4137:) reduce the power demand to within the range of a single universal thermocouple heated by a pilot (25 mV open circuit falling by half with the coil connected to a 10–12 mV, 0.2–0.25 A source, typically) by sizing the coil to be able to hold the valve open against a light spring, but only after the initial turning-on force is provided by the user pressing and holding a knob to compress the spring during lighting of the pilot. These systems are identifiable by the "press and hold for x minutes" in the pilot lighting instructions. (The holding current requirement of such a valve is much less than a bigger solenoid designed for pulling the valve in from a closed position would require.) Special test sets are made to confirm the valve let-go and holding currents, because an ordinary milliammeter cannot be used as it introduces more resistance than the gas valve coil. Apart from testing the open circuit voltage of the thermocouple, and the near short-circuit DC continuity through the thermocouple gas valve coil, the easiest non-specialist test is substitution of a known good gas valve.
1607:
2438:
279:
2644:
2801:
271:
thermo-electric current. In practical use, the voltage generated at a single junction of two different types of wire is what is of interest as this can be used to measure temperature at very high and low temperatures. The magnitude of the voltage depends on the types of wire being used. Generally, the voltage is in the microvolt range and care must be taken to obtain a usable measurement. Although very little current flows, power can be generated by a single thermocouple junction. Power generation using multiple thermocouples, as in a
3392:
3332:
3134:
3074:
3014:
2364:
measurement voltage accordingly drops. The simple relationship between the temperature difference of the junctions and the measurement voltage is only correct if each wire is homogeneous (uniform in composition). As thermocouples age in a process, their conductors can lose homogeneity due to chemical and metallurgical changes caused by extreme or prolonged exposure to high temperatures. If the aged section of the thermocouple circuit is exposed to a temperature gradient, the measured voltage will differ, resulting in error.
4126:
2368:
observed when an aged thermocouple is pulled partly out of a furnace—as the sensor is pulled back, aged sections may see exposure to increased temperature gradients from hot to cold as the aged section now passes through the cooler refractory area, contributing significant error to the measurement. Likewise, an aged thermocouple that is pushed deeper into the furnace might sometimes provide a more accurate reading if being pushed further into the furnace causes the temperature gradient to occur only in a fresh section.
55:
4063:
3374:
3314:
3116:
3056:
2996:
3383:
3323:
3234:
3186:
3177:
3125:
3065:
3005:
4074:
3436:
1778:"): The reference junction block is allowed to vary in temperature, but the temperature is measured at this block using a separate temperature sensor. This secondary measurement is used to compensate for temperature variation at the junction block. The thermocouple junction is often exposed to extreme environments, while the reference junction is often mounted near the instrument's location.
3499:
2678:
and non-metallic vapors. Type R is not suitable for direct insertion into metallic protecting tubes. Long term high temperature exposure causes grain growth which can lead to mechanical failure and a negative calibration drift caused by
Rhodium diffusion to pure platinum leg as well as from Rhodium volatilization. This type has the same uses as type S, but is not interchangeable with it.
31:
2088:, an error will appear in the temperature measurement. For the simplest measurements, thermocouple wires are connected to copper far away from the hot or cold point whose temperature is measured; this reference junction is then assumed to be at room temperature, but that temperature can vary. Because of the nonlinearity in the thermocouple voltage curve, the errors in
2736:, which volatilizes away, and hydrogen. Hydrogen then reacts with tungsten oxide, after which water is formed again. Such a "water cycle" can lead to erosion of the thermocouple and eventual failure. In high temperature vacuum applications, it is therefore desirable to avoid the presence of traces of water.
4114:
circuit to sense when the pilot light is burning. The tip of the thermocouple is placed in the pilot flame, generating a voltage which operates the supply valve which feeds gas to the pilot. So long as the pilot flame remains lit, the thermocouple remains hot, and the pilot gas valve is held open. If
2821:
alloy), the negative wire is gold with a small fraction (0.03–0.15 atom percent) of iron. The impure gold wire gives the thermocouple a high sensitivity at low temperatures (compared to other thermocouples at that temperature), whereas the chromel wire maintains the sensitivity near room temperature.
2758:
at 1000 K to 200 ohms at 2200 K. At high temperatures, the materials undergo chemical reaction. At 2700 K beryllium oxide slightly reacts with tungsten, tungsten-rhenium alloy, and tantalum; at 2600 K molybdenum reacts with BeO, tungsten does not react. BeO begins melting at about
2677:
Type R (87%Pt/13%Rh–Pt, by weight) thermocouples are used 0 to 1600 °C. Type R Thermocouples are quite stable and capable of long operating life when used in clean, favorable conditions. When used above 1100 °C ( 2000 °F), these thermocouples must be protected from exposure to metallic
2668:
Type B (70%Pt/30%Rh–94%Pt/6%Rh, by weight) thermocouples are suited for use at up to 1800 °C. Type-B thermocouples produce the same output at 0 °C and 42 °C, limiting their use below about 50 °C. The emf function has a minimum around 21 °C (for 21.020262 °C emf=-2.584972
2367:
Aged thermocouples are only partly modified; for example, being unaffected in the parts outside the furnace. For this reason, aged thermocouples cannot be taken out of their installed location and recalibrated in a bath or test furnace to determine error. This also explains why error can sometimes be
4347:
range. At higher (viscous flow) and lower (molecular flow) pressures, the thermal conductivity of air or any other gas is essentially independent of pressure. The thermocouple was first used as a vacuum gauge by Voege in 1906. The mathematical model for the thermocouple as a vacuum gauge is quite
4285:
Chemical production and petroleum refineries will usually employ computers for logging and for limit testing the many temperatures associated with a process, typically numbering in the hundreds. For such cases, a number of thermocouple leads will be brought to a common reference block (a large block
2605:
The
Nicrosil and Nisil thermocouple alloys show greatly enhanced thermoelectric stability relative to the other standard base-metal thermocouple alloys because their compositions substantially reduce the thermoelectric instabilities described above. This is achieved primarily by increasing component
2376:
Certain combinations of alloys have become popular as industry standards. Selection of the combination is driven by cost, availability, convenience, melting point, chemical properties, stability, and output. Different types are best suited for different applications. They are usually selected on the
2875:
Thermocouples made from two different, high-purity noble metals can show high accuracy even when uncalibrated, as well as low levels of drift. Two combinations in use are gold–platinum and platinum–palladium. Their main limitations are the low melting points of the metals involved (1064 °C for
2354:
curve but for various reasons they are not designed to be used in extreme environments and so they cannot be used at the sensing junction in some applications. For example, an extension wire may be in a different form, such as highly flexible with stranded construction and plastic insulation, or be
2515:
They operate very well in oxidizing atmospheres. If, however, a mostly reducing atmosphere (such as hydrogen with a small amount of oxygen) comes into contact with the wires, the chromium in the chromel alloy oxidizes. This reduces the emf output, and the thermocouple reads low. This phenomenon is
2319:
Impurities affect each batch of metal differently, producing variable
Seebeck coefficients. To match the standard behaviour, thermocouple wire manufacturers will deliberately mix in additional impurities to "dope" the alloy, compensating for uncontrolled variations in source material. As a result,
2606:
solute concentrations (chromium and silicon) in a base of nickel above those required to cause a transition from internal to external modes of oxidation, and by selecting solutes (silicon and magnesium) that preferentially oxidize to form a diffusion-barrier, and hence oxidation-inhibiting films.
2363:
Thermocouples are often used at high temperatures and in reactive furnace atmospheres. In this case, the practical lifetime is limited by thermocouple aging. The thermoelectric coefficients of the wires in a thermocouple that is used to measure very high temperatures may change with time, and the
2263:
One common myth regarding thermocouples is that junctions must be made cleanly without involving a third metal, to avoid unwanted added EMFs. This may result from another common misunderstanding that the voltage is generated at the junction. In fact, the junctions should in principle have uniform
4161:
Out of concern about energy wasted by the standing pilot flame, designers of many newer appliances have switched to an electronically controlled pilot-less ignition, also called intermittent ignition. With no standing pilot flame, there is no risk of gas buildup should the flame go out, so these
2527:
Green rot does not occur in atmospheres sufficiently rich in oxygen, or oxygen-free. A sealed thermowell can be filled with inert gas, or an oxygen scavenger (e.g. a sacrificial titanium wire) can be added. Alternatively, additional oxygen can be introduced into the thermowell. Another option is
2659:
alloy for each conductor. These are among the most stable thermocouples, but have lower sensitivity than other types, approximately 10 μV/°C. Type B, R, and S thermocouples are usually used only for high-temperature measurements due to their high cost and low sensitivity. For type R and S
2888:
HTIR-TC offers a breakthrough in measuring high-temperature processes. Its characteristics are: durable and reliable at high temperatures, up to at least 1700 °C; resistant to irradiation; moderately priced; available in a variety of configurations - adaptable to each application; easily
2839:/31%Pt/14%Au–65%Au/35%Pd, by weight) thermocouples give a thermoelectric voltage that mimics the type K over the range 500 °C to 1400 °C, however they are constructed purely of noble metals and so shows enhanced corrosion resistance. This combination is also known as Platinel II.
270:
discovered that a magnetic needle held near a circuit made up of two dissimilar metals got deflected when one of the dissimilar metal junctions was heated. At the time, Seebeck referred to this consequence as thermo-magnetism. The magnetic field he observed was later shown to be due to
2596:
A short-term cyclic change in thermal EMF on heating in the temperature range about 250–650 °C, which occurs in thermocouples of types K, J, T, and E. This kind of EMF instability is associated with structural changes such as magnetic short-range order in the metallurgical
2520:, due to the color of the affected alloy. Although not always distinctively green, the chromel wire will develop a mottled silvery skin and become magnetic. An easy way to check for this problem is to see whether the two wires are magnetic (normally, chromel is non-magnetic).
2500:) is the most common general-purpose thermocouple with a sensitivity of approximately 41 μV/°C. It is inexpensive, and a wide variety of probes are available in its −200 °C to +1350 °C (−330 °F to +2460 °F) range. Type K was specified at a time when
227:, and can measure a wide range of temperatures. In contrast to most other methods of temperature measurement, thermocouples are self-powered and require no external form of excitation. The main limitation with thermocouples is accuracy; system errors of less than one degree
2320:
there are standard and specialized grades of thermocouple wire, depending on the level of precision demanded in the thermocouple behaviour. Precision grades may only be available in matched pairs, where one wire is modified to compensate for deficiencies in the other wire.
2271:
and with care taken to avoid thermal EMFs from self-heating within the voltmeter itself. If the thermocouple wire has a high resistance for some reason (poor contact at junctions, or very thin wires used for fast thermal response), the measuring instrument should have high
2609:
Type N thermocouples are suitable alternative to type K for low-oxygen conditions where type K is prone to green rot. They are suitable for use in vacuum, inert atmospheres, oxidizing atmospheres, or dry reducing atmospheres. They do not tolerate the presence of sulfur.
4162:
appliances do not need thermocouple-based pilot safety switches. As these designs lose the benefit of operation without a continuous source of electricity, standing pilots are still used in some appliances. The exception is later model instantaneous (aka "tankless")
2905:
would have a tolerance of ±2.5 °C at 1000 °C. Each cell in the Color Code columns depicts the end of a thermocouple cable, showing the jacket color and the color of the individual leads. The background color represents the color of the connector body.
2483:
of the iron (770 °C) causes a smooth change in the characteristic, which determines the upper-temperature limit. Note, the
European/German Type L is a variant of the type J, with a different specification for the EMF output (reference DIN 43712:1985-01).
2826:
applications (1.2–300 K and even up to 600 K). Both the sensitivity and the temperature range depend on the iron concentration. The sensitivity is typically around 15 μV/K at low temperatures, and the lowest usable temperature varies between 1.2 and 4.2 K.
2634:
than the alloys generally used in thermocouple constructions, and so it is necessary to exercise extra care with thermally anchoring type-T thermocouples. A similar composition is found in the obsolete Type U in the German specification DIN 43712:1985-01.
2355:
part of a multi-wire cable for carrying many thermocouple circuits. With expensive noble metal thermocouples, the extension wires may even be made of a completely different, cheaper material that mimics the standard type over a reduced temperature range.
4328:. In this configuration, the thermocouple junction is attached to the centre of a short heating wire, which is usually energised by a constant current of about 5 mA, and the heat is removed at a rate related to the thermal conductivity of the gas.
4149:
is used rather than a single thermocouple. Such a system requires no external source of electricity for its operation and thus can operate during a power failure, provided that all the other related system components allow for this. This excludes common
4140:
Some systems, known as millivolt control systems, extend the thermocouple concept to both open and close the main gas valve as well. Not only does the voltage created by the pilot thermocouple activate the pilot gas valve, it is also routed through a
2600:
A time-independent perturbation in thermal EMF in specific temperature ranges. This is due to composition-dependent magnetic transformations that perturb the thermal EMFs in type-K thermocouples in the range about 25–225 °C, and in type J above
4237:
which must be supplied to the hot side to maintain the electric potential. A continuous transfer of heat is necessary because the current flowing through the thermocouple tends to cause the hot side to cool down and the cold side to heat up (the
2441:
Characteristic functions for thermocouples that reach intermediate temperatures, as covered by nickel-alloy thermocouple types E, J, K, M, N, T. Also shown are the noble-metal alloy type P and the pure noble-metal combinations gold–platinum and
1160:
2523:
Hydrogen in the atmosphere is the usual cause of green rot. At high temperatures, it can diffuse through solid metals or an intact metal thermowell. Even a sheath of magnesium oxide insulating the thermocouple will not keep the hydrogen out.
3460:
Plastics are suitable insulators for low temperatures parts of a thermocouple, whereas ceramic insulation can be used up to around 1000 °C. Other concerns (abrasion and chemical resistance) also affect the suitability of materials.
2592:
environments. In the case of type-K thermocouples, manganese and aluminium atoms from the KN (negative) wire migrate to the KP (positive) wire, resulting in a down-scale drift due to chemical contamination. This effect is cumulative and
4249:, where all the hot junctions are exposed to a higher temperature and all the cold junctions to a lower temperature. The output is the sum of the voltages across the individual junctions, giving larger voltage and power output. In a
4464:, which operates in a similar way, over approximately the same pressure range, but is only a 2-terminal device, sensing the change in resistance with temperature of a thin electrically heated wire, rather than using a thermocouple.
4228:
A thermocouple can produce current to drive some processes directly, without the need for extra circuitry and power sources. For example, the power from a thermocouple can activate a valve when a temperature difference arises. The
4272:
receivers in isolated areas. There are commercially produced lanterns that use the heat from a candle to run several light-emitting diodes, and thermoelectrically powered fans to improve air circulation and heat distribution in
3456:
from each other everywhere, except at the sensing junction. Any additional electrical contact between the wires, or contact of a wire to other conductive objects, can modify the voltage and give a false reading of temperature.
1489:
4158:. A similar gas shut-off safety mechanism using a thermocouple is sometimes employed to ensure that the main burner ignites within a certain time period, shutting off the main burner gas supply valve should that not happen.
4166:
that use the flow of water to generate the current required to ignite the gas burner; these designs also use a thermocouple as a safety cut-off device in the event the gas fails to ignite, or if the flame is extinguished.
2889:
installed. Originally developed for use in nuclear test reactors, HTIR-TC may enhance the safety of operations in future reactors. This thermocouple was developed by researchers at the Idaho
National Laboratory (INL).
2626:) thermocouples are suited for measurements in the −200 to 350 °C range. Often used as a differential measurement, since only copper wire touches the probes. Since both conductors are non-magnetic, there is no
596:
3464:
When wire insulation disintegrates, it can result in an unintended electrical contact at a different location from the desired sensing point. If such a damaged thermocouple is used in the closed loop control of a
2243:
Junctions should be made in a reliable manner, but there are many possible approaches to accomplish this. For low temperatures, junctions can be brazed or soldered; however, it may be difficult to find a suitable
2560:) thermocouples are suitable for use between −270 °C and +1300 °C, owing to its stability and oxidation resistance. Sensitivity is about 39 μV/°C at 900 °C, slightly lower compared to type K.
2571:
A gradual and generally cumulative drift in thermal EMF on long exposure at elevated temperatures. This is observed in all base-metal thermoelement materials and is mainly due to compositional changes caused by
4178:
are used for measuring the intensity of incident radiation, typically visible or infrared light, which heats the hot junctions, while the cold junctions are on a heat sink. It is possible to measure radiative
4109:
to ignite the main gas burner when required. If the pilot flame goes out, unburned gas may be released, which is an explosion risk and a health hazard. To prevent this, some appliances use a thermocouple in a
3473:, this can lead to a runaway overheating event and possibly severe damage, as the false temperature reading will typically be lower than the sensing junction temperature. Failed insulation will also typically
2276:
to prevent an offset in the measured voltage. A useful feature in thermocouple instrumentation will simultaneously measure resistance and detect faulty connections in the wiring or at thermocouple junctions.
1359:
2660:
thermocouples, HTX platinum wire can be used in place of the pure platinum leg to strengthen the thermocouple and prevent failures from grain growth that can occur in high temperature and harsh conditions.
2003:
4022:. They are less suitable for applications where smaller temperature differences need to be measured with high accuracy, for example the range 0–100 °C with 0.1 °C accuracy. For such applications
2567:(DSTO) of Australia, by Noel A. Burley, type-N thermocouples overcome the three principal characteristic types and causes of thermoelectric instability in the standard base-metal thermoelement materials:
4213:
under test for its current carrying capacity may have thermocouples installed and monitored during a heat run test, to confirm that the temperature rise at rated current does not exceed designed limits.
2804:
Thermocouple characteristics at low temperatures. The AuFe-based thermocouple shows a steady sensitivity down to low temperatures, whereas conventional types soon flatten out and lose sensitivity at low
4433:
1554:
2377:
basis of the temperature range and sensitivity needed. Thermocouples with low sensitivities (B, R, and S types) have correspondingly lower resolutions. Other selection criteria include the chemical
483:
across two points of an electrically conducting material when there is a temperature difference between those two points. Under open-circuit conditions where there is no internal current flow, the
539:
512:
2045:
curve, independent of any other details. In reality, thermocouples are affected by issues such as alloy manufacturing uncertainties, aging effects, and circuit design mistakes/misunderstandings.
1836:
2690:(ITS-90), precision type-S thermocouples were used as the practical standard thermometers for the range of 630 °C to 1064 °C, based on an interpolation between the freezing points of
2427:
4006:
Thermocouples are suitable for measuring over a large temperature range, from −270 up to 3000 °C (for a short time, in inert atmosphere). Applications include temperature measurement for
1914:
1659:
1019:
972:
852:
806:
686:
356:
1767:
1718:
929:
889:
763:
723:
393:
4654:
2876:
gold and 1555 °C for palladium). These thermocouples tend to be more accurate than type S, and due to their economy and simplicity are even regarded as competitive alternatives to the
4614:
4054:
process to accurately measure the temperature of steel before tapping. The cooling curve of a small steel sample can be analyzed and used to estimate the carbon content of molten steel.
2544:, by weight) are used in vacuum furnaces for the same reasons as with type C (described below). Upper temperature is limited to 1400 °C. It is less commonly used than other types.
2754:, a popular material for high temperature applications, tends to gain conductivity with temperature; a particular configuration of sensor had the insulation resistance dropping from a
3477:, which can lead to process contamination. For parts of thermocouples used at very high temperatures or in contamination-sensitive applications, the only suitable insulation may be
2164:
are generally unequal values. Some thermocouples, such as Type B, have a relatively flat voltage curve near room temperature, meaning that a large uncertainty in a room-temperature
2238:
2162:
2197:
2121:
2086:
1221:
1192:
2352:
2314:
2043:
1867:
1592:
1267:
2647:
Characteristic functions for high-temperature thermocouple types, showing Pt/Rh, W/Re, Pt/Mo, and Ir/Rh-alloy thermocouples. Also shown is the Pt–Pd pure-metal thermocouple.
1681:
313:
1030:
1724:"Ice bath" method: The reference junction block is immersed in a semi-frozen bath of distilled water at atmospheric pressure. The precise temperature of the melting point
2323:
A special case of thermocouple wire is known as "extension grade", designed to carry the thermoelectric circuit over a longer distance. Extension wires follow the stated
2669:μV), meaning that cold-junction compensation is easily performed, since the compensation voltage is essentially a constant for a reference at typical room temperatures.
2248:
and this may not be suitable at the sensing junction due to the solder's low melting point. Reference and extension junctions are therefore usually made with screw
179:
1606:
628:
4939:
4050:
industries to monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel making process. Disposable, immersible, type S thermocouples are regularly used in the
2847:
Thermocouples of platinum/molybdenum-alloy (95%Pt/5%Mo–99.9%Pt/0.1%Mo, by weight) are sometimes used in nuclear reactors, since they show a low drift from
2564:
5046:
978:
The first and fourth contributions cancel out exactly, because these regions involve the same temperature change and an identical material. As a result,
4561:
4909:
2285:
While a thermocouple wire type is often described by its chemical composition, the actual aim is to produce a pair of wires that follow a standardized
4935:
2508:, is magnetic; a characteristic of thermocouples made with magnetic material is that they undergo a deviation in output when the material reaches its
5124:
4651:
4503:
2687:
2630:
and thus no abrupt change in characteristics. Type-T thermocouples have a sensitivity of about 43 μV/°C. Note that copper has a much higher
4709:
5015:
4122:
may often be used instead. With part ceramic construction, they may also be known as flame rods, flame sensors or flame detection electrodes.
2729:
at high temperatures undergoes recrystallization and becomes brittle. Therefore, types C and D are preferred over type G in some applications.
2528:
using a different thermocouple type for the low-oxygen atmospheres where green rot can occur; a type N thermocouple is a suitable alternative.
2722:. A typical range is 0 to 2315 °C, which can be extended to 2760 °C in inert atmosphere and to 3000 °C for brief measurements.
4999:
4783:
4719:
4670:
4250:
547:
146:
2264:
internal temperature; therefore, no voltage is generated at the junction. The voltage is generated in the thermal gradient, along the wire.
2714:
These thermocouples are well-suited for measuring extremely high temperatures. Typical uses are hydrogen and inert atmospheres, as well as
2504:
was less advanced than it is today, and consequently characteristics may vary considerably between samples. One of the constituent metals,
1370:
4115:
the pilot light goes out, the thermocouple temperature falls, causing the voltage across the thermocouple to drop and the valve to close.
2267:
A thermocouple produces small signals, often microvolts in magnitude. Precise measurements of this signal require an amplifier with low
172:
151:
2437:
278:
4027:
1779:
1275:
1922:
1227:
of the conductors attached to the positive and negative terminals of the voltmeter, respectively (chromel and alumel in the figure).
5267:
4743:
3538:
2463:
use. Additionally, it is non-magnetic. Wide range is −270 °C to +740 °C and narrow range is −110 °C to +140 °C.
5141:
5166:
5105:
4856:
4145:
to power the main gas valve as well. Here, a larger voltage is needed than in a pilot flame safety system described above, and a
3443:). While the wires can survive and function at high temperatures, the plastic insulation will start to break down at 300 °C.
2686:
Type S (90%Pt/10%Rh–Pt, by weight) thermocouples, similar to type R, are used up to 1600 °C. Before the introduction of the
4354:
4154:
because external electrical power is required to operate the blower motor, but this feature is especially useful for un-powered
1021:
does not influence the measured voltage. The second and third contributions do not cancel, as they involve different materials.
2877:
2703:
2053:
A common error in thermocouple construction is related to cold junction compensation. If an error is made on the estimation of
1505:
641:
The standard measurement configuration shown in the figure shows four temperature regions and thus four voltage contributions:
4773:
4828:
3520:
246:, and other industrial processes. Thermocouples are also used in homes, offices and businesses as the temperature sensors in
165:
2901:
represents the temperature of the hot junction, in degrees
Celsius. For example, a thermocouple with a tolerance of ±0.0025×
2643:
2479:) has a more restricted range (−40 °C to +1200 °C) than type K but higher sensitivity of about 50 μV/°C. The
2800:
517:
490:
5366:
3516:
1789:
4085:. The thermocouple line consists of copper wire, insulator and outer metal (usually copper) sheath which is also used as
5401:
5312:
2392:
4321:
3998:
Note: T300 is a new high-temperature material that was recently approved by UL for 300 °C operating temperatures.
1876:
1621:
981:
934:
814:
768:
648:
318:
217:
4286:
of copper) containing the second thermocouple of each circuit. The temperature of the block is in turn measured by a
1735:
1686:
897:
857:
731:
691:
361:
3995:
Temperature ratings for insulations may vary based on what the overall thermocouple construction cable consists of.
5416:
4695:
5386:
4528:
4209:
Thermocouples can generally be used in the testing of prototype electrical and mechanical apparatus. For example,
3509:
4810:
4446:
is a constant that depends on the thermocouple temperature, the gas composition and the vacuum-chamber geometry,
2014:
Thermocouples ideally should be very simple measurement devices, with each type being characterized by a precise
5376:
5322:
4223:
2771:(95%W/5%Re–74%W/26%Re, by weight) maximum temperature will be measured by type-c thermocouple is 2329 °C.
141:
121:
3391:
3331:
3133:
3073:
3013:
1594:
that have been measured and interpolated over a range of temperatures, for particular thermocouple types (see
4569:
4913:
4483:
4191:
3453:
2897:
The table below describes properties of several different thermocouple types. Within the tolerance columns,
1495:
4943:
399:
The standard configuration for thermocouple usage is shown in the figure. Briefly, the desired temperature
5421:
4031:
2202:
2126:
1870:
136:
5406:
5121:
4261:
as a heat source has been used to power spacecraft on missions too far from the Sun to use solar power.
4163:
4125:
2848:
2585:
2167:
2091:
2056:
1197:
1168:
267:
234:
Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry. Applications include temperature measurement for
69:
54:
2326:
2288:
2017:
1841:
1566:
1241:
196:, also known as a "thermoelectrical thermometer", is an electrical device consisting of two dissimilar
5361:
5358:
5355:
5352:
5349:
5346:
5343:
5340:
4062:
1155:{\displaystyle V=\int _{T_{\mathrm {ref} }}^{T_{\mathrm {sense} }}\left(S_{+}(T)-S_{-}(T)\right)\,dT,}
4615:"How to Prevent Temperature Measurement Errors When Installing Thermocouple Sensors and Transmitters"
4332:
4299:
4258:
4086:
4051:
3440:
2631:
2268:
224:
197:
98:
5022:
4077:
Thermocouple connection in gas appliances. The end ball (contact) on the left is insulated from the
1664:
296:
4180:
4078:
3470:
2581:
1499:
1224:
635:
480:
201:
90:
2867:
alloys can provide a thermocouple that can be used up to about 2000 °C in inert atmospheres.
1610:
Reference junction block inside a Fluke CNX t3000 temperature meter. Two white wires connect to a
4885:
4682:
4151:
2733:
4872:
5263:
5234:
5199:
5040:
4995:
4989:
4779:
4739:
4715:
4666:
4269:
4254:
4230:
4155:
4082:
2509:
2245:
631:
5317:
5226:
5426:
5411:
4473:
2378:
2257:
1725:
5128:
5109:
4860:
4658:
4498:
4187:
2760:
2751:
2589:
2273:
604:
5145:
5060:
4339:
of the gas. The potential difference measured by a thermocouple is proportional to the
4073:
3373:
3313:
3115:
3055:
2995:
2747:, but the voltage–temperature response is weaker and has minimum at around 1000 K.
458:. These details are often hidden from the user since the reference junction block (with
5380:
5370:
4317:
4313:
4290:. Simple computations are used to determine the temperature at each measured location.
4239:
4119:
3382:
3322:
3233:
3185:
3176:
3124:
3064:
3004:
2715:
2249:
474:
209:
5102:
4853:
4183:
of only a few μW/cm with commercially available thermopile sensors. For example, some
223:
Commercial thermocouples are inexpensive, interchangeable, are supplied with standard
5395:
4759:
4340:
4265:
4102:
4067:
4015:
2719:
2577:
1614:(embedded in white thermal compound) to measure the reference junctions' temperature.
243:
103:
5080:
5061:"Design of Thermocouple Probes for Measurement of Rocket Exhaust Plume Temperatures"
3485:; the mechanical rigidity of the thermocouple wires is used to keep them separated.
4789:
4461:
4325:
4305:
4972:
3435:
2750:
The thermocouple temperature is limited also by other materials used. For example
465:
thermometer), voltmeter, and equation solver are combined into a single product.
5201:
Flammable Vapor
Ignition Resistant Water Heaters: Service Manual (238-44943-00D)
5142:"CORE-Materials • High Temperature Irradiation Resistant Thermocouple (HTIR-TC)"
4873:
Type N Thermocouple Versus Type K Thermocouple in A Brick
Manufacturing Facility
4493:
4106:
4094:
4019:
4011:
3498:
2627:
2480:
1364:
In terms of the
Seebeck coefficients, the characteristic function is defined by
251:
239:
213:
293:) in the standard thermocouple measurement configuration. The measured voltage
30:
4488:
4287:
4274:
4246:
4210:
4175:
4146:
4142:
4023:
3466:
2851:
induced by neutron irradiation, compared to the platinum/rhodium-alloy types.
2823:
2744:
2718:. They are not used in oxidizing environments at high temperatures because of
2623:
2537:
2501:
2476:
2456:
1729:
1611:
272:
247:
131:
35:
5238:
5167:"high-temperature irradiation-resistant thermocouples: Topics by Science.gov"
5093:
Thermoelectricity: Theory, Thermometry, Tool, Issue 852 by Daniel D. Pollock.
4197:
The principle of operation of a thermopile sensor is distinct from that of a
17:
4478:
4198:
4134:
4111:
3482:
2836:
2573:
2460:
2386:
2253:
4348:
complicated, as explained in detail by Van Atta, but can be simplified to:
1873:
for a matching value. The argument where this match occurs is the value of
4590:
4336:
2726:
2691:
2652:
2553:
2382:
1559:
Thermocouple manufacturers and metrology standards organizations such as
484:
5076:
2732:
In presence of water vapor at high temperature, tungsten reacts to form
4775:
Manual on the Use of
Thermocouples in Temperature Measurement (4th Ed.)
4625:
4536:
4508:
3523: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2864:
2860:
2810:
2755:
2740:
2656:
2493:
2452:
2385:
or not. Standard thermocouple types are listed below with the positive
591:{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\nabla }}V=-S(T){\boldsymbol {\nabla }}T,}
286:
263:
228:
205:
39:
5231:
New Scientist Careers Guide: The Employer Contacts Book for Scientists
5333:
4344:
4331:
The temperature detected at the thermocouple junction depends on the
4066:
A thermocouple (the right most tube) inside the burner assembly of a
3478:
3474:
2695:
2619:
2541:
2505:
2497:
1484:{\displaystyle E(T)=\int ^{T}S_{+}(T')-S_{-}(T')dT'+\mathrm {const} }
290:
2459:) has a high output (68 μV/°C), which makes it well suited to
4190:
meters are based on such sensors; these are specifically known as
4184:
4124:
4072:
4061:
4043:
3434:
2799:
2642:
2557:
2436:
1605:
277:
29:
4309:
4234:
4098:
4047:
4007:
2818:
2814:
2699:
2512:, which occurs for type K thermocouples at around 185 °C.
2472:
1560:
1354:{\displaystyle V=E(T_{\mathrm {sense} })-E(T_{\mathrm {ref} }).}
235:
5382:
Temperature Measurement with Thermocouples, RTD and IC Sensors.
1998:{\displaystyle E(T_{\mathrm {sense} })=V+E(T_{\mathrm {ref} })}
3492:
2943:
2940:
2937:
2884:
HTIR-TC (High Temperature Irradiation Resistant) thermocouples
4453:
is the thermocouple voltage at zero pressure (absolute), and
4042:
Type B, S, R and K thermocouples are used extensively in the
5373:
containing characteristic curves of many thermocouple types.
4829:"Green Rot in Type K Thermocouples, and What to Do About It"
3390:
3381:
3372:
3330:
3321:
3312:
3232:
3184:
3175:
3132:
3123:
3114:
3072:
3063:
3054:
3012:
3003:
2994:
1502:
has no significance, but is conventionally chosen such that
3439:
Typical low cost type K thermocouple (with standard type K
1720:
must be already known. Two strategies are often used here:
514:) is directly proportional to the gradient in temperature (
406:
is obtained using three inputs—the characteristic function
5313:
Thermocouple Operating Principle – University Of Cambridge
4428:{\displaystyle P={\frac {B(V^{2}-V_{0}^{2})}{V_{0}^{2}}},}
4133:
Some combined main burner and pilot gas valves (mainly by
1782:
devices are often used in modern thermocouple instruments.
2252:. For high temperatures, the most common approach is the
1549:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle E(0\,{}^{\circ }{\rm {C}})=0}
4118:
Where the probe may be easily placed above the flame, a
4886:"Thermocouple sensor and thermocouple types - WIKA USA"
5262:, Marcel Dekker Inc., pp. 19–22, 45–47 & 438–443,
4973:
Tungsten-Rhenium Thermocouples Calibration Equivalents
2330:
2292:
2021:
1880:
1845:
1793:
1739:
1690:
1668:
1625:
1570:
1509:
1245:
1201:
1172:
985:
938:
901:
861:
818:
772:
735:
695:
652:
521:
494:
365:
322:
300:
5260:
High-Vacuum Technology: A Practical Guide, Second Ed.
4357:
2706:
have taken over this range as standard thermometers.
2395:
2329:
2291:
2205:
2170:
2129:
2094:
2059:
2020:
1925:
1879:
1844:
1792:
1738:
1689:
1667:
1624:
1569:
1508:
1373:
1278:
1269:, which needs only to be consulted at two arguments:
1244:
1200:
1171:
1033:
984:
937:
900:
860:
817:
771:
734:
694:
651:
607:
550:
534:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {\boldsymbol {\nabla }}T}
520:
507:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {\boldsymbol {\nabla }}V}
493:
364:
321:
299:
1831:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle V+E(T_{\mathrm {ref} })}
5323:
Two Ways to Measure Temperature Using Thermocouples
5233:. Reed Business Information: 67–. 10 January 1974.
4245:Thermocouples can be connected in series to form a
2934:
2931:
2920:
2917:
479:The Seebeck effect refers to the development of an
4427:
4316:of the gas is comparable to the dimensions of the
4233:generated by a thermocouple is converted from the
4201:, as the latter relies on a change in resistance.
2422:{\displaystyle T_{\text{sense}}>T_{\text{ref}}}
2421:
2346:
2308:
2232:
2191:
2156:
2115:
2080:
2037:
1997:
1908:
1861:
1830:
1761:
1712:
1675:
1653:
1586:
1548:
1483:
1353:
1261:
1215:
1186:
1154:
1013:
966:
923:
883:
846:
800:
757:
717:
680:
622:
590:
533:
506:
387:
350:
307:
204:. A thermocouple produces a temperature-dependent
4736:Encyclopedia of materials: science and technology
4714:. Research Triangle Park: ISA. pp. 110–112.
2880:that are normally used as standard thermometers.
1909:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {sense} }}
1654:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {sense} }}
1014:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {meter} }}
967:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {meter} }}
847:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {sense} }}
801:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {sense} }}
681:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {meter} }}
351:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {sense} }}
212:, and this voltage can be interpreted to measure
5122:BIPM – "Techniques for Approximating the ITS-90"
4811:"Helping thermocouples do the job... - Transcat"
4760:"Standard [WITHDRAWN] DIN 43710:1985-12"
4312:absolute pressure. In this pressure range, the
4300:Pressure measurement § Thermal conductivity
3452:The wires that make up the thermocouple must be
2381:of the thermocouple material and whether it is
1762:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}
1713:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}
924:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}
884:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}
758:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}
718:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}
388:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}
4983:
4981:
4457:is the voltage indicated by the thermocouple.
1235:The thermocouple's behaviour is captured by a
4555:
4553:
4335:of the surrounding gas, which depends on the
2429:) first, followed by the negative electrode.
1683:. The temperature at the reference junctions
173:
8:
5318:Thermocouple Drift – University Of Cambridge
4940:International Bureau of Weights and Measures
4711:Practical Thermocouple Thermometry (2nd Ed.)
414:) of the thermocouple, the measured voltage
4967:
4965:
4963:
4961:
4754:
4752:
4308:over the range of approximately 0.001 to 1
2871:Pure noble-metal thermocouples Au–Pt, Pt–Pd
2831:Type P (noble-metal alloy) or "Platinel II"
2565:Defence Science and Technology Organisation
418:, and the reference junctions' temperature
27:Electrical device for measuring temperature
5089:
5087:
4936:"Supplementary Information for the ITS-90"
3550:
3418:Each sensor needs individual calibration.
2908:
180:
166:
53:
44:
4708:Kerlin, T.W. & Johnson, M.P. (2012).
4696:"Thermocouples: Simple but misunderstood"
4414:
4409:
4395:
4390:
4377:
4364:
4356:
3539:Learn how and when to remove this message
2413:
2400:
2394:
2328:
2290:
2211:
2210:
2204:
2176:
2175:
2169:
2135:
2134:
2128:
2100:
2099:
2093:
2065:
2064:
2058:
2019:
1979:
1978:
1937:
1936:
1924:
1886:
1885:
1878:
1843:
1811:
1810:
1791:
1745:
1744:
1737:
1696:
1695:
1688:
1666:
1631:
1630:
1623:
1568:
1530:
1529:
1523:
1521:
1519:
1507:
1464:
1430:
1403:
1393:
1372:
1332:
1331:
1296:
1295:
1277:
1243:
1206:
1199:
1177:
1170:
1142:
1122:
1100:
1070:
1069:
1064:
1050:
1049:
1044:
1032:
991:
990:
983:
944:
943:
936:
907:
906:
899:
867:
866:
859:
824:
823:
816:
778:
777:
770:
741:
740:
733:
701:
700:
693:
658:
657:
650:
606:
577:
551:
549:
522:
519:
495:
492:
371:
370:
363:
328:
327:
320:
298:
4591:"Technical Notes: Thermocouple Accuracy"
4320:, and the flow regime is neither purely
4018:engines, other industrial processes and
4520:
4504:International Temperature Scale of 1990
2843:Platinum/molybdenum-alloy thermocouples
2688:International Temperature Scale of 1990
1661:, it is not sufficient to just measure
47:
5045:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
5038:
4646:
4644:
4642:
4251:radioisotope thermoelectric generator
2796:Chromel–gold/iron-alloy thermocouples
1772:Reference junction sensor (known as "
1618:To obtain the desired measurement of
1598:section for access to these tables).
1024:The measured voltage turns out to be
315:can be used to calculate temperature
147:Radioisotope thermoelectric generator
7:
4991:Thermocouples: Theory and Properties
3521:adding citations to reliable sources
3416:Reproducibility 0.2% of the voltage.
2710:Tungsten/rhenium-alloy thermocouples
2651:Types B, R, and S thermocouples use
2639:Platinum/rhodium-alloy thermocouples
2233:{\displaystyle T_{\mathrm {sense} }}
2199:translates to only a small error in
2157:{\displaystyle T_{\mathrm {sense} }}
4854:Nicrosil/Nisil Type N Thermocouples
4129:Flame-igniter(top)-and-flame-sensor
4028:silicon bandgap temperature sensors
2855:Iridium/rhodium alloy thermocouples
216:. Thermocouples are widely used as
152:Automotive thermoelectric generator
5131:Chapter 9: Platinum Thermocouples.
4529:"Thermocouple temperature sensors"
2779:(97%W/3%Re–75%W/25%Re, by weight)
2224:
2221:
2218:
2215:
2212:
2192:{\displaystyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}
2183:
2180:
2177:
2148:
2145:
2142:
2139:
2136:
2116:{\displaystyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}
2107:
2104:
2101:
2081:{\displaystyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}
2072:
2069:
2066:
1986:
1983:
1980:
1950:
1947:
1944:
1941:
1938:
1899:
1896:
1893:
1890:
1887:
1818:
1815:
1812:
1752:
1749:
1746:
1703:
1700:
1697:
1644:
1641:
1638:
1635:
1632:
1531:
1477:
1474:
1471:
1468:
1465:
1339:
1336:
1333:
1309:
1306:
1303:
1300:
1297:
1216:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle S_{-}}
1187:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle S_{+}}
1083:
1080:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1004:
1001:
998:
995:
992:
957:
954:
951:
948:
945:
914:
911:
908:
874:
871:
868:
837:
834:
831:
828:
825:
791:
788:
785:
782:
779:
748:
745:
742:
708:
705:
702:
671:
668:
665:
662:
659:
378:
375:
372:
341:
338:
335:
332:
329:
231:(°C) can be difficult to achieve.
25:
5334:NIST ITS-90 Thermocouple Database
5300:, McGraw-Hill Book Co. pp. 78–90.
4560:Ramsden, Ed (September 1, 2000).
2347:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle E(T)}
2309:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle E(T)}
2038:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle E(T)}
1862:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle E(T)}
1838:is calculated, then the function
1587:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle E(T)}
1262:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle E(T)}
5207:. Bradford White. pp. 11–16
4304:A thermocouple can be used as a
4097:-fed heating appliances such as
3714:Skive TFE tape, TFE–glass braid
3497:
2878:platinum resistance thermometers
2704:platinum resistance thermometers
578:
552:
523:
496:
5103:5629 Gold Platinum Thermocouple
3508:needs additional citations for
1563:provide tables of the function
425:. The solution to the equation
250:, and also as flame sensors in
38:displaying room temperature in
5298:Vacuum Science and Engineering
4778:. ASTM. 1993. pp. 48–51.
4401:
4370:
2340:
2334:
2302:
2296:
2031:
2025:
1992:
1971:
1956:
1929:
1855:
1849:
1824:
1803:
1676:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle V}
1580:
1574:
1536:
1513:
1447:
1436:
1420:
1409:
1383:
1377:
1345:
1324:
1315:
1288:
1255:
1249:
1134:
1128:
1112:
1106:
617:
611:
574:
568:
308:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle V}
1:
3489:Table of insulation materials
5077:Other Types of Thermocouples
4994:. CRC Press. pp. 249–.
4294:Thermocouple as vacuum gauge
4171:Thermopile radiation sensors
3694:Non-impregnated glass braid
3557:Max. continuous temperature
358:, provided that temperature
254:for gas-powered appliances.
34:Thermocouple connected to a
4988:Pollock, Daniel D. (1991).
2739:An alternative to tungsten/
974:, in the upper copper wire.
725:, in the lower copper wire.
630:is a temperature-dependent
282:
5443:
5328:Thermocouple data tables:
4297:
4221:
3780:1427 °C/2600 °F
3777:1204 °C/2200 °F
3620:1093 °C/2000 °F
2787:(W–74%W/26%Re, by weight)
2433:Nickel-alloy thermocouples
2260:using a durable material.
1775:cold junction compensation
472:
4562:"Temperature measurement"
3760:871 °C/1600 °F
3757:704 °C/1300 °F
3720:538 °C/1000 °F
3660:538 °C/1000 °F
3657:482 °C /900 °F
3640:538 °C/1000 °F
3617:871 °C/1600 °F
3600:705 °C/1300 °F
3597:649 °C/1200 °F
3594:TFE tape, TFE–glass tape
3580:705 °C/1300 °F
3577:649 °C/1200 °F
3415:
2928:
2925:
2914:
2911:
1780:Semiconductor thermometer
5336:(B, E, J, K, N, R, S, T)
5258:Hablanian, M. H. (1997)
4971:OMEGA Engineering Inc. "
4652:"Thermocouple Materials"
4595:IEC 584-2(1982)+A1(1989)
4224:Thermoelectric generator
3960:290 °C/550 °F
3957:260 °C/500 °F
3940:200 °C/392 °F
3937:150 °C/302 °F
3920:427 °C/800 °F
3917:316 °C/600 °F
3900:316 °C/600 °F
3897:260 °C/500 °F
3880:260 °C/500 °F
3877:204 °C/400 °F
3860:105 °C/221 °F
3857:105 °C/221 °F
3840:130 °C/266 °F
3837:150 °C/302 °F
3820:105 °C/221 °F
3817:105 °C/221 °F
3800:120 °C/248 °F
3797:105 °C/221 °F
3740:120 °C/248 °F
3717:482 °C/900 °F
3700:427 °C/800 °F
3697:482 °C/900 °F
3680:427 °C/800 °F
3677:482 °C/900 °F
3637:482 °C/900 °F
2859:The use of two wires of
2809:In these thermocouples (
2702:. Starting with ITS-90,
1786:In both cases the value
142:Thermoelectric generator
122:Thermoelectric materials
5387:Thermocouple wire sizes
5371:thermocouples_reference
5296:Van Atta, C. M. (1965)
4912:. Capgo. Archived from
4484:Giuseppe Domenico Botto
4460:The alternative is the
4192:thermopile laser sensor
4032:resistance thermometers
3737:88 °C/190 °F
3431:Thermocouple insulation
2915:Temperature range (°C)
1496:constant of integration
1237:characteristic function
1231:Characteristic function
4429:
4264:Thermopiles heated by
4130:
4090:
4070:
3894:Wrapped and fused TFE
3754:"S" glass with binder
3614:Vitreous-silica braid
3471:temperature controller
3444:
3395:
3386:
3377:
3335:
3326:
3317:
3237:
3189:
3180:
3137:
3128:
3119:
3077:
3068:
3059:
3017:
3008:
2999:
2806:
2763:at about 3020 K.
2648:
2443:
2423:
2348:
2310:
2234:
2193:
2158:
2117:
2082:
2039:
1999:
1910:
1863:
1832:
1763:
1714:
1677:
1655:
1615:
1588:
1550:
1485:
1355:
1263:
1217:
1188:
1156:
1015:
968:
925:
891:, in the chromel wire.
885:
848:
802:
759:
719:
682:
624:
592:
535:
508:
396:
389:
352:
309:
258:Principle of operation
137:Thermoelectric cooling
42:
4910:"Thermocouple Theory"
4694:Rowe, Martin (2013).
4683:"Thermocouple theory"
4442:is the gas pressure,
4430:
4345:low- to medium-vacuum
4343:of pressure over the
4128:
4076:
4065:
3774:Nextel ceramic fiber
3438:
3394:
3385:
3376:
3334:
3325:
3316:
3236:
3215:1100 – 1600: ±0.003×(
3188:
3179:
3160:1100 – 1600: ±0.003×(
3136:
3127:
3118:
3076:
3067:
3058:
3016:
3007:
2998:
2918:Tolerance class (°C)
2849:nuclear transmutation
2803:
2646:
2440:
2424:
2349:
2311:
2235:
2194:
2159:
2118:
2083:
2040:
2000:
1911:
1864:
1833:
1764:
1715:
1678:
1656:
1609:
1589:
1551:
1486:
1356:
1264:
1218:
1189:
1157:
1016:
969:
926:
886:
849:
808:, in the alumel wire.
803:
760:
720:
683:
625:
593:
536:
509:
390:
353:
310:
281:
268:Thomas Johann Seebeck
198:electrical conductors
70:Thermoelectric effect
48:Thermoelectric effect
33:
4494:Thermoelectric power
4355:
4333:thermal conductivity
4259:transuranic elements
4058:Gas appliance safety
4052:electric arc furnace
3734:Double cotton braid
3569:Chemical resistance
3566:Moisture resistance
3563:Abrasion resistance
3560:Max. single reading
3517:improve this article
3264:600 – 1700: ±0.0025×
3224:600 – 1600: ±0.0025×
3169:600 – 1600: ±0.0025×
3108:333 – 1200: ±0.0075×
2988:333 – 1200: ±0.0075×
2632:thermal conductivity
2393:
2327:
2289:
2281:Metallurgical grades
2269:input offset voltage
2203:
2168:
2127:
2092:
2057:
2049:Circuit construction
2018:
1923:
1877:
1842:
1790:
1736:
1687:
1665:
1622:
1567:
1506:
1371:
1276:
1242:
1225:Seebeck coefficients
1198:
1169:
1031:
982:
935:
898:
858:
815:
769:
732:
692:
649:
623:{\displaystyle S(T)}
605:
548:
518:
491:
362:
319:
297:
99:Ettingshausen effect
5402:Temperature control
4916:on 14 December 2004
4746:, p. 5021, table 1.
4650:Wang, T. P. (1990)
4419:
4400:
4152:forced air furnaces
4034:are more suitable.
3654:Enamel–glass braid
3634:Double glass braid
3554:Type of Insulation
3366:333 – 900: ±0.0075×
3306:133 – 350: ±0.0075×
3100:375 – 1000: ±0.004×
3048:333 – 750: ±0.0075×
2980:375 – 1000: ±0.004×
2893:Comparison of types
2822:It can be used for
2582:neutron irradiation
2442:platinum–palladium.
1500:indefinite integral
1090:
636:Seebeck coefficient
481:electromotive force
218:temperature sensors
208:as a result of the
202:electrical junction
91:Seebeck coefficient
5127:2014-02-01 at the
5108:2014-01-05 at the
5079:. maniadsanat.com.
4859:2006-10-15 at the
4734:Buschow, K. H. J.
4657:2014-08-19 at the
4425:
4405:
4386:
4156:convection heaters
4131:
4091:
4071:
3674:Double glass wrap
3445:
3396:
3387:
3378:
3358:375 – 800: ±0.004×
3336:
3327:
3318:
3298:125 – 350: ±0.004×
3238:
3190:
3181:
3138:
3129:
3120:
3078:
3069:
3060:
3040:375 – 750: ±0.004×
3018:
3009:
3000:
2807:
2734:tungsten(VI) oxide
2649:
2444:
2419:
2344:
2343:
2306:
2305:
2230:
2189:
2154:
2113:
2078:
2035:
2034:
2010:Practical concerns
1995:
1906:
1905:
1859:
1858:
1828:
1827:
1759:
1758:
1728:acts as a natural
1710:
1709:
1673:
1672:
1651:
1650:
1616:
1602:Reference junction
1584:
1583:
1546:
1545:
1481:
1351:
1259:
1258:
1213:
1212:
1184:
1183:
1152:
1040:
1011:
1010:
964:
963:
921:
920:
881:
880:
844:
843:
798:
797:
755:
754:
715:
714:
678:
677:
620:
588:
531:
530:
504:
503:
397:
385:
384:
348:
347:
305:
304:
43:
5417:Thermoelectricity
5279:Voege, W. (1906)
5001:978-0-8493-4243-1
4785:978-0-8031-1466-1
4738:, Elsevier, 2001
4721:978-1-937560-27-0
4681:Pyromation, Inc.
4671:978-0-87170-378-1
4420:
4270:batteryless radio
4268:were used to run
4255:radioactive decay
4231:electrical energy
4120:rectifying sensor
4081:by an insulating
3993:
3992:
3549:
3548:
3541:
3428:
3427:
2584:that can produce
2536:Type M (82%Ni/18%
2416:
2403:
632:material property
190:
189:
16:(Redirected from
5434:
5301:
5294:
5288:
5277:
5271:
5256:
5250:
5249:
5247:
5245:
5223:
5217:
5216:
5214:
5212:
5206:
5196:
5190:
5189:IEC 60584-3:2007
5187:
5181:
5180:
5178:
5177:
5163:
5157:
5156:
5154:
5153:
5144:. Archived from
5138:
5132:
5119:
5113:
5100:
5094:
5091:
5082:
5074:
5068:
5067:
5065:
5057:
5051:
5050:
5044:
5036:
5034:
5033:
5027:
5021:. Archived from
5020:
5012:
5006:
5005:
4985:
4976:
4969:
4956:
4955:
4953:
4951:
4942:. Archived from
4932:
4926:
4925:
4923:
4921:
4906:
4900:
4899:
4897:
4896:
4882:
4876:
4870:
4864:
4863:. www.omega.com.
4852:Burley, Noel A.
4850:
4844:
4843:
4841:
4840:
4825:
4819:
4818:
4815:www.transcat.com
4807:
4801:
4800:
4798:
4797:
4788:. Archived from
4770:
4764:
4763:
4756:
4747:
4732:
4726:
4725:
4705:
4699:
4692:
4686:
4679:
4673:
4648:
4637:
4636:
4634:
4632:
4619:
4611:
4605:
4604:
4602:
4601:
4587:
4581:
4580:
4578:
4577:
4568:. Archived from
4557:
4548:
4547:
4545:
4544:
4535:. Archived from
4533:Temperatures.com
4525:
4474:Heat flux sensor
4434:
4432:
4431:
4426:
4421:
4418:
4413:
4404:
4399:
4394:
4382:
4381:
4365:
4218:Power production
3794:Polyvinyl/nylon
3574:Mica–glass tape
3551:
3544:
3537:
3533:
3530:
3524:
3501:
3493:
3448:Wires insulation
2909:
2563:Designed at the
2428:
2426:
2425:
2420:
2418:
2417:
2414:
2405:
2404:
2401:
2353:
2351:
2350:
2345:
2315:
2313:
2312:
2307:
2239:
2237:
2236:
2231:
2229:
2228:
2227:
2198:
2196:
2195:
2190:
2188:
2187:
2186:
2163:
2161:
2160:
2155:
2153:
2152:
2151:
2122:
2120:
2119:
2114:
2112:
2111:
2110:
2087:
2085:
2084:
2079:
2077:
2076:
2075:
2044:
2042:
2041:
2036:
2004:
2002:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1990:
1989:
1955:
1954:
1953:
1915:
1913:
1912:
1907:
1904:
1903:
1902:
1868:
1866:
1865:
1860:
1837:
1835:
1834:
1829:
1823:
1822:
1821:
1777:
1776:
1768:
1766:
1765:
1760:
1757:
1756:
1755:
1726:phase transition
1719:
1717:
1716:
1711:
1708:
1707:
1706:
1682:
1680:
1679:
1674:
1660:
1658:
1657:
1652:
1649:
1648:
1647:
1593:
1591:
1590:
1585:
1555:
1553:
1552:
1547:
1535:
1534:
1528:
1527:
1522:
1490:
1488:
1487:
1482:
1480:
1460:
1446:
1435:
1434:
1419:
1408:
1407:
1398:
1397:
1360:
1358:
1357:
1352:
1344:
1343:
1342:
1314:
1313:
1312:
1268:
1266:
1265:
1260:
1222:
1220:
1219:
1214:
1211:
1210:
1193:
1191:
1190:
1185:
1182:
1181:
1161:
1159:
1158:
1153:
1141:
1137:
1127:
1126:
1105:
1104:
1089:
1088:
1087:
1086:
1063:
1062:
1061:
1060:
1020:
1018:
1017:
1012:
1009:
1008:
1007:
973:
971:
970:
965:
962:
961:
960:
930:
928:
927:
922:
919:
918:
917:
890:
888:
887:
882:
879:
878:
877:
853:
851:
850:
845:
842:
841:
840:
807:
805:
804:
799:
796:
795:
794:
764:
762:
761:
756:
753:
752:
751:
724:
722:
721:
716:
713:
712:
711:
687:
685:
684:
679:
676:
675:
674:
629:
627:
626:
621:
597:
595:
594:
589:
581:
555:
540:
538:
537:
532:
526:
513:
511:
510:
505:
499:
394:
392:
391:
386:
383:
382:
381:
357:
355:
354:
349:
346:
345:
344:
314:
312:
311:
306:
182:
175:
168:
93:
86:
81:
76:
57:
45:
21:
5442:
5441:
5437:
5436:
5435:
5433:
5432:
5431:
5392:
5391:
5309:
5304:
5295:
5291:
5278:
5274:
5257:
5253:
5243:
5241:
5227:"New Scientist"
5225:
5224:
5220:
5210:
5208:
5204:
5198:
5197:
5193:
5188:
5184:
5175:
5173:
5171:www.science.gov
5165:
5164:
5160:
5151:
5149:
5140:
5139:
5135:
5129:Wayback Machine
5120:
5116:
5110:Wayback Machine
5101:
5097:
5092:
5085:
5075:
5071:
5063:
5059:
5058:
5054:
5037:
5031:
5029:
5025:
5018:
5016:"Archived copy"
5014:
5013:
5009:
5002:
4987:
4986:
4979:
4970:
4959:
4949:
4947:
4934:
4933:
4929:
4919:
4917:
4908:
4907:
4903:
4894:
4892:
4884:
4883:
4879:
4871:
4867:
4861:Wayback Machine
4851:
4847:
4838:
4836:
4827:
4826:
4822:
4809:
4808:
4804:
4795:
4793:
4786:
4772:
4771:
4767:
4758:
4757:
4750:
4733:
4729:
4722:
4707:
4706:
4702:
4693:
4689:
4680:
4676:
4659:Wayback Machine
4649:
4640:
4630:
4628:
4617:
4613:
4612:
4608:
4599:
4597:
4589:
4588:
4584:
4575:
4573:
4559:
4558:
4551:
4542:
4540:
4527:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4499:List of sensors
4470:
4452:
4373:
4366:
4353:
4352:
4302:
4296:
4283:
4226:
4220:
4207:
4173:
4060:
4040:
4004:
3545:
3534:
3528:
3525:
3514:
3502:
3491:
3450:
3433:
3417:
3365:
3364:−40 – 333: ±2.5
3357:
3356:−40 – 375: ±1.5
3305:
3304:−40 – 133: ±1.0
3297:
3296:−40 – 125: ±0.5
3223:
3214:
3168:
3159:
3107:
3106:−40 – 333: ±2.5
3099:
3098:−40 – 375: ±1.5
3047:
3046:−40 – 333: ±2.5
3039:
3038:−40 – 375: ±1.5
2987:
2986:−40 – 333: ±2.5
2979:
2978:−40 – 375: ±1.5
2895:
2886:
2873:
2857:
2845:
2833:
2798:
2793:
2785:
2777:
2769:
2761:magnesium oxide
2752:beryllium oxide
2716:vacuum furnaces
2712:
2684:
2675:
2666:
2641:
2616:
2590:nuclear reactor
2550:
2534:
2490:
2469:
2449:
2435:
2409:
2396:
2391:
2390:
2374:
2361:
2325:
2324:
2287:
2286:
2283:
2274:input impedance
2250:terminal blocks
2206:
2201:
2200:
2171:
2166:
2165:
2130:
2125:
2124:
2095:
2090:
2089:
2060:
2055:
2054:
2051:
2016:
2015:
2012:
1974:
1932:
1921:
1920:
1881:
1875:
1874:
1840:
1839:
1806:
1788:
1787:
1774:
1773:
1740:
1734:
1733:
1691:
1685:
1684:
1663:
1662:
1626:
1620:
1619:
1604:
1565:
1564:
1520:
1504:
1503:
1453:
1439:
1426:
1412:
1399:
1389:
1369:
1368:
1327:
1291:
1274:
1273:
1240:
1239:
1233:
1202:
1196:
1195:
1173:
1167:
1166:
1118:
1096:
1095:
1091:
1065:
1045:
1029:
1028:
986:
980:
979:
939:
933:
932:
902:
896:
895:
862:
856:
855:
819:
813:
812:
773:
767:
766:
736:
730:
729:
696:
690:
689:
653:
647:
646:
603:
602:
546:
545:
516:
515:
489:
488:
477:
471:
464:
457:
450:
435:
424:
405:
366:
360:
359:
323:
317:
316:
295:
294:
260:
186:
157:
156:
117:
109:
108:
89:
84:
79:
74:
65:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5440:
5438:
5430:
5429:
5424:
5419:
5414:
5409:
5404:
5394:
5393:
5390:
5389:
5383:
5374:
5364:
5337:
5326:
5325:
5320:
5315:
5308:
5307:External links
5305:
5303:
5302:
5289:
5272:
5251:
5218:
5191:
5182:
5158:
5133:
5114:
5095:
5083:
5069:
5052:
5007:
5000:
4977:
4957:
4927:
4901:
4877:
4865:
4845:
4820:
4802:
4784:
4765:
4748:
4727:
4720:
4700:
4698:, EDN Network.
4687:
4674:
4638:
4606:
4582:
4549:
4519:
4517:
4514:
4513:
4512:
4506:
4501:
4496:
4491:
4486:
4481:
4476:
4469:
4466:
4450:
4436:
4435:
4424:
4417:
4412:
4408:
4403:
4398:
4393:
4389:
4385:
4380:
4376:
4372:
4369:
4363:
4360:
4318:vacuum chamber
4314:mean free path
4295:
4292:
4282:
4281:Process plants
4279:
4266:kerosene lamps
4240:Peltier effect
4222:Main article:
4219:
4216:
4206:
4203:
4172:
4169:
4105:make use of a
4059:
4056:
4039:
4038:Steel industry
4036:
4003:
4000:
3991:
3990:
3987:
3984:
3981:
3978:
3975:
3971:
3970:
3967:
3964:
3961:
3958:
3955:
3951:
3950:
3947:
3944:
3941:
3938:
3935:
3931:
3930:
3927:
3924:
3921:
3918:
3915:
3911:
3910:
3907:
3904:
3901:
3898:
3895:
3891:
3890:
3887:
3884:
3881:
3878:
3875:
3871:
3870:
3867:
3864:
3861:
3858:
3855:
3851:
3850:
3847:
3844:
3841:
3838:
3835:
3831:
3830:
3827:
3824:
3821:
3818:
3815:
3811:
3810:
3807:
3804:
3801:
3798:
3795:
3791:
3790:
3787:
3784:
3781:
3778:
3775:
3771:
3770:
3767:
3764:
3761:
3758:
3755:
3751:
3750:
3747:
3744:
3741:
3738:
3735:
3731:
3730:
3727:
3724:
3721:
3718:
3715:
3711:
3710:
3707:
3704:
3701:
3698:
3695:
3691:
3690:
3687:
3684:
3681:
3678:
3675:
3671:
3670:
3667:
3664:
3661:
3658:
3655:
3651:
3650:
3647:
3644:
3641:
3638:
3635:
3631:
3630:
3627:
3624:
3621:
3618:
3615:
3611:
3610:
3607:
3604:
3601:
3598:
3595:
3591:
3590:
3587:
3584:
3581:
3578:
3575:
3571:
3570:
3567:
3564:
3561:
3558:
3555:
3547:
3546:
3505:
3503:
3496:
3490:
3487:
3449:
3446:
3432:
3429:
3426:
3425:
3423:
3421:
3419:
3414:
3411:
3408:
3405:
3402:
3398:
3397:
3388:
3379:
3370:
3362:
3354:
3351:
3348:
3345:
3342:
3338:
3337:
3328:
3319:
3310:
3302:
3294:
3291:
3288:
3285:
3282:
3278:
3277:
3274:
3271:
3268:
3262:
3261:Not available
3259:
3256:
3253:
3250:
3247:
3243:
3242:
3239:
3230:
3228:
3220:
3213:0 – 1100: ±1.0
3211:
3208:
3205:
3202:
3199:
3195:
3194:
3191:
3182:
3173:
3165:
3158:0 – 1100: ±1.0
3156:
3153:
3150:
3147:
3144:
3140:
3139:
3130:
3121:
3112:
3104:
3096:
3093:
3090:
3087:
3084:
3080:
3079:
3070:
3061:
3052:
3044:
3036:
3033:
3030:
3027:
3024:
3020:
3019:
3010:
3001:
2992:
2984:
2976:
2973:
2970:
2967:
2964:
2960:
2959:
2956:
2953:
2950:
2946:
2945:
2942:
2939:
2936:
2933:
2930:
2927:
2923:
2922:
2919:
2916:
2913:
2894:
2891:
2885:
2882:
2872:
2869:
2856:
2853:
2844:
2841:
2832:
2829:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2784:
2781:
2776:
2773:
2768:
2765:
2711:
2708:
2683:
2680:
2674:
2671:
2665:
2662:
2655:or a platinum/
2640:
2637:
2615:
2612:
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2109:
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2103:
2098:
2074:
2071:
2068:
2063:
2050:
2047:
2033:
2030:
2027:
2024:
2011:
2008:
2007:
2006:
1994:
1988:
1985:
1982:
1977:
1973:
1970:
1967:
1964:
1961:
1958:
1952:
1949:
1946:
1943:
1940:
1935:
1931:
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1826:
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1799:
1796:
1784:
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1770:
1754:
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1705:
1702:
1699:
1694:
1671:
1646:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1629:
1603:
1600:
1596:External links
1582:
1579:
1576:
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584:
580:
576:
573:
570:
567:
564:
561:
558:
554:
529:
525:
502:
498:
475:Seebeck effect
473:Main article:
470:
469:Seebeck effect
467:
462:
455:
448:
433:
422:
403:
380:
377:
374:
369:
343:
340:
337:
334:
331:
326:
303:
285:thermocouple (
259:
256:
252:safety devices
244:diesel engines
210:Seebeck effect
188:
187:
185:
184:
177:
170:
162:
159:
158:
155:
154:
149:
144:
139:
134:
129:
124:
118:
115:
114:
111:
110:
107:
106:
101:
96:
95:
94:
87:
85:Thomson effect
82:
80:Peltier effect
77:
75:Seebeck effect
66:
63:
62:
59:
58:
50:
49:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5439:
5428:
5425:
5423:
5422:Thermocouples
5420:
5418:
5415:
5413:
5410:
5408:
5405:
5403:
5400:
5399:
5397:
5388:
5384:
5381:
5378:
5375:
5372:
5368:
5365:
5363:
5360:
5357:
5354:
5351:
5348:
5345:
5342:
5338:
5335:
5332:Text tables:
5331:
5330:
5329:
5324:
5321:
5319:
5316:
5314:
5311:
5310:
5306:
5299:
5293:
5290:
5286:
5282:
5276:
5273:
5269:
5268:0-8247-9834-1
5265:
5261:
5255:
5252:
5240:
5236:
5232:
5228:
5222:
5219:
5203:
5202:
5195:
5192:
5186:
5183:
5172:
5168:
5162:
5159:
5148:on 2017-06-27
5147:
5143:
5137:
5134:
5130:
5126:
5123:
5118:
5115:
5111:
5107:
5104:
5099:
5096:
5090:
5088:
5084:
5081:
5078:
5073:
5070:
5062:
5056:
5053:
5048:
5042:
5028:on 2020-12-08
5024:
5017:
5011:
5008:
5003:
4997:
4993:
4992:
4984:
4982:
4978:
4974:
4968:
4966:
4964:
4962:
4958:
4946:on 2012-09-10
4945:
4941:
4937:
4931:
4928:
4915:
4911:
4905:
4902:
4891:
4887:
4881:
4878:
4875:. jms-se.com.
4874:
4869:
4866:
4862:
4858:
4855:
4849:
4846:
4834:
4830:
4824:
4821:
4816:
4812:
4806:
4803:
4792:on 2013-08-14
4791:
4787:
4781:
4777:
4776:
4769:
4766:
4761:
4755:
4753:
4749:
4745:
4744:0-08-043152-6
4741:
4737:
4731:
4728:
4723:
4717:
4713:
4712:
4704:
4701:
4697:
4691:
4688:
4684:
4678:
4675:
4672:
4668:
4664:
4660:
4656:
4653:
4647:
4645:
4643:
4639:
4627:
4623:
4616:
4610:
4607:
4596:
4592:
4586:
4583:
4572:on 2010-03-22
4571:
4567:
4563:
4556:
4554:
4550:
4539:on 2008-02-16
4538:
4534:
4530:
4524:
4521:
4515:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
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4490:
4487:
4485:
4482:
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4477:
4475:
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4471:
4467:
4465:
4463:
4458:
4456:
4449:
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4441:
4422:
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4358:
4351:
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4346:
4342:
4338:
4334:
4329:
4327:
4323:
4319:
4315:
4311:
4307:
4301:
4293:
4291:
4289:
4280:
4278:
4276:
4271:
4267:
4262:
4260:
4256:
4252:
4248:
4243:
4241:
4236:
4232:
4225:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4205:Manufacturing
4204:
4202:
4200:
4195:
4193:
4189:
4186:
4182:
4177:
4170:
4168:
4165:
4164:water heaters
4159:
4157:
4153:
4148:
4144:
4138:
4136:
4127:
4123:
4121:
4116:
4113:
4108:
4104:
4103:water heaters
4100:
4096:
4088:
4084:
4080:
4075:
4069:
4064:
4057:
4055:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4037:
4035:
4033:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4017:
4013:
4009:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3988:
3985:
3982:
3979:
3976:
3973:
3972:
3968:
3965:
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3959:
3956:
3953:
3952:
3948:
3945:
3942:
3939:
3936:
3933:
3932:
3928:
3925:
3922:
3919:
3916:
3913:
3912:
3908:
3905:
3902:
3899:
3896:
3893:
3892:
3888:
3885:
3882:
3879:
3876:
3873:
3872:
3868:
3865:
3862:
3859:
3856:
3853:
3852:
3848:
3845:
3842:
3839:
3836:
3833:
3832:
3828:
3825:
3822:
3819:
3816:
3813:
3812:
3808:
3805:
3802:
3799:
3796:
3793:
3792:
3788:
3785:
3782:
3779:
3776:
3773:
3772:
3768:
3765:
3762:
3759:
3756:
3753:
3752:
3748:
3745:
3742:
3739:
3736:
3733:
3732:
3728:
3725:
3722:
3719:
3716:
3713:
3712:
3708:
3705:
3702:
3699:
3696:
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3605:
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3562:
3559:
3556:
3553:
3552:
3543:
3540:
3532:
3522:
3518:
3512:
3511:
3506:This section
3504:
3500:
3495:
3494:
3488:
3486:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3462:
3458:
3455:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3430:
3424:
3422:
3420:
3412:
3409:
3406:
3403:
3401:Chromel/AuFe
3400:
3399:
3393:
3389:
3384:
3380:
3375:
3371:
3369:
3363:
3361:
3355:
3352:
3349:
3346:
3343:
3340:
3339:
3333:
3329:
3324:
3320:
3315:
3311:
3309:
3303:
3301:
3295:
3292:
3289:
3286:
3283:
3280:
3279:
3275:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3263:
3260:
3257:
3254:
3251:
3248:
3245:
3244:
3240:
3235:
3231:
3229:
3227:
3222:0 – 600: ±1.5
3221:
3218:
3212:
3209:
3206:
3203:
3200:
3197:
3196:
3192:
3187:
3183:
3178:
3174:
3172:
3167:0 – 600: ±1.5
3166:
3163:
3157:
3154:
3151:
3148:
3145:
3142:
3141:
3135:
3131:
3126:
3122:
3117:
3113:
3111:
3105:
3103:
3097:
3094:
3091:
3088:
3085:
3082:
3081:
3075:
3071:
3066:
3062:
3057:
3053:
3051:
3045:
3043:
3037:
3034:
3031:
3028:
3025:
3022:
3021:
3015:
3011:
3006:
3002:
2997:
2993:
2991:
2985:
2983:
2977:
2974:
2971:
2968:
2965:
2962:
2961:
2957:
2954:
2951:
2948:
2947:
2924:
2910:
2907:
2904:
2900:
2892:
2890:
2883:
2881:
2879:
2870:
2868:
2866:
2862:
2854:
2852:
2850:
2842:
2840:
2838:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2802:
2795:
2790:
2788:
2782:
2780:
2774:
2772:
2766:
2764:
2762:
2759:2820 K,
2757:
2753:
2748:
2746:
2742:
2737:
2735:
2730:
2728:
2723:
2721:
2720:embrittlement
2717:
2709:
2707:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2681:
2679:
2672:
2670:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2654:
2645:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2613:
2611:
2607:
2599:
2595:
2593:irreversible.
2591:
2587:
2586:transmutation
2583:
2579:
2578:carburization
2575:
2570:
2569:
2568:
2566:
2561:
2559:
2555:
2547:
2545:
2543:
2540:–99.2%Ni/0.8%
2539:
2531:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2519:
2513:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2466:
2464:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2446:
2439:
2432:
2430:
2410:
2406:
2397:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2371:
2369:
2365:
2358:
2356:
2337:
2331:
2321:
2317:
2299:
2293:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2261:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2241:
2207:
2172:
2131:
2096:
2061:
2048:
2046:
2028:
2022:
2009:
1975:
1968:
1965:
1962:
1959:
1933:
1926:
1919:
1918:
1917:
1882:
1872:
1852:
1846:
1807:
1800:
1797:
1794:
1781:
1771:
1769:to 0 °C.
1741:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1722:
1721:
1692:
1669:
1627:
1613:
1608:
1601:
1599:
1597:
1577:
1571:
1562:
1557:
1542:
1539:
1524:
1516:
1510:
1501:
1497:
1461:
1457:
1454:
1450:
1443:
1440:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1416:
1413:
1404:
1400:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1380:
1374:
1367:
1366:
1365:
1348:
1328:
1321:
1318:
1292:
1285:
1282:
1279:
1272:
1271:
1270:
1252:
1246:
1238:
1230:
1228:
1226:
1207:
1203:
1178:
1174:
1149:
1146:
1143:
1138:
1131:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1109:
1101:
1097:
1092:
1066:
1046:
1041:
1037:
1034:
1027:
1026:
1025:
1022:
987:
940:
903:
893:
863:
820:
810:
774:
737:
727:
697:
654:
644:
643:
642:
639:
637:
634:known as the
633:
614:
608:
585:
582:
571:
565:
562:
559:
556:
544:
543:
542:
527:
500:
486:
482:
476:
468:
466:
461:
454:
447:
443:
439:
432:
428:
421:
417:
413:
409:
402:
367:
324:
301:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
275:, is common.
274:
269:
265:
262:In 1821, the
257:
255:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
232:
230:
226:
221:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
183:
178:
176:
171:
169:
164:
163:
161:
160:
153:
150:
148:
145:
143:
140:
138:
135:
133:
130:
128:
125:
123:
120:
119:
113:
112:
105:
104:Nernst effect
102:
100:
97:
92:
88:
83:
78:
73:
72:
71:
68:
67:
61:
60:
56:
52:
51:
46:
41:
37:
32:
19:
18:Thermocouples
5407:Thermometers
5385:Data table:
5339:PDF tables:
5327:
5297:
5292:
5284:
5281:Physik Zeit.
5280:
5275:
5259:
5254:
5242:. Retrieved
5230:
5221:
5209:. Retrieved
5200:
5194:
5185:
5174:. Retrieved
5170:
5161:
5150:. Retrieved
5146:the original
5136:
5117:
5112:. fluke.com.
5098:
5072:
5055:
5030:. Retrieved
5023:the original
5010:
4990:
4948:. Retrieved
4944:the original
4930:
4918:. Retrieved
4914:the original
4904:
4893:. Retrieved
4889:
4880:
4868:
4848:
4837:. Retrieved
4835:. 2018-05-29
4832:
4823:
4814:
4805:
4794:. Retrieved
4790:the original
4774:
4768:
4735:
4730:
4710:
4703:
4690:
4677:
4663:ASM Handbook
4662:
4629:. Retrieved
4621:
4609:
4598:. Retrieved
4594:
4585:
4574:. Retrieved
4570:the original
4565:
4541:. Retrieved
4537:the original
4532:
4523:
4511:(mechanical)
4462:Pirani gauge
4459:
4454:
4447:
4443:
4439:
4437:
4330:
4306:vacuum gauge
4303:
4284:
4263:
4244:
4227:
4208:
4196:
4174:
4160:
4139:
4132:
4117:
4092:
4068:water heater
4041:
4020:fog machines
4005:
4002:Applications
3997:
3994:
3977:300 °C
3535:
3526:
3515:Please help
3510:verification
3507:
3463:
3459:
3451:
3367:
3359:
3307:
3299:
3276:Not defined
3273:No standard
3270:No standard
3265:
3241:Not defined
3225:
3216:
3193:Not defined
3170:
3161:
3109:
3101:
3049:
3041:
2989:
2981:
2902:
2898:
2896:
2887:
2874:
2858:
2846:
2834:
2808:
2805:temperature.
2786:
2778:
2770:
2749:
2743:is tungsten/
2738:
2731:
2724:
2713:
2685:
2676:
2667:
2650:
2617:
2608:
2604:
2601:730 °C.
2597:composition.
2562:
2551:
2535:
2526:
2522:
2517:
2514:
2491:
2470:
2450:
2375:
2366:
2362:
2322:
2318:
2284:
2266:
2262:
2242:
2052:
2013:
1785:
1617:
1595:
1558:
1493:
1363:
1236:
1234:
1164:
1023:
977:
894:Change from
811:Change from
728:Change from
645:Change from
640:
600:
487:of voltage (
478:
459:
452:
445:
441:
437:
430:
426:
419:
415:
411:
407:
400:
398:
261:
233:
222:
194:thermocouple
193:
191:
127:Thermocouple
126:
116:Applications
4920:17 December
4890:www.wika.us
4622:acromag.com
4324:nor purely
4275:wood stoves
4181:intensities
4176:Thermopiles
4107:pilot flame
4024:thermistors
4012:gas turbine
2929:Short-term
2926:Continuous
2921:Color code
2835:Type P (55%
2628:Curie point
2510:Curie point
2481:Curie point
248:thermostats
240:gas turbine
214:temperature
200:forming an
5396:Categories
5176:2020-12-02
5152:2019-05-29
5032:2020-02-22
4950:2 February
4895:2020-12-01
4839:2020-12-01
4796:2012-09-04
4665:, Vol. 2.
4631:3 February
4600:2010-04-28
4576:2010-02-19
4543:2007-11-04
4516:References
4489:Thermistor
4298:See also:
4288:thermistor
4247:thermopile
4211:switchgear
4147:thermopile
4143:thermostat
3989:Excellent
3986:Excellent
3969:Excellent
3966:Excellent
3963:Excellent
3949:Excellent
3946:Excellent
3943:Excellent
3929:Excellent
3926:Excellent
3923:Excellent
3909:Excellent
3906:Excellent
3889:Excellent
3886:Excellent
3883:Excellent
3866:Excellent
3843:Excellent
3826:Excellent
3814:Polyvinyl
3806:Excellent
3803:Excellent
3729:Excellent
3726:Excellent
3467:thermostat
2745:molybdenum
2624:constantan
2502:metallurgy
2477:constantan
2457:constantan
2389:(assuming
1730:thermostat
1612:thermistor
273:thermopile
266:physicist
225:connectors
132:Thermopile
64:Principles
36:multimeter
5239:0262-4079
4833:WIKA blog
4479:Bolometer
4384:−
4326:molecular
4199:bolometer
4135:Honeywell
4112:fail-safe
4014:exhaust,
3529:June 2014
3483:inert gas
3469:or other
3454:insulated
3441:connector
2824:cryogenic
2574:oxidation
2518:green rot
2516:known as
2461:cryogenic
2387:electrode
2379:inertness
2254:spot weld
1732:, fixing
1525:∘
1432:−
1424:−
1391:∫
1319:−
1208:−
1124:−
1116:−
1042:∫
579:∇
563:−
553:∇
524:∇
497:∇
451:) yields
395:is known.
242:exhaust,
5379:package
5369:package
5125:Archived
5106:Archived
5041:cite web
4857:Archived
4655:Archived
4468:See also
4337:pressure
2727:tungsten
2692:antimony
2653:platinum
2618:Type T (
2554:Nicrosil
2552:Type N (
2492:Type K (
2471:Type J (
2451:Type E (
2383:magnetic
1871:searched
1498:in this
1458:′
1444:′
1417:′
1223:are the
485:gradient
5427:Bimetal
5412:Sensors
5211:11 June
4685:(2009).
4626:Acromag
4566:Sensors
4509:Bimetal
4322:viscous
4079:fitting
3934:Tefzel
3914:Kapton
3219:− 767)
3164:− 767)
2865:rhodium
2861:iridium
2811:chromel
2756:megaohm
2741:rhenium
2657:rhodium
2494:chromel
2453:chromel
2316:curve.
287:chromel
229:Celsius
206:voltage
5367:Python
5287:: 498.
5266:
5244:28 May
5237:
4998:
4782:
4742:
4718:
4669:
4438:where
4341:square
4253:, the
4087:ground
4083:washer
4016:diesel
3974:T300*
3834:Nylon
3479:vacuum
3475:outgas
3258:+1820
3252:+1700
3210:+1750
3204:+1600
3155:+1700
3149:+1600
3095:+1300
3089:+1100
2975:+1370
2969:+1100
2791:Others
2783:Type G
2775:Type D
2767:Type C
2698:, and
2696:silver
2682:Type S
2673:Type R
2664:Type B
2620:copper
2614:Type T
2548:Type N
2532:Type M
2506:nickel
2498:alumel
2488:Type K
2467:Type J
2447:Type E
1165:where
601:where
291:alumel
283:K-type
264:German
5205:(PDF)
5064:(PDF)
5026:(PDF)
5019:(PDF)
4618:(PDF)
4188:power
4185:laser
4099:ovens
4093:Many
4044:steel
4008:kilns
3983:Good
3903:Good
3869:Good
3863:Good
3849:Good
3846:Good
3829:Good
3823:Good
3809:Good
3789:Fair
3786:Fair
3783:Fair
3769:Good
3766:Fair
3763:Fair
3749:Poor
3746:Good
3743:Good
3723:Good
3709:Fair
3706:Poor
3703:Poor
3689:Good
3686:Good
3683:Fair
3669:Good
3666:Good
3663:Fair
3649:Good
3646:Good
3643:Good
3629:Poor
3626:Poor
3623:Fair
3609:Good
3606:Fair
3603:Good
3589:Good
3586:Fair
3583:Good
3407:+300
3404:−272
3353:+900
3347:+800
3293:+400
3290:−250
3287:+300
3284:−185
3249:+200
3092:−270
3035:+800
3032:−180
3029:+750
2972:−180
2958:High
2952:High
2944:ANSI
2912:Type
2725:Pure
2580:, or
2558:Nisil
2402:sense
2372:Types
2359:Aging
2258:crimp
456:sense
434:sense
404:sense
236:kilns
5264:ISBN
5246:2012
5235:ISSN
5213:2014
5047:link
4996:ISBN
4952:2018
4922:2013
4780:ISBN
4740:ISBN
4716:ISBN
4667:ISBN
4633:2017
4310:torr
4235:heat
4101:and
4048:iron
4046:and
4030:and
3954:PFA
3874:FEP
3854:PVC
3350:−40
3207:−50
3152:−50
2955:Low
2949:Low
2938:IEC
2935:Two
2932:One
2819:iron
2815:gold
2700:gold
2473:iron
2407:>
2246:flux
2123:and
1561:NIST
1494:The
1194:and
436:) =
4661:in
4257:of
4242:).
4095:gas
3519:by
3481:or
2941:BS
2588:in
2415:ref
2256:or
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931:to
854:to
765:to
688:to
541:):
463:ref
449:ref
423:ref
5398::
5283:,
5229:.
5169:.
5086:^
5043:}}
5039:{{
4980:^
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4960:^
4938:.
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4751:^
4641:^
4624:.
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4564:.
4552:^
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3201:0
3198:S
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3086:0
3083:N
3026:0
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1916::
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238:,
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5270:.
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4397:2
4392:0
4388:V
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4371:(
4368:B
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4359:P
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3536:(
3531:)
3527:(
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3368:T
3360:T
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3171:T
3162:T
3110:T
3102:T
3050:T
3042:T
2990:T
2982:T
2903:T
2899:T
2863:/
2817:/
2813:–
2622:–
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2338:T
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2332:E
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2294:E
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2173:T
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2132:T
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2029:T
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1930:(
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1819:f
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