or black AB312 cloth covers (which contain alumina fibers). These materials were used around the leading edge of the nose cap, windshields, side hatch, wing, trailing edge of elevons, vertical stabilizer, the rudder/speed brake, body flap,
444:
HRSI was primarily designed to withstand transition from areas of extremely low temperature (the void of space, about −270 °C or −454 °F) to the high temperatures of re-entry (caused by interaction, mostly compression at the hypersonic shock, between the gases of the upper atmosphere &
292:
winged space vehicle. However, the amount of high-temperature metal required to protect a large vehicle like the Space
Shuttle Orbiter would have been very heavy and entailed a severe penalty to the vehicle's performance. Similarly, ablative TPS would be heavy, possibly disturb vehicle aerodynamics
461:
A stronger, tougher tile which came into use in 1996. TUFI tiles came in high temperature black versions for use in the orbiter's underside, and lower temperature white versions for use on the upper body. While more impact resistant than other tiles, white versions conducted more heat which limited
400:
trailing edges, and upper body flap surface. They varied in thickness from 1 to 5 inches (2.5 to 12.7 cm), depending upon the heat load encountered during reentry. Except for closeout areas, these tiles were normally 6 by 6 inches (15 by 15 cm) square. The HRSI tile was composed of high
944:
Another problem was ice or other debris impacting the tiles during ascent. This had never been fully and thoroughly solved, as the debris had never been eliminated, and the tiles remained susceptible to damage from it. NASA's final strategy for mitigating this problem was to aggressively inspect
621:
Gap fillers were placed at doors and moving surfaces to minimize heating by preventing the formation of vortices. Doors and moving surfaces created open gaps in the heat protection system that had to be protected from heat. Some of these gaps were safe, but there were some areas on the heat shield
470:
White in color, these covered the upper wing near the leading edge. They were also used in selected areas of the forward, mid, and aft fuselage, vertical tail, and the OMS/RCS pods. These tiles protected areas where reentry temperatures are below 1,200 °F (649 °C). The LRSI tiles were
603:
To provide oxidation resistance for reuse capability, the outer layers of the RCC were coated with silicon carbide. The silicon-carbide coating protected the carbon-carbon from oxidation. The RCC was highly resistant to fatigue loading that was experienced during ascent and entry. It was stronger
323:
The TPS was a system of different protection types, not just silica tiles. They are in two basic categories: tile TPS and non-tile TPS. The main selection criteria used the lightest weight protection capable of handling the heat in a given area. However, in some cases a heavier type was used if
366:
of work for every flight, partly due to the fact that the glue dried quickly and new batches needed to be produced after every couple of tiles. An ad-hoc remedy that involved technicians spitting in the glue to slow down the drying process was common practice until 1988, when a tile-hazard study
1461:
Orbital maneuvering system/reaction control system low temperature reusable surface insulation tiles (LRSI) replaced with advanced flexible reusable surface insulation (AFRSI) consisting of a sewn composite quilted fabric blanket with same silica tile material sandwiched between outer and inner
440:
material must be handled with extreme care to prevent damage. The coating feels like a thin, hard shell and encapsulates the white insulating ceramic to resolve its friability, except on the uncoated side. Even a coated tile feels very light, lighter than a same-sized block of styrofoam. As
633:, some of this material was dislodged and determined to pose a potential safety risk. It was possible that the gap filler could cause turbulent airflow further down the fuselage, which would result in much higher heating, potentially damaging the orbiter. The cloth was removed during a
241:
A closer view of the tiles under the forward fuselage and the front end of the left wing. The corner of the nose-gear door can be seen at the lower left. The dark solid black tiles are new ones which have yet to go through a reentry. (At top, the white object is the open left cargo bay
1366:
Anant D. Kulkarni; Donald G. Truhlar; Sriram
Goverapet Srinivasan; Adri C. T. van Duin; Paul Norman; Thomas E. Schwartzentruber (2013). "Oxygen Interactions with Silica Surfaces: Coupled Cluster and Density Functional Investigation and the Development of a New ReaxFF Potential".
341:
skin and structure. These tiles were such poor heat conductors that one could hold one by the edges while it was still red hot. There were about 24,300 unique tiles individually fitted on the vehicle, for which the orbiter has been called "the flying brickyard". Researchers at
883:, the first shuttle mission, which was originally scheduled for 1979 but did not occur until April 1981. NASA was unused to lengthy delays in its programs, and was under great pressure from the government and military to launch soon. In March 1979 it moved the incomplete
523:. This white low-density fibrous silica batting material had a quilt-like appearance, and replaced the vast majority of the LRSI tiles. They required much less maintenance than LRSI tiles yet had about the same thermal properties. After their limited use on
228:
The orbiter's aluminum structure could not withstand temperatures over 175 °C (347 °F) without structural failure. Aerodynamic heating during reentry would push the temperature well above this level in areas, so an effective insulator was needed.
903:. Beyond creating the appearance of progress in the program, NASA hoped that the tiling could be finished while the rest of the orbiter was prepared. This was a mistake; some of the Rockwell tilers disliked Florida and soon returned to California, and the
246:
Reentry heating differs from the normal atmospheric heating associated with jet aircraft, and this governed TPS design and characteristics. The skin of high-speed jet aircraft can also become hot, but this is from frictional heating due to atmospheric
350:
are performing the atomistic simulations to obtain accurate description of interactions between atomic and molecular oxygen with silica surfaces to develop better high-temperature oxidation-protection systems for leading edges on hypersonic vehicles.
416:
and to increase the heat sink properties. The coating was absent from a small margin of the sides adjacent to the uncoated (bottom) side. To waterproof the tile, dimethylethoxysilane was injected into the tiles by syringe. Densifying the tile with
191:
which burned off during reentry and so could not be reused. This insulation was robust and reliable, and the single-use nature was appropriate for a single-use vehicle. By contrast, the reusable shuttle required a reusable thermal protection
918:
held it in place for another 16 hours. In March 1979 it took each worker 40 hours to install one tile; by using young, efficient college students during the summer the pace sped up to 1.8 tiles per worker per week. Thousands of tiles failed
143:(RCC), used in the nose cap, the chin area between the nose cap and nose landing gear doors, the arrowhead aft of the nose landing gear door, and the wing leading edges. Used where reentry temperature exceeded 1,260 °C (2,300 °F).
923:
and had to be replaced. By fall NASA realized that the speed of tiling would determine the launch date. The tiles were so problematic that officials would have switched to any other thermal protection method, but none other existed.
259:, with its broad lower surface facing the direction of flight. Over 80% of the heating the orbiter experiences during reentry is caused by compression of the air ahead of the hypersonic vehicle, in accordance with the basic
489:
Prior to the introduction of FIB blankets, LRSI tiles occupied all of the areas now covered by the blankets, including the upper fuselage and the whole surface of the OMS pods. This TPS configuration was only used on
462:
their use to the orbiter's upper body flap and main engine area. Black versions had sufficient heat insulation for the orbiter underside but had greater weight. These factors restricted their use to specific areas.
957:
crew could use before deorbiting. By
December 1979, prototypes and early procedures were completed, most of which involved equipping the astronauts with a special in-space repair kit and a jet pack called the
612:
This white, flexible fabric offered protection at up to 371 °C (700 °F). FRSI covered the orbiter's upper wing surfaces, upper payload bay doors, portions of the OMS/RCS pods, and aft fuselage.
362:(RTV) silicone adhesive, which were in turn glued to the orbiter skin. These isolated the tiles from the orbiter's structural deflections and expansions. Gluing on the 24,300 tiles required nearly two
600:
alcohol in a vacuum chamber, then cured and pyrolized again to convert the furfural alcohol to carbon. This process was repeated three times until the desired carbon-carbon properties were achieved.
994:
panel on the left wing's leading edge and allowed hot gases from the reentry to enter the wing and disintegrate the wing from within, leading to eventual loss of control and breakup of the shuttle.
990:
was destroyed on reentry due to a failure of the TPS. The investigation team found and reported that the probable cause of the accident was that during launch, a piece of foam debris punctured an
153:
Fibrous refractory composite insulation (FRCI) tiles, used to provide improved strength, durability, resistance to coating cracking and weight reduction. Some HRSI tiles were replaced by this type.
208:
The only known technology in the early 1970s with the required thermal and weight characteristics was also so fragile, due to the very low density, that one could easily crush a TPS tile by hand.
1547:
267:
was created in front of the vehicle, which deflected most of the heat and prevented the orbiter's surface from directly contacting the peak heat. Therefore, reentry heating was largely
1057:
Because the orbiter did not have any handholds on its underside (as they would cause much more trouble with reentry heating than the protruding gap fillers of concern), astronaut
553:
The light gray material which withstood reentry temperatures up to 1,510 °C (2,750 °F) protected the wing leading edges and nose cap. Each of the orbiters' wings had 22
159:
Low-temperature
Reusable Surface Insulation (LRSI) tiles, formerly used on the upper fuselage, but were mostly replaced by FIB. Used in temperature ranges roughly similar to FIB.
1590:
875:
in the
Orbiter Processing Facility after its arrival at Kennedy Space Center on 25 March 1979, showing many missing tiles. 7,800 of 31,000 tiles were still to be attached.
482:
were also inserted between tiles where necessary. These allowed for a snug fit between tiles, preventing excess plasma from penetrating between them, yet allowing for
1833:
474:
These tiles were reusable for up to 100 missions with refurbishment (100 missions was also the design lifetime of each orbiter). They were carefully inspected in the
388:
The black HRSI tiles provided protection against temperatures up to 1,260 °C (2,300 °F). There were 20,548 HRSI tiles which covered the landing gear doors,
136:
The TPS covered essentially the entire orbiter surface, and consisted of seven different materials in varying locations based on amount of required heat protection:
177:
Each type of TPS had specific heat protection, impact resistance, and weight characteristics, which determined the locations where it was used and the amount used.
354:
The tiles were not mechanically fastened to the vehicle, but glued. Since the brittle tiles could not flex with the underlying vehicle skin, they were glued to
156:
Flexible
Insulation Blankets (FIB), a quilted, flexible blanket-like surface insulation. Used where reentry temperature was below 649 °C (1,200 °F).
1252:
169:
felt blankets on the upper payload bay doors, portions of the mid fuselage and aft fuselage sides, portions of the upper wing surface and a portion of the
380:
1946:
1551:
2190:
1581:
1001:'s thermal protection system received a number of controls and modifications after the disaster. They were applied to the three remaining shuttles,
2042:
516:
453:
The black FRCI tiles provided improved durability, resistance to coating cracking and weight reduction. Some HRSI tiles were replaced by this type.
392:
umbilical connection doors, and the rest of the orbiter's under surfaces. They were also used in areas on the upper forward fuselage, parts of the
202:
comprised about 15% of the vehicle weight. The winged shuttle had much more surface area than previous spacecraft, so a lightweight TPS was crucial.
577:
inch (6.4 to 12.7 mm) thick. T-seals between each panel allowed for thermal expansion and lateral movement between these panels and the wing.
2032:
1826:
1821:
1617:
1081:, NASA was donating TPS tiles to schools, universities, and museums for the cost of shipping—US$ 23.40 each. About 7000 tiles were available on a
162:
Toughened unipiece fibrous insulation (TUFI) tiles, a stronger, tougher tile which came into use in 1996. Used in high and low temperature areas.
125:
2386:
2301:
1816:
1573:
1271:
324:
additional impact resistance was needed. The FIB blankets were primarily adopted for reduced maintenance, not for thermal or weight reasons.
2428:
1990:
1591:
https://web.archive.org/web/20160307090308/http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/nexgen/Nexgen_Downloads/Shuttle_Gordon_TPS-PUBLIC_Appendix.pdf
1235:
1108:
282:
Some high-temperature metal alloys can withstand reentry heat; they simply get hot and re-radiate the absorbed heat. This technique, called
927:
Because it had to be ferried without all tiles the gaps were filled with material to maintain the
Shuttle's aerodynamics while in transit.
117:
63:
2407:
1838:
1885:
1668:
945:
for, assess, and address any damage that may occur, while on orbit and before reentry, in addition to on the ground between flights.
1970:
1502:
1568:
2152:
1983:
1890:
1873:
1348:
1099:
978:
294:
2450:
1868:
1800:
1642:
1474:
953:
These concerns were sufficiently great that NASA did significant work developing an emergency-use tile repair kit which the
424:
2279:
2147:
347:
991:
548:
478:
after each mission, and damaged or worn tiles were immediately replaced before the next mission. Fabric sheets known as
140:
2373:
2274:
2116:
2111:
2455:
2296:
2080:
2027:
1880:
1673:
1647:
1610:
1179:
1043:
904:
475:
389:
74:
42:
2460:
2414:
2256:
1954:
1683:
1035:
393:
170:
2349:
2126:
2049:
1926:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1848:
1785:
1256:
1051:
1039:
337:, made from essentially very pure quartz sand. The insulation prevented heat transfer to the underlying orbiter
90:
2306:
2157:
2085:
2037:
2017:
1977:
1936:
1843:
1730:
1716:
1698:
1304:
1082:
1078:
661:
554:
418:
2090:
412:
glass were some of several ingredients. RCG was applied to all but one side of the tile to protect the porous
180:
The shuttle TPS had three key characteristics that distinguished it from the TPS used on previous spacecraft:
1424:
2365:
2195:
2172:
1751:
1737:
1688:
1574:
https://web.archive.org/web/20110707103505/http://ww3.albint.com/about/research/Pages/protectionSystems.aspx
1445:
1015:
1003:
959:
343:
67:
668:
275:. The key to a reusable shield against this type of heating is very low-density material, similar to how a
2333:
1744:
1723:
1603:
1578:
1034:
accident, NASA took a number of steps to verify that the TPS was undamaged. The 50-foot-long (15 m)
1009:
984:
888:
298:
51:
146:
High-temperature reusable surface insulation (HRSI) tiles, used on the orbiter underside. Made of coated
2393:
2380:
2291:
1708:
1663:
1626:
1094:
199:
94:
59:
to study temperatures. The orbiter was 56 kilometers (184,000 ft) high and travelling at Mach 15.6.
1397:
30:"Gap fillers" redirects here. For devices used to reduce gaps between trains and train platforms, see
2400:
2317:
2286:
2162:
896:
892:
251:, similar to warming one's hands by rubbing them together. The orbiter reentered the atmosphere as a
1283:
2420:
2235:
2142:
2007:
1402:
1058:
405:
252:
188:
1518:
1330:
2325:
2095:
2022:
2012:
1042:, was used to perform laser imaging of the TPS to inspect for damage. Prior to docking with the
911:
1227:
1221:
224:
s under wing surfaces are protected by thousands of High-Temperature
Reusable Insulation tiles.
2121:
1569:
https://web.archive.org/web/20060909094330/http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/nasafact/tps.htm
1498:
1231:
483:
106:
198:
Previous ablative heat shields were very heavy. For example, the ablative heat shield on the
2341:
2230:
1378:
1369:
272:
37:
2205:
2185:
2075:
1585:
1451:. Rockwell International – Space Transportation & Systems Group. March 1983. p. 7
256:
622:
where surface pressure gradients caused a crossflow of boundary layer air in those gaps.
17:
868:
2180:
920:
589:
384:
An HRSI tile. Note the yellow markings, which denote its exact location on the orbiter.
289:
276:
237:
1128:
2444:
2357:
2311:
1637:
998:
915:
585:
432:
An uncoated HRSI tile held in the hand feels like a very light foam, less dense than
1180:
https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/space-shuttle-thermal-protection/id591095660?mt=11
409:
359:
109:. A secondary goal was to protect from the heat and cold of space while in orbit.
1492:
1164:
Space
Shuttle: The History of Developing the National Space Transportation System
445:
the hull of the Space Shuttle, typically around 1,600 °C or 2,910 °F).
507:
Flexible Insulation Blankets/Advanced Flexible Reusable Insulation (FIB/AFRSI)
268:
264:
102:
31:
421:(TEOS) also helped to protect the silica and added additional waterproofing.
2200:
1062:
634:
593:
581:
433:
284:
907:
was not designed for manufacturing and was too small for its 400 workers.
312:
2070:
1795:
1777:
1769:
1148:, by John F. Guilmartin and John Mauer (NASA Johnson Space Center, 1988).
597:
363:
338:
260:
248:
46:
1595:
735:
Total area and weight of each TPS type (used on Orbiter 102, pre-1996):
150:
silica ceramics. Used where reentry temperature was below 1,260 °C.
2218:
2054:
1790:
1579:
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/technology/sts-newsref/sts_sys.html
1023:
900:
630:
437:
404:
The black coating on the tiles was Reaction Cured Glass (RCG) of which
217:
98:
78:
1382:
1223:
Space Shuttle: The History of the National Space Transportation System
1123:"When the Space Shuttle finally flies", article written by Rick Gore.
2223:
2213:
1158:
Information Summaries: Countdown! NASA Launch Vehicles and Facilities
709:
592:. After curing at high temperature in an autoclave, the laminate was
413:
397:
331:
328:
173:
pods. Used where temperatures stayed below 371 °C (700 °F).
147:
596:
to convert the resin to pure carbon. This was then impregnated with
879:
Tiles often fell off and caused much of the delay in the launch of
2240:
1678:
954:
880:
867:
379:
355:
271:
between the shock wave and the orbiter's skin through superheated
236:
216:
166:
116:
62:
56:
36:
1519:"NASA - Orbiter Processing Facilities: High-Tech Shuttle Garages"
121:
Thermal protection system for orbiter 103 and subsequent orbiters
1136:, by Kerry Mark Joels and Greg Kennedy (Ballantine Books, 1982).
334:
132:
in the California Science Center museum, showing tiles near door
1599:
1178:
by Gary Milgrom. February, 2013. Free iTunes ebook download.
367:
revealed that spit weakened the adhesive's bonding strength.
1548:"NASA offers space shuttle tiles to school and universities"
423:
1019:
in preparation for subsequent mission launches into space.
1172:. NASA – Monographs in Aerospace History No. 9, July 1998.
1170:
U.S. Human Spaceflight: A Record of Achievement, 1961–1998
1166:, by Dennis Jenkins (Walsworth Publishing Company, 1996).
1142:, by Richard S. Lewis (Columbia University Press, 1984).
261:
thermodynamic relation between pressure and temperature
1255:. U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission. Archived from
527:, they were used much more extensively beginning with
1425:"Image: High-temperature Reusable Surface Insulation"
1349:"'Ugly Duckling' of Space Taught Skeptics to Believe"
1475:"Space Shuttle Columbia: A New Beginning and Vision"
449:
Fibrous Refractory Composite Insulation Tiles (FRCI)
2267:
2249:
2171:
2135:
2104:
2063:
2000:
1963:
1919:
1859:
1809:
1762:
1707:
1656:
1129:
http://www.datamanos2.com/columbia/natgeomar81.html
887:, with 7,800 of the 31,000 tiles missing, from the
376:
High-temperature reusable surface insulation (HRSI)
466:Low-temperature reusable surface insulation (LRSI)
441:expected for silica, they are odorless and inert.
1494:The voyages of Columbia: the first true spaceship
1140:The Voyages of Columbia: The First True Spaceship
1127:(pp. 316–347. Vol. 159, No. 3. March 1981).
1085:basis, but limited to one each per institution.
910:Each tile used cement that required 16 hours to
1398:"Ceramic Shuttle Tiles Had History of Glitches"
626:and heat shield of the shuttle's main engines.
165:Felt reusable surface insulation (FRSI). White
2033:Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory (SAIL)
1396:Stein, Rob; Gugliotta, Guy (7 February 2003).
914:. After the tile was affixed to the cement, a
698:Fibrous refractory composite insulation tiles
1611:
1497:. Columbia University Press. pp. 83–91.
1331:"As Shuttle Era Ends, Dreams of Space Linger"
792:High-temperature reusable surface insulation
608:Nomex Felt Reusable Surface Insulation (FRSI)
87:Space Shuttle thermal protection system (TPS)
8:
1486:
1484:
936:or reentry, the result would be disastrous.
775:Low-temperature reusable surface insulation
486:and flexing of the underlying vehicle skin.
457:Toughened unipiece fibrous insulation (TUFI)
1618:
1604:
1596:
2191:Shuttle-Derived Heavy Lift Launch Vehicle
1253:"Shuttle Thermal Protection System (TPS)"
1542:
1540:
962:, or MMU, developed by Martin Marietta.
737:
648:
511:Developed after the initial delivery of
396:pods, vertical stabilizer leading edge,
311:
288:thermal protection, was planned for the
124:
1215:
1191:
1176:Space Shuttle Thermal Protection System
1160:, (NASA PMS 018-B (KSC), October 1991).
531:and replaced many of the LRSI tiles on
358:felt Strain Isolation Pads (SIPs) with
2387:Rendezvous: A Space Shuttle Simulation
1272:"When the Space Shuttle Finally Flies"
1213:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1205:
1203:
1201:
1199:
1197:
1195:
2429:When We Left Earth: The NASA Missions
1154:, by George Forres (Ian Allan, 1989).
327:Much of the shuttle was covered with
7:
1030:made the first flight to follow the
2408:Space Shuttle: A Journey into Space
1061:worked from the ISS's robotic arm,
279:inhibits convective heat transfer.
187:Previous spacecraft generally used
27:Space Shuttle heat shielding system
1550:. December 1, 2010. Archived from
1152:Space Shuttle: The Quest Continues
25:
758:Felt reusable surface insulation
479:
2153:Spartan Packet Radio Experiment
1329:Overbye, Dennis (4 July 2011).
1134:Space Shuttle Operator's Manual
1077:As of 2010, with the impending
979:Space Shuttle Columbia disaster
2422:Orbiter Space Flight Simulator
1801:Multi-Purpose Logistics Module
543:Reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC)
97:during the extreme 1,650
1:
2377:(2020 documentary miniseries)
2148:Inflatable Antenna Experiment
723:Flexible insulation blankets
584:composite material made from
348:Pennsylvania State University
2374:Challenger: The Final Flight
2275:Space Shuttle design process
2117:Shuttle Ejection Escape Suit
2112:Extravehicular Mobility Unit
1282:(3): 316–347. Archived from
1112:Accident Investigation Board
931:Concern over "zipper effect"
360:room temperature vulcanizing
255:by having a very high (40°)
2297:International Space Station
2081:Journalist in Space Project
2028:Orbiter Processing Facility
1220:Jenkins, Dennis R. (2007).
1044:International Space Station
940:Concern over debris strikes
905:Orbiter Processing Facility
476:Orbiter Processing Facility
75:International Space Station
43:Kuiper Airborne Observatory
2477:
2415:Space Shuttle Mission 2007
1955:Approach and Landing Tests
1684:Orbital Maneuvering System
1491:Lewis, Richard S. (1984).
1226:. Voyageur Press. p.
1146:A Space Shuttle Chronology
1036:Orbiter Boom Sensor System
976:
546:
394:orbital maneuvering system
49:image of the underside of
29:
2350:Columbia: The Tragic Loss
2127:Advanced Crew Escape Suit
2050:Shuttle Training Aircraft
1911:Shuttle Training Aircraft
1906:Shuttle Mission Simulator
1901:Rendezvous pitch maneuver
1791:Remote Controlled Orbiter
1786:Extended Duration Orbiter
1694:Thermal protection system
1633:
1446:"STS-6 Press Information"
1270:Gore, Rick (March 1981).
1052:Rendezvous Pitch Maneuver
1040:Remote Manipulator System
1038:, a new extension to the
983:On February 1, 2003, the
809:Reinforced carbon–carbon
676:Reinforced carbon–carbon
654:
651:
18:Thermal Protection System
2158:Shuttle pallet satellite
2086:Teacher in Space Project
2038:Shuttle Carrier Aircraft
2018:Mobile Launcher Platform
1844:Shuttle Landing Facility
1699:Booster separation motor
1083:first-come, first-served
1079:Space Shuttle retirement
549:Reinforced carbon–carbon
419:tetraethyl orthosilicate
269:convective heat transfer
141:Reinforced carbon–carbon
2366:The Challenger Disaster
1689:Reaction control system
960:Manned Maneuvering Unit
949:Early tile repair plans
712:tiles (black or white)
428:Diagram of a HRSI tile.
344:University of Minnesota
1834:Space Launch Complex 6
973:accident and aftermath
889:Rockwell International
876:
515:and first used on the
429:
385:
320:
243:
225:
133:
122:
82:
60:
55:during the reentry of
2451:Space Shuttle program
2394:Space Shuttle Project
2381:Space Shuttle America
2292:Payload Assist Module
1949:(engine test article)
1627:Space Shuttle program
1305:"Space Shuttle Tiles"
1286:on September 28, 2011
1095:Space Shuttle program
871:
864:Slow tile application
750:Areal density (kg/m)
641:Weight considerations
427:
383:
315:
240:
220:
200:Apollo Command Module
189:ablative heat shields
128:
120:
95:Space Shuttle Orbiter
73:as it approaches the
66:
40:
2287:Inertial Upper Stage
2163:Wake Shield Facility
2143:Freestar experiments
1669:Solid Rocket Booster
897:Kennedy Space Center
893:Palmdale, California
637:during the mission.
436:, and the delicate,
308:Detailed description
2236:Space Launch System
2008:Crawler-transporter
1849:Abort landing sites
1403:The Washington Post
1355:. 17 November 1982.
1276:National Geographic
1125:National Geographic
1059:Stephen K. Robinson
588:impregnated with a
406:tetraboron silicide
107:atmospheric reentry
93:that protected the
2456:Thermal protection
2361:(2010 documentary)
2353:(2004 documentary)
2345:(1994 documentary)
2329:(1985 documentary)
2326:The Dream Is Alive
2321:(1982 documentary)
2023:NASA recovery ship
2013:Mate-Demate Device
1584:2009-07-15 at the
1353:The New York Times
1335:The New York Times
1026:mission, in which
877:
859:Early TPS problems
535:after the loss of
430:
386:
321:
244:
226:
134:
123:
83:
61:
2461:Atmospheric entry
2438:
2437:
2122:Launch Entry Suit
1950:
1942:
1932:
1877:
1817:Launch Complex 39
1782:
1774:
1532:Houston Chronicle
1383:10.1021/jp3086649
1237:978-0-9633974-5-4
856:
855:
733:
732:
484:thermal expansion
316:Silica tile from
81:on 28 July 2005.
16:(Redirected from
2468:
2342:Destiny in Space
1948:
1940:
1930:
1886:Mission timeline
1871:
1780:
1772:
1643:List of missions
1620:
1613:
1606:
1597:
1556:
1555:
1544:
1535:
1529:
1523:
1522:
1515:
1509:
1508:
1488:
1479:
1478:
1477:. February 2011.
1471:
1465:
1464:
1458:
1456:
1450:
1442:
1436:
1435:
1433:
1431:
1421:
1415:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1393:
1387:
1386:
1370:J. Phys. Chem. C
1363:
1357:
1356:
1345:
1339:
1338:
1326:
1320:
1319:
1317:
1315:
1309:
1301:
1295:
1294:
1292:
1291:
1267:
1261:
1260:
1248:
1242:
1241:
1217:
738:
649:
576:
575:
571:
566:
565:
561:
21:
2476:
2475:
2471:
2470:
2469:
2467:
2466:
2465:
2441:
2440:
2439:
2434:
2280:studied designs
2263:
2245:
2206:Shuttle-Centaur
2167:
2131:
2100:
2076:Getaway Special
2059:
1996:
1959:
1915:
1861:
1855:
1805:
1758:
1703:
1652:
1629:
1624:
1586:Wayback Machine
1565:
1560:
1559:
1546:
1545:
1538:
1534:, March 9, 2003
1530:
1526:
1517:
1516:
1512:
1505:
1490:
1489:
1482:
1473:
1472:
1468:
1454:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1443:
1439:
1429:
1427:
1423:
1422:
1418:
1408:
1406:
1395:
1394:
1390:
1365:
1364:
1360:
1347:
1346:
1342:
1328:
1327:
1323:
1313:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1302:
1298:
1289:
1287:
1269:
1268:
1264:
1251:Day, Dwayne A.
1250:
1249:
1245:
1238:
1219:
1218:
1193:
1188:
1120:
1091:
1075:
981:
975:
951:
942:
933:
866:
861:
646:each TPS type:
643:
619:
610:
573:
569:
568:
563:
559:
558:
551:
545:
509:
504:
468:
459:
451:
378:
373:
310:
257:angle of attack
235:
233:Reentry heating
215:
115:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2474:
2472:
2464:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2443:
2442:
2436:
2435:
2433:
2432:
2425:
2418:
2411:
2404:
2397:
2390:
2383:
2378:
2370:
2362:
2354:
2346:
2338:
2330:
2322:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2289:
2284:
2283:
2282:
2271:
2269:
2265:
2264:
2262:
2261:
2253:
2251:
2247:
2246:
2244:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2227:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2181:Saturn-Shuttle
2177:
2175:
2169:
2168:
2166:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2139:
2137:
2133:
2132:
2130:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2108:
2106:
2102:
2101:
2099:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2067:
2065:
2061:
2060:
2058:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2046:
2045:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2004:
2002:
1998:
1997:
1995:
1994:
1981:
1967:
1965:
1961:
1960:
1958:
1957:
1952:
1944:
1934:
1923:
1921:
1917:
1916:
1914:
1913:
1908:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1865:
1863:
1857:
1856:
1854:
1853:
1852:
1851:
1846:
1836:
1831:
1830:
1829:
1824:
1813:
1811:
1807:
1806:
1804:
1803:
1798:
1793:
1788:
1783:
1775:
1766:
1764:
1760:
1759:
1757:
1756:
1749:
1742:
1735:
1728:
1721:
1713:
1711:
1705:
1704:
1702:
1701:
1696:
1691:
1686:
1681:
1676:
1671:
1666:
1660:
1658:
1654:
1653:
1651:
1650:
1645:
1640:
1634:
1631:
1630:
1625:
1623:
1622:
1615:
1608:
1600:
1594:
1593:
1588:
1576:
1571:
1564:
1563:External links
1561:
1558:
1557:
1554:on 2011-07-08.
1536:
1524:
1510:
1503:
1480:
1466:
1437:
1416:
1388:
1358:
1340:
1321:
1296:
1262:
1259:on 2006-08-26.
1243:
1236:
1190:
1189:
1187:
1184:
1183:
1182:
1173:
1167:
1161:
1155:
1149:
1143:
1137:
1131:
1119:
1116:
1115:
1114:
1106:
1100:Space Shuttle
1097:
1090:
1087:
1074:
1073:Tile donations
1071:
985:Space Shuttle
977:Main article:
974:
968:
950:
947:
941:
938:
932:
929:
865:
862:
860:
857:
854:
853:
850:
847:
844:
841:
837:
836:
833:
831:
829:
827:
826:Miscellaneous
823:
822:
819:
816:
813:
810:
806:
805:
802:
799:
796:
793:
789:
788:
785:
782:
779:
776:
772:
771:
768:
765:
762:
759:
755:
754:
751:
748:
745:
742:
731:
730:
727:
724:
720:
719:
716:
713:
706:
705:
702:
699:
695:
694:
691:
688:
687:LI-2200 tiles
684:
683:
680:
677:
673:
672:
665:
657:
656:
653:
642:
639:
618:
615:
609:
606:
590:phenolic resin
547:Main article:
544:
541:
508:
505:
503:
500:
467:
464:
458:
455:
450:
447:
377:
374:
372:
369:
309:
306:
299:Space Shuttle
290:X-20 Dyna-Soar
277:thermos bottle
234:
231:
214:
211:
210:
209:
206:
203:
196:
193:
185:
175:
174:
163:
160:
157:
154:
151:
144:
114:
111:
68:Space Shuttle
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2473:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2448:
2446:
2431:
2430:
2426:
2424:
2423:
2419:
2417:
2416:
2412:
2410:
2409:
2405:
2403:
2402:
2398:
2396:
2395:
2391:
2389:
2388:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2376:
2375:
2371:
2368:
2367:
2363:
2360:
2359:
2355:
2352:
2351:
2347:
2344:
2343:
2339:
2336:
2335:
2331:
2328:
2327:
2323:
2320:
2319:
2318:Hail Columbia
2315:
2313:
2312:Conroy Virtus
2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2281:
2278:
2277:
2276:
2273:
2272:
2270:
2266:
2260:
2259:
2255:
2254:
2252:
2248:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2211:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2178:
2176:
2174:
2170:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2140:
2138:
2134:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2109:
2107:
2103:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2071:Deutschland-1
2069:
2068:
2066:
2062:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2044:
2041:
2040:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2005:
2003:
1999:
1992:
1988:
1986:
1982:
1979:
1975:
1973:
1969:
1968:
1966:
1962:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1945:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1924:
1922:
1918:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1875:
1870:
1867:
1866:
1864:
1858:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1841:
1840:
1839:Landing sites
1837:
1835:
1832:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1819:
1818:
1815:
1814:
1812:
1808:
1802:
1799:
1797:
1794:
1792:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1779:
1776:
1771:
1768:
1767:
1765:
1761:
1755:
1754:
1750:
1748:
1747:
1743:
1741:
1740:
1736:
1734:
1733:
1729:
1727:
1726:
1722:
1720:
1719:
1715:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1706:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1674:External tank
1672:
1670:
1667:
1665:
1662:
1661:
1659:
1655:
1649:
1648:List of crews
1646:
1644:
1641:
1639:
1638:Space Shuttle
1636:
1635:
1632:
1628:
1621:
1616:
1614:
1609:
1607:
1602:
1601:
1598:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1583:
1580:
1577:
1575:
1572:
1570:
1567:
1566:
1562:
1553:
1549:
1543:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1528:
1525:
1520:
1514:
1511:
1506:
1504:0-231-05924-8
1500:
1496:
1495:
1487:
1485:
1481:
1476:
1470:
1467:
1463:
1447:
1441:
1438:
1426:
1420:
1417:
1405:
1404:
1399:
1392:
1389:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1371:
1362:
1359:
1354:
1350:
1344:
1341:
1336:
1332:
1325:
1322:
1306:
1300:
1297:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1266:
1263:
1258:
1254:
1247:
1244:
1239:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1224:
1216:
1214:
1212:
1210:
1208:
1206:
1204:
1202:
1200:
1198:
1196:
1192:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1162:
1159:
1156:
1153:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1141:
1138:
1135:
1132:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1111:
1107:
1105:
1103:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1092:
1088:
1086:
1084:
1080:
1072:
1070:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1055:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1020:
1018:
1017:
1012:
1011:
1006:
1005:
1000:
999:Space Shuttle
995:
993:
989:
988:
980:
972:
969:
967:
963:
961:
956:
948:
946:
939:
937:
930:
928:
925:
922:
917:
913:
908:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
874:
870:
863:
858:
851:
848:
845:
842:
839:
838:
834:
832:
830:
828:
825:
824:
820:
817:
814:
811:
808:
807:
803:
800:
797:
794:
791:
790:
786:
783:
780:
777:
774:
773:
769:
766:
763:
760:
757:
756:
752:
749:
746:
743:
740:
739:
736:
728:
725:
722:
721:
717:
714:
711:
708:
707:
703:
700:
697:
696:
692:
689:
686:
685:
681:
678:
675:
674:
670:
666:
663:
659:
658:
650:
647:
640:
638:
636:
632:
627:
623:
616:
614:
607:
605:
601:
599:
595:
591:
587:
586:carbon fibres
583:
578:
557:panels about
556:
550:
542:
540:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
506:
501:
499:
497:
493:
487:
485:
481:
477:
472:
465:
463:
456:
454:
448:
446:
442:
439:
435:
426:
422:
420:
415:
411:
407:
402:
399:
395:
391:
390:external tank
382:
375:
370:
368:
365:
361:
357:
352:
349:
345:
340:
336:
333:
330:
325:
319:
314:
307:
305:
303:
302:
296:
291:
287:
286:
280:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
239:
232:
230:
223:
219:
212:
207:
204:
201:
197:
194:
190:
186:
183:
182:
181:
178:
172:
168:
164:
161:
158:
155:
152:
149:
145:
142:
139:
138:
137:
131:
127:
119:
112:
110:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
80:
76:
72:
71:
65:
58:
54:
53:
48:
44:
39:
33:
19:
2427:
2421:
2413:
2406:
2399:
2392:
2385:
2372:
2364:
2356:
2348:
2340:
2332:
2324:
2316:
2258:Independence
2257:
1984:
1971:
1937:
1927:
1862:and training
1752:
1745:
1738:
1731:
1724:
1717:
1693:
1552:the original
1531:
1527:
1513:
1493:
1469:
1460:
1453:. Retrieved
1440:
1430:November 13,
1428:. Retrieved
1419:
1409:29 September
1407:. Retrieved
1401:
1391:
1374:
1368:
1361:
1352:
1343:
1334:
1324:
1314:November 13,
1312:. Retrieved
1299:
1288:. Retrieved
1284:the original
1279:
1275:
1265:
1257:the original
1246:
1222:
1175:
1169:
1163:
1157:
1151:
1145:
1139:
1133:
1124:
1109:
1101:
1076:
1066:
1056:
1050:performed a
1047:
1031:
1027:
1021:
1014:
1008:
1002:
996:
986:
982:
970:
964:
952:
943:
934:
926:
921:stress tests
909:
884:
878:
872:
753:Weight (kg)
734:
644:
628:
624:
620:
611:
602:
579:
552:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
512:
510:
502:Non-tile TPS
495:
491:
488:
473:
469:
460:
452:
443:
431:
410:borosilicate
403:
387:
353:
326:
322:
317:
300:
283:
281:
245:
227:
221:
179:
176:
135:
129:
101:(3,000
86:
84:
69:
50:
2369:(2013 film)
2337:(1990 film)
2173:Derivatives
2136:Experiments
2105:Space suits
2091:Shuttle-Mir
1941:(simulator)
1928:Inspiration
1896:Abort modes
1679:Main engine
1377:: 258–269.
617:Gap fillers
480:gap fillers
195:Lightweight
77:during the
2445:Categories
2334:Challenger
2307:Retirement
2096:Hitchhiker
1972:Challenger
1938:Pathfinder
1860:Operations
1732:Challenger
1718:Enterprise
1657:Components
1290:2012-12-20
1118:References
1022:On 2005's
812:Light gray
580:RCC was a
537:Challenger
525:Challenger
521:Challenger
496:Challenger
371:Tile types
265:shock wave
253:blunt body
222:Discovery'
105:) heat of
32:Gap filler
2302:Criticism
2201:Shuttle-C
1964:Disasters
1891:Rollbacks
1753:Endeavour
1739:Discovery
1228:524 pages
1067:Discovery
1063:Canadarm2
1048:Discovery
1028:Discovery
1016:Endeavour
1004:Discovery
891:plant in
778:Off-white
747:Area (m)
741:TPS type
652:Material
635:spacewalk
594:pyrolized
582:laminated
529:Discovery
434:styrofoam
364:man-years
339:aluminium
285:heat sink
263:. A hot
130:Endeavour
113:Materials
70:Discovery
2250:Replicas
1987:disaster
1985:Columbia
1974:disaster
1931:(design)
1874:canceled
1869:Missions
1796:Spacehab
1778:Canadarm
1770:Spacelab
1746:Atlantis
1725:Columbia
1709:Orbiters
1582:Archived
1462:blanket.
1110:Columbia
1104:disaster
1102:Columbia
1089:See also
1032:Columbia
1010:Atlantis
987:Columbia
971:Columbia
885:Columbia
873:Columbia
669:lb/cu ft
655:Density
598:furfural
533:Columbia
517:OMS pods
513:Columbia
492:Columbia
318:Atlantis
301:Columbia
249:friction
184:Reusable
52:Columbia
47:infrared
45:took an
2401:Shuttle
2268:Related
2231:Liberty
2196:Jupiter
2064:Special
2055:STS-3xx
2043:flights
2001:Support
1920:Testing
1763:Add-ons
1664:Orbiter
1455:12 July
1024:STS-114
901:Florida
852:8574.4
821:1697.3
804:4412.6
787:1014.2
631:STS-114
572:⁄
562:⁄
438:friable
213:Purpose
205:Fragile
192:system.
171:OMS/RCS
91:barrier
89:is the
79:STS-114
2358:Hubble
2186:Magnum
1991:report
1978:report
1501:
1310:. NASA
1234:
846:1105.0
835:918.5
770:532.1
744:Color
710:LI-900
414:silica
398:elevon
332:silica
329:LI-900
273:plasma
242:door.)
148:LI-900
2241:OmegA
2210:Ares
1947:MPTA
1881:Crews
1810:Sites
1781:(CSA)
1773:(ESA)
1449:(PDF)
1308:(PDF)
1186:Notes
955:STS-1
881:STS-1
840:Total
798:479.7
795:Black
781:254.6
764:332.7
761:White
679:1986
662:kg/m³
356:Nomex
346:and
335:tiles
167:Nomex
57:STS-3
1499:ISBN
1457:2013
1432:2022
1411:2021
1316:2022
1232:ISBN
1013:and
997:The
916:jack
912:cure
818:44.7
815:38.0
784:3.98
726:144
715:144
701:192
690:352
682:124
494:and
408:and
295:loss
85:The
41:The
1379:doi
1375:117
1280:159
992:RCC
899:in
895:to
801:9.2
767:1.6
704:12
693:22
629:On
567:to
555:RCC
519:of
304:.)
297:of
2447::
2219:IV
1539:^
1483:^
1459:.
1400:.
1373:.
1351:.
1333:.
1278:.
1274:.
1230:.
1194:^
1069:.
1046:,
1007:,
729:9
718:9
671:)
664:)
539:.
498:.
103:°F
99:°C
2224:V
2214:I
1993:)
1989:(
1980:)
1976:(
1876:)
1872:(
1827:B
1822:A
1619:e
1612:t
1605:v
1521:.
1507:.
1434:.
1413:.
1385:.
1381::
1337:.
1318:.
1293:.
1240:.
849:—
843:—
667:(
660:(
574:2
570:1
564:4
560:1
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
