1614:
growth rate, and material). Koch states that there are three different modes of Volmer-Weber growth. Zone I behavior is characterized by low grain growth in subsequent film layers and is associated with low atomic mobility. Koch suggests that Zone I behavior can be observed at lower temperatures. The zone I mode typically has small columnar grains in the final film. The second mode of Volmer-Weber growth is classified as Zone T, where the grain size at the surface of the film deposition increases with film thickness, but the grain size in the deposited layers below the surface does not change. Zone T-type films are associated with higher atomic mobilities, higher deposition temperatures, and V-shaped final grains. The final mode of proposed Volmer-Weber growth is Zone II type growth, where the grain boundaries in the bulk of the film at the surface are mobile, resulting in large yet columnar grains. This growth mode is associated with the highest atomic mobility and deposition temperature. There is also a possibility of developing a mixed Zone T/Zone II type structure, where the grains are mostly wide and columnar, but do experience slight growth as their thickness approaches the surface of the film. Although Koch focuses mostly on temperature to suggest a potential zone mode, factors such as deposition rate can also influence the final film microstructure.
1344:
1610:
coalesce and begin to impinge on each other, resulting in an increase in the overall tensile stress in the film. This increase in overall tensile stress can be attributed to the formation of grain boundaries upon island coalescence that results in interatomic forces acting over the newly formed grain boundaries. The magnitude of this generated tensile stress depends on the density of the formed grain boundaries, as well as their grain-boundary energies. During this stage, the thickness of the film is not uniform because of the random nature of the island coalescence but is measured as the average thickness. The third and final stage of the Volmer-Weber film growth begins when the morphology of the filmâs surface is unchanging with film thickness. During this stage, the overall stress in the film can remain tensile, or become compressive.
1450:) to knock material from a "target" a few atoms at a time. The target can be kept at a relatively low temperature, since the process is not one of evaporation, making this one of the most flexible deposition techniques. It is especially useful for compounds or mixtures, where different components would otherwise tend to evaporate at different rates. Note, sputtering's step coverage is more or less conformal. It is also widely used in optical media. The manufacturing of all formats of CD, DVD, and BD are done with the help of this technique. It is a fast technique and also it provides a good thickness control. Presently, nitrogen and oxygen gases are also being used in sputtering.
2697:. Because of this proportionality, measuring the curvature of a film at a given film thickness can directly determine the stress in the film at that thickness. The curvature of a wafer is determined by the average stress of in the film. However, if stress is not uniformly distributed in a film (as it would be for epitaxially grown film layers that have not relaxed so that the intrinsic stress is due to the lattice mismatch of the substrate and the film), it is impossible to determine the stress at a specific film height without continuous curvature measurements. If continuous curvature measurements are taken, the time derivative of the curvature data:
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relative to its substrate due to a volume change in the film. Volume changes that cause dilatational strain may come from changes in temperature, defects, or phase transformations. A temperature change will induce a volume change if the film and substrate thermal expansion coefficients are different.
1234:
of the sol determine the ultimate thickness of the deposited film. Repeated depositions can be carried out to increase the thickness of films as desired. Thermal treatment is often carried out in order to crystallize the amorphous spin coated film. Such crystalline films can exhibit certain preferred
646:
based on the adsorption reaction of vapor adatom with vacancy on the substrate surface. The BET model expands further and allows adatoms deposition on previously adsorbed adatoms without interaction between adjacent piles of atoms. The resulting derived surface coverage is in terms of the equilibrium
228:. The process of physic- and chemisorption can be visualized by the potential energy as a function of distance. The equilibrium distance for physisorption is further from the surface than chemisorption. The transition from physisorbed to chemisorbed states are governed by the effective energy barrier
1628:
A subset of thin-film deposition processes and applications is focused on the so-called epitaxial growth of materials, the deposition of crystalline thin films that grow following the crystalline structure of the substrate. The term epitaxy comes from the Greek roots epi (áŒÏÎŻ), meaning "above", and
920:
describes the lateral motion of adsorbed atoms moving between energy minima on the substrate surface. Diffusion most readily occurs between positions with lowest intervening potential barriers. Surface diffusion can be measured using glancing-angle ion scattering. The average time between events can
1960:
is the initial temperature of the film and substrate when it is in a stress-free state. For example, if a film is deposited onto a substrate with a lower thermal expansion coefficient at high temperatures, then cooled to room temperature, a positive elastic strain will be created. In this case, the
1245:
is similar to spin coating in that a liquid precursor or sol-gel precursor is deposited on a substrate, but in this case the substrate is completely submerged in the solution and then withdrawn under controlled conditions. By controlling the withdrawal speed, the evaporation conditions (principally
2470:
is the average stress in the film. The assumptions made regarding the Stoney formula assume that the film and substrate are smaller than the lateral size of the wafer and that the stress is uniform across the surface. Therefore the average stress thickness of a given film can be determined by
1613:
On a stress-thickness vs. thickness plot, an overall compressive stress is represented by a negative slope, and an overall tensile stress is represented by a positive slope. The overall shape of the stress-thickness vs. thickness curve depends on various processing conditions (such as temperature,
1504:
deposition (electrospray deposition) is a relatively new process of thin-film deposition. The liquid to be deposited, either in the form of nanoparticle solution or simply a solution, is fed to a small capillary nozzle (usually metallic) which is connected to a high voltage. The substrate on which
1215:
method uses molecules floating on top of an aqueous subphase. The packing density of molecules is controlled, and the packed monolayer is transferred on a solid substrate by controlled withdrawal of the solid substrate from the subphase. This allows creating thin films of various molecules such as
1969:
A change in density due to the creation or destruction of defects, phase changes, or compositional changes after the film is grown on the substrate will generate a growth strain. Such as in the
StranskiâKrastanov mode, where the layer of film is strained to fit the substrate due to an increase in
1328:
environment, so that particles of material escape its surface. Facing this source is a cooler surface which draws energy from these particles as they arrive, allowing them to form a solid layer. The whole system is kept in a vacuum deposition chamber, to allow the particles to travel as freely as
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thin film's one layer at a time. The process is split up into two half reactions, run in sequence and repeated for each layer, in order to ensure total layer saturation before beginning the next layer. Therefore, one reactant is deposited first, and then the second reactant is deposited, during
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of the wafer due to the strain by the film. Using optical setups, such as those with lasers, allow for whole wafer characterization pre and post deposition. Lasers are reflected off the wafer in a grid pattern and distortions in the grid are used to calculate the curvature as well as measure the
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undergoes a chemical change at a solid surface, leaving a solid layer. An everyday example is the formation of soot on a cool object when it is placed inside a flame. Since the fluid surrounds the solid object, deposition happens on every surface, with little regard to direction; thin films from
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and sintering, occur in response to reduce the total surface energy of the system. Ostwald repining describes the process in which islands of adatoms with various sizes grow into larger ones at the expense of smaller ones. Sintering is the coalescence mechanism when the islands contact and join.
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Thin films are often deposited to protect an underlying work piece from external influences. The protection may operate by minimizing the contact with the exterior medium in order to reduce the diffusion from the medium to the work piece or vice versa. For instance, plastic lemonade bottles are
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that were already used in ancient India more than 5000 years ago. It may also be understood as any form of painting, although this kind of work is generally considered as an arts craft rather than an engineering or scientific discipline. Today, thin-film materials of variable thickness and high
908:
As an important note, surface crystallography and differ from the bulk to minimize the overall free electronic and bond energies due to the broken bonds at the surface. This can result in a new equilibrium position known as âselvedgeâ, where the parallel bulk lattice symmetry is preserved. This
1609:
There are three distinct stages of stress evolution that arise during Volmer-Weber film deposition. The first stage consists of the nucleation of individual atomic islands. During this first stage, the overall observed stress is very low. The second stage commences as these individual islands
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Due to the low thickness of the films, accidental probing of the substrate is a concern. To avoid indenting beyond the film and into the substrate, penetration depths are often kept to less than 10% of the film thickness. For a conical or pyramidal indenters, the indentation depth scales as
285:
values that would preferentially be populated by vapor molecules to reduce the overall free energy. These stable sites are often found on step edges, vacancies and screw dislocations. After the most stable sites become filled, the adatom-adatom (vapor molecule) interaction becomes important.
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is a popular method of measuring the mechanical properties of films. Measurements can be used to compare coated and uncoated films to reveal the effects of surface treatment on both elastic and plastic responses of the film. Load-displacement curves may reveal information about cracking,
1297:
which a chemical reaction occurs on the substrate, forming the desired composition. As a result of the stepwise, the process is slower than chemical vapor deposition; however, it can be run at low temperatures. When performed on polymeric substrates, atomic layer deposition can become
2997:
1513:) and at the apex of the cone a thin jet emanates which disintegrates into very fine and small positively charged droplets under the influence of Rayleigh charge limit. The droplets keep getting smaller and smaller and ultimately get deposited on the substrate as a uniform thin layer.
1190:. In semiconductor manufacturing, an advanced form of electroplating known as electrochemical deposition is now used to create the copper conductive wires in advanced chips, replacing the chemical and physical deposition processes used to previous chip generations for aluminum wires
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refers to the specific case in which a film of the same material is grown on a crystalline substrate. This technology is used, for instance, to grow a film which is more pure than the substrate, has a lower density of defects, and to fabricate layers having different doping levels.
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the humidity, temperature) and the volatility/viscosity of the solvent, the film thickness, homogeneity and nanoscopic morphology are controlled. There are two evaporation regimes: the capillary zone at very low withdrawal speeds, and the draining zone at faster evaporation speeds.
1313:. Since most engineering materials are held together by relatively high energies, and chemical reactions are not used to store these energies, commercial physical deposition systems tend to require a low-pressure vapor environment to function properly; most can be classified as
3831:
are surface waves in the optical regime that propagate in between metal-dielectric interfaces; in
Kretschmann-Raether configuration for the SPR sensors, a prism is coated with a metallic film through evaporation. Due to the poor adhesive characteristics of metallic films,
1400:
materials can be deposited. The beam is usually bent through an angle of 270° in order to ensure that the gun filament is not directly exposed to the evaporant flux. Typical deposition rates for electron beam evaporation range from 1 to 10 nanometres per second.
201:. Evaporated molecules rapidly lose kinetic energy and reduces its free energy by bonding with surface atoms. Chemisorption describes the strong electron transfer (ionic or covalent bond) of molecule with substrate atoms characterized by adsorption energy
127:
is an important step in growth that helps determine the final structure of a thin film. Many growth methods rely on nucleation control such as atomic-layer epitaxy (atomic layer deposition). Nucleation can be modeled by characterizing surface process of
3017:
and elastic modulus evaluation by the use of axisymmetric indenter geometries like a spherical indenter. This method assumes that during unloading, only elastic deformations are recovered (where reverse plastic deformation is negligible). The parameter
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along the surface. In epitaxial films, initially deposited atomic layers may have coherent lattice planes with the substrate. However, past a critical thickness misfit dislocations will form leading to relaxation of stresses in the film.
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Trontl, V. MikĆĄiÄ; PletikosiÄ, I.; Milun, M.; Pervan, P.; LaziÄ, P.; Ć okÄeviÄ, D.; Brako, R. (16 December 2005). "Experimental and ab initio study of the structural and electronic properties of subnanometer thick Ag films on Pd(111)".
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is the effective elastic modulus and takes into account elastic displacements in the specimen and indenter. This relation can also be applied to elastic-plastic contact, which is not affected by pile-up and sink-in during indentation.
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Birkholz, M.; Ehwald, K.-E.; Wolansky, D.; Costina, I.; Baristiran-Kaynak, C.; Fröhlich, M.; Beyer, H.; Kapp, A.; Lisdat, F. (15 March 2010). "Corrosion-resistant metal layers from a CMOS process for bioelectronic applications".
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are the lattice parameters of the substrate and film, respectively. It is assumed that the substrate is rigid due to its relative thickness. Therefore, all of the elastic strain occurs in the film to match the substrate.
4852:
Rashidian Vaziri, M. R.; Hajiesmaeilbaigi, F.; Maleki, M. H. (7 October 2010). "Microscopic description of the thermalization process during pulsed laser deposition of aluminium in the presence of argon background gas".
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applications. Therefore precautions are taken to either mitigate or produce such stresses; for example a buffer layer may be deposited between the substrate and film. Strain engineering is also used to produce various
2215:
A common method for determining the stress evolution of a film is to measure the wafer curvature during its deposition. Stoney relates a filmâs average stress to its curvature through the following expression:
3625:
are often applied for decorative coatings on glass for instance, causing a rainbow-color appearance like oil on water. In addition, intransparent gold-colored surfaces may either be prepared by sputtering of gold or
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can show how the intrinsic stress is changing at any given point. Assuming that stress in the underlying layers of a deposited film remains constant during further deposition, we can represent the incremental stress
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1368:
that uses an electric resistance heater to melt the material and raise its vapor pressure to a useful range. This is done in a high vacuum, both to allow the vapor to reach the substrate without reacting with or
1597:("layer-by-layer"). In this growth mode the adsorbate-surface and adsorbate-adsorbate interactions are balanced. This type of growth requires lattice matching, and hence considered an "ideal" growth mechanism.
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1347:
One-atom-thick islands of silver deposited on the surface of palladium by thermal evaporation. Calibration of the surface coverage was achieved by tracking the time needed to complete a full monolayer using
614:
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Frank, Frederick
Charles; van der Merwe, J. H. (15 August 1949). "One-Dimensional Dislocations. III. Influence of the Second Harmonic Term in the Potential Representation, on the Properties of the Model".
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became available during the 19th century and were produced by sputtering of metallic silver or aluminum on glass. Refractive lenses for optical instruments like cameras and microscopes typically exhibit
1758:
A mismatch of thermal expansion coefficients between the film and substrate will cause thermal strain during a temperature change. The elastic strain of the film relative to the substrate is given by:
1230:
precursor deposited onto a smooth, flat substrate which is subsequently spun at a high velocity to centrifugally spread the solution over the substrate. The speed at which the solution is spun and the
454:
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powders dissolved in an organic solvent. This is a relatively inexpensive, simple thin-film process that produces stoichiometrically accurate crystalline phases. This technique is also known as the
1015:
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and capacitors etc. is built up from thin Al or Cu layers. These layers dispose of thicknesses in the range of a few 100 nm up to a few ÎŒm, and they are often embedded into a few nm thin
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Abadias, Grégory; Chason, Eric; Keckes, Jozef; Sebastiani, Marco; Thompson, Gregory B.; Barthel, Etienne; Doll, Gary L.; Murray, Conal E.; Stoessel, Chris H.; Martinu, Ludvik (1 March 2018).
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in thickness. The controlled synthesis of materials as thin films (a process referred to as deposition) is a fundamental step in many applications. A familiar example is the household
6134:
Zou, Yuqin; Guo, Renjun; Buyruk, Ali; Chen, Wei; Xiao, Tianxiao; Yin, Shanshan; Jiang, Xinyu; Kreuzer, Lucas P.; Mu, Cheng; Ameri, Tayebeh; Schwartzkopf, Matthias (25 November 2020).
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or silicon oxide etc. may correct these aberrations. A well-known example for the progress in optical systems by thin-film technology is represented by the only a few mm wide lens in
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VolmerâWeber ("isolated islands"). In this growth mode the adsorbate-adsorbate interactions are stronger than adsorbate-surface interactions, hence "islands" are formed right away.
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1373:
against other gas-phase atoms in the chamber, and reduce the incorporation of impurities from the residual gas in the vacuum chamber. Obviously, only materials with a much higher
2045:
A film experiencing growth strains will be under biaxial tensile strain conditions, generating tensile stresses in biaxial directions in order to match the substrate dimensions.
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of the film and substrate, and from the restructuring of the surface triple junction. Thermal stress is common in thin films grown at elevated temperatures due to differences in
6189:
Chen, Wei; Guo, Renjun; Tang, Haodong; Wienhold, Kerstin S.; Li, Nian; Jiang, Zhengyan; Tang, Jun; Jiang, Xinyu; Kreuzer, Lucas P.; Liu, Haochen; Schwartzkopf, Matthias (2021).
3661:, i.e. non-ideal refractive behavior. While large sets of lenses had to be lined up along the optical path previously, nowadays, the coating of optical lenses with transparent
5648:
Pandya, Shishir; Velarde, Gabriel A.; Gao, Ran; Everhardt, Arnoud S.; Wilbur, Joshua D.; Xu, Ruijuan; Maher, Josh T.; Agar, Joshua C.; Dames, Chris; Martin, Lane W. (2019).
3878:) processes. Other thin-film technologies, that are still in an early stage of ongoing research or with limited commercial availability, are often classified as emerging or
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contribute to intrinsic stress in thin films. These intrinsic stresses can be a function of film thickness. These stresses may be tensile or compressive and can cause
4376:
Rashidian Vaziri, M. R.; Hajiesmaeilbaigi, F.; Maleki, M. H. (24 August 2011). "Monte Carlo simulation of the subsurface growth mode during pulsed laser deposition".
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386:
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is a stack of different thin films. Typically, a multilayer medium is made for a specific purpose. Since layers are thin with respect to some relevant length scale,
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In addition to their applied interest, thin films play an important role in the development and study of materials with new and unique properties. Examples include
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Thin layers from elemental metals like copper, aluminum, gold or silver etc. and alloys have found numerous applications in electrical devices. Due to their high
3449:
1970:
supersaturation and interfacial energy which shifts from island to island. The elastic strain to accommodate these changes is related to the dilatational strain
4268:
Hanaor, D.A.H.; Triani, G.; Sorrell, C.C. (15 March 2011). "Morphology and photocatalytic activity of highly oriented mixed phase titanium dioxide thin films".
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can be deposited directly onto chips or chip packages in any shape or size. Flexible batteries can be made by printing onto plastic, thin metal foil, or paper.
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are cheaper to manufacture owing to their reduced material costs, energy costs, handling costs and capital costs. This is especially represented in the use of
2842:{\displaystyle {\frac {d\kappa }{dt}}\propto \sigma (h_{f}){\frac {\partial h_{f}}{\partial t}}+\int _{0}^{h_{f}}{\frac {\partial \sigma (z,t)}{\partial t}}dz}
6079:
Chen, Wei; Zhong, Jialin; Li, Junzi; Saxena, Nitin; Kreuzer, Lucas P.; Liu, Haochen; Song, Lin; Su, Bo; Yang, Dan; Wang, Kun; Schlipf, Johannes (2 May 2019).
3320:
1482:(30â100%), multiply charged ions, neutral particles, clusters and macro-particles (droplets). If a reactive gas is introduced during the evaporation process,
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they are able to transport electrical currents or supply voltages. Thin metal layers serve in conventional electrical system, for instance, as Cu layers on
5192:
4313:
Faustini, Marco; Drisko, Glenna L; Boissiere, Cedric; Grosso, David (1 March 2014). "Liquid deposition approaches to self-assembled periodic nanomasks".
5796:"All-chemical YBa2Cu3O7- $ \delta$ coated conductors with preformed BaHfO3 and BaZrO3 nanocrystals on Ni5W technical substrate at the industrial scale"
1309:
Physical deposition uses mechanical, electromechanical or thermodynamic means to produce a thin film of solid. An everyday example is the formation of
1357:
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1750:
will cause a volume change through densification. Phase transformations and concentration changes will cause volume changes via lattice distortions.
1603:("joint islands" or "layer-plus-island"). In this growth mode the adsorbate-surface interactions are stronger than adsorbate-adsorbate interactions.
4460:
Frank, Frederick
Charles; van der Merwe, J. H. (15 August 1949). "One-Dimensional Dislocations. II. Misfitting Monolayers and Oriented Overgrowth".
5833:
Serrano, A.; RodrĂguez de la Fuente, O.; GarcĂa, M. A. (2010). "Extended and localized surface plasmons in annealed Au films on glass substrates".
1464:
light vaporize the surface of the target material and convert it to plasma; this plasma usually reverts to a gas before it reaches the substrate.
1389:
65:. Advances in thin film deposition techniques during the 20th century have enabled a wide range of technological breakthroughs in areas such as
2992:{\displaystyle \sigma (h_{f})\propto {\frac {\frac {\partial \kappa }{\partial t}}{\frac {\partial h_{f}}{\partial t}}}={\frac {d\kappa }{dh}}}
1178:
relies on liquid precursors, often a solution of water with a salt of the metal to be deposited. Some plating processes are driven entirely by
4207:"25th Anniversary Article: What Can Be Done with the Langmuir-Blodgett Method? Recent Developments and its Critical Role in Materials Science"
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or onto previously deposited layers. "Thin" is a relative term, but most deposition techniques control layer thickness within a few tens of
6136:"Sodium Dodecylbenzene Sulfonate Interface Modification of Methylammonium Lead Iodide for Surface Passivation of Perovskite Solar Cells"
3693:, into which carbonic acid decomposes that was introduced into the beverage under high pressure. Another example is represented by thin
1408:, slow streams of an element can be directed at the substrate, so that material deposits one atomic layer at a time. Compounds such as
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The usage of thin films for decorative coatings probably represents their oldest application. This encompasses ca. 100 nm thin
2610:
represents the in-place stress at a particular height of the film. The stress thickness (or force per unit width) is represented by
1298:
1261:
5525:"Measurement of hardness and elastic modulus by instrumented indentation: Advances in understanding and refinements to methodology"
4906:"Restructuring of emergent grain boundaries at free surfacesâAn interplay between core stabilization and elastic stress generation"
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Stranski, I. N.; Krastanov, L. (10 February 1938). "Zur
Theorie der orientierten Ausscheidung von Ionenkristallen aufeinander".
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Nucleation kinetics can be modeled considering only adsorption and desorption. First consider case where there are no mutual
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In addition to adatom migration, clusters of adatom can coalesce or deplete. Cluster coalescence through processes, such as
5650:"Understanding the Role of Ferroelastic Domains on the Pyroelectric and Electrocaloric Effects in Ferroelectric Thin Films"
4651:"The dynamic competition between stress generation and relaxation mechanisms during coalescence of VolmerâWeber thin films"
3085:
is the final penetration depth after unloading. These are used to approximate the power law relation for unloading curves:
1505:
the film has to be deposited is connected to ground. Through the influence of electric field, the liquid coming out of the
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57:, which typically has a thin metal coating on the back of a sheet of glass to form a reflective interface. The process of
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Foley IV, Jonathan J.; Harutyunyan, Hayk; Rosenmann, Daniel; Divan, Ralu; Wiederrecht, Gary P.; Gray, Stephen K. (2015).
3519:
Stress and relaxation of stresses in films can influence the materials properties of the film, such as mass transport in
159:
reverses adsorption where a previously adsorbed molecule overcomes the bounding energy and leaves the substrate surface.
3797:
2204:
802:
682:
1119:). Similar processes are sometimes used where thickness is not important: for instance, the purification of copper by
6272:
5705:
Pedrotti, Frank L.; Pedrotti, Leno M.; Pedrotti, Leno S. (17 April 2006). "Chapter 22 - Theory of
Multilayer Films".
5572:"On the generality of the relationship among contact stiffness, contact area, and elastic modulus during indentation"
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was once commonly used to produce mirrors, while more recently the metal layer is deposited using techniques such as
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4061:"IEC 60050 - International Electrotechnical Vocabulary - Details for IEV number 523-05-02: "thin film technology""
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Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character
1278:, as a precursor. Unlike the soot example above, this method relies on electromagnetic means (electric current,
5933:
Todeschini, Matteo; Bastos da Silva Fanta, Alice; Jensen, Flemming; Wagner, Jakob
Birkedal; Han, Anpan (2017).
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Floro, J. A.; Hearne, S. J.; Hunter, J. A.; Kotula, P.; Chason, E.; Seel, S. C.; Thompson, C. V. (1 May 2001).
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TFBARs/FBARs are developed for oscillators, telecommunication filters and duplexers, and sensor applications.
1208:
method because the 'sol' (or solution) gradually evolves towards the formation of a gel-like diphasic system.
151:
is the interaction of a vapor atom or molecule with a substrate surface. The interaction is characterized the
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Product
Specifications : kSA MOS Control Your Stress! In Situ Curvature and Thin Film Stress Monitoring
4120:
3782:. The figure shows a micrograph of a laterally structured TiN/Al/TiN metal stack in a microelectronic chip.
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originated from their interface with a substrate. Epitaxial thin films may experience stresses from misfit
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1301:, where the reactants diffuse into the polymer and interact with functional groups on the polymer chains.
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films are used as intermediate layers to promote stronger adhesion. Metallic thin films are also used in
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is a macroscopic quantum effect observed in alternating ferromagnetic and non-magnetic conductive layers.
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possible. Since particles tend to follow a straight path, films deposited by physical means are commonly
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layer that is one or two molecules thick. A multilayer medium rather consists of several thin films.
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where an electrical arc is created that blasts ions from the cathode. The arc has an extremely high
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Deposition techniques fall into two broad categories, depending on whether the process is primarily
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Zhang, Xiaopu; Wang, Mengyuan; Wang, Hailong; Upmanyu, Moneesh; Boland, John J. (1 January 2023).
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effects are much more important than in bulk materials, giving rise to novel physical properties.
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Thin-film technologies are also being developed as a means of substantially reducing the cost of
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3549:
3214:
From the relationship of contact area, the unloading stiffness can be expressed by the relation:
1889:
1862:
1670:
1429:
5400:"Investigation of the Effect of Residual Stress Gradient on the Wear Behavior of PVD Thin Films"
2584:
174:
bonding between a stretched or bent molecule and the surface characterized by adsorption energy
6030:"Planar surface plasmonic waveguide devices based on symmetric corrugated thin film structures"
5934:
5611:"Tie Importance of Contact Radius for Substrate-Independent Property Measurement of Thin Films"
5331:
2373:
344:
6344:
6316:
6297:
6278:
6210:
6163:
6155:
6108:
6100:
6061:
6010:
5959:
5915:
5774:
5751:
5710:
5687:
5679:
5630:
5591:
5552:
5503:
5477:
5427:
5380:
5305:
5270:
5262:
5173:
5109:
5074:
5045:"Review Article: Stress in thin films and coatings: Current status, challenges, and prospects"
5018:
4993:
4943:
4878:
4834:
4826:
4779:
4728:
4678:
4623:
4580:
4242:
4234:
4179:
4159:
4134:
4099:
3960:
3930:
3801:
3585:
2053:
An epitaxially grown film on a thick substrate will have an inherent elastic strain given by:
1678:
1545:
917:
137:
94:
3284:
371:
6202:
6147:
6092:
6051:
6000:
5951:
5905:
5895:
5860:
5852:
5815:
5807:
5743:
5669:
5622:
5583:
5544:
5469:
5419:
5370:
5297:
5254:
5215:
5165:
5101:
5064:
4985:
4933:
4925:
4870:
4818:
4771:
4720:
4670:
4615:
4572:
4529:
4477:
4432:
4393:
4358:
4322:
4287:
4226:
4126:
4025:
4005:
3975:
3941:
For miniaturising and more precise control of resonance frequency of piezoelectric crystals
3772:
3694:
3643:
3627:
3622:
3618:
3589:
3525:
3520:
2200:
2192:
1409:
1275:
1112:
1020:
31:
3759:
and various other forms like sensors etc. A major field of application became their use in
3061:
2420:
2393:
2149:
2122:
1973:
1936:
1717:
1570:
753:
653:
261:
231:
204:
177:
6236:
5771:
Handbook of Gas Sensor
Materials: Properties, Advantages and Shortcomings for Applications
3985:
3922:
3820:
3789:
3785:
3666:
3662:
3639:
3581:
3006:
1578:
1378:
82:
4874:
3528:
and domain structures in thin films such as in the domain structure of the ferroelectric
3426:
6047:
5996:
5848:
5665:
5540:
5465:
5415:
5366:
5250:
5219:
5211:
5161:
5060:
4981:
4921:
4866:
4814:
4767:
4716:
4666:
4525:
4514:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences
4473:
4462:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences
4428:
4417:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences
4389:
4354:
4222:
3413:{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{E_{eff}}}={\frac {1-\nu ^{2}}{E}}+{\frac {1-\nu ^{2}}{E_{i}}}}
170:, are distinguished by the strength of atomic interactions. Physisorption describes the
6080:
6034:
5983:
5910:
5882:"When are Surface Plasmon Polaritons Excited in the Kretschmann-Raether Configuration?"
5881:
5301:
4000:
3796:
can lead to electrons being bound to a sub-nanometric layer, effectively behaving as a
3728:
3494:
3474:
3454:
3147:
3041:
3021:
2564:
2552:{\displaystyle \langle \sigma \rangle ={\frac {1}{h_{f}}}\int _{0}^{h_{f}}\sigma (z)dz}
1916:
1747:
1686:
1549:
1397:
1374:
1293:
1265:
1201:
1187:
1161:
1120:
780:
629:
324:
304:
86:
66:
5098:
2010 International Students and Young Scientists Workshop "Photonics and Microsystems"
1641:
refers to the case in which the film being deposited is different from the substrate.
1629:
taxis (ÏÎŹÎŸÎčÏ), meaning "an ordered manner". It can be translated as "arranging upon".
6362:
6222:
6175:
6120:
5289:
4890:
4635:
4549:
4497:
4326:
4254:
3793:
3756:
1491:
1475:
1092:
167:
163:
109:
5398:
Tlili, B.; Nouveau, C.; Guillemot, G.; Besnard, A.; Barkaoui, A. (1 February 2018).
5123:
4701:"Quantitative correlation between intrinsic stress and microstructure of thin films"
4592:
4299:
4217:(45). Deerfield Beach FL USA: VCH Publishers (published 8 October 2013): 6477â6512.
1220:, polymers and lipids with controlled particle packing density and layer thickness.
5747:
4291:
3970:
3875:
3674:
3670:
1702:
1393:
1353:
1223:
1217:
113:
30:
This article is about a thin layer of material. For magnetic thin film memory, see
6135:
6028:
Liu, Xiaoyong; Feng, Yijun; Chen, Ke; Zhu, Bo; Zhao, Junming; Jiang, Tian (2014).
4929:
3775:
layers in order to block a chemical reaction with the surrounding dielectric like
1586:
1268:
gas is used. Commercial techniques often use very low pressures of precursor gas.
5811:
5012:
4965:
4606:
Volmer, M.; Weber, A. (1 January 1926). "Keimbildung in ĂŒbersĂ€ttigten Gebilden".
2646:
is an important quantity as it is directionally proportional to the curvature by
6096:
4905:
4010:
3863:
3816:
3768:
3613:
3013:
The Oliver and Pharr method can be used to evaluate nanoindentation results for
1743:
1690:
1510:
1428:. The beam of material can be generated by either physical means (that is, by a
1242:
1183:
1084:
89:
coatings), hard coatings on cutting tools, and for both energy generation (e.g.
5450:"A kinetic analysis of residual stress evolution in polycrystalline thin films"
5449:
5105:
5093:
4700:
4362:
3701:
separating electrically conducting aluminum lines from the embedding insulator
2289:{\displaystyle \kappa ={\frac {6\langle \sigma \rangle h_{f}}{M_{s}h_{s}^{2}}}}
1420:), so that the process is chemical, as well as physical; this is known also as
5473:
5423:
4798:
4724:
3649:
1487:
1479:
1439:
1370:
1155:
623:
619:
156:
148:
133:
129:
124:
102:
62:
50:
6214:
6159:
6104:
5755:
5683:
5634:
5595:
5556:
5481:
5431:
5384:
5266:
5177:
5078:
4997:
4947:
4882:
4830:
4822:
4783:
4732:
4682:
4627:
4584:
4238:
4130:
909:
phenomenon can cause deviations from theoretical calculations of nucleation.
5794:
DĂez-Sierra, Javier; MartĂnez, Alazne; Etxarri, Ion; Quintana, Iban (2022).
5548:
5399:
4619:
3833:
3560:
2187:
1443:
1279:
1231:
1139:
1104:
1041:
155:, the fraction of incoming species thermally equilibrated with the surface.
58:
46:
42:
6167:
6151:
6112:
6081:"Structure and Charge Carrier Dynamics in Colloidal PbS Quantum Dot Solids"
6065:
6014:
6005:
5978:
5963:
5955:
5919:
5819:
5691:
5674:
5649:
5375:
5350:
5274:
4533:
4481:
4437:
4412:
4246:
4230:
4205:
Ariga, Katsuhiko; Yamauchi, Yusuke; Mori, Taizo; Hill, Jonathan P. (2013).
3723:
between mechanically moving parts. Examples for the latter application are
1412:
are usually deposited by repeatedly applying a layer of one element (i.e.,
5587:
5524:
5234:
4838:
1396:
to boil a small spot of material; since the heating is not uniform, lower
1172:
Chemical deposition is further categorized by the phase of the precursor:
6271:
Birkholz, Mario; Fewster, Paul F.; Genzel, Christoph (23 December 2005).
6056:
6029:
5258:
3841:
3837:
3686:
frequently coated by anti-diffusion layers to avoid the out-diffusion of
3014:
1698:
1694:
1495:
1457:
17:
5626:
5571:
5094:"Critical thickness of epitaxial thin films using Finite Element Method"
3673:. Other examples are given by anti-reflection coatings on eyeglasses or
6206:
6190:
5865:
5169:
4938:
4747:
4576:
3955:
3918:
3564:
1623:
1417:
1413:
1325:
1257:
1236:
1227:
1205:
1193:
1179:
1175:
1143:
1128:
1124:
5900:
5856:
5610:
5069:
5044:
4775:
4674:
4397:
6191:"Operando structure degradation study of PbS quantum dot solar cells"
5145:
5092:
Wcislo, Tomasz; Dabrowska-Szata, Maria; Gelczuk, Lukasz (June 2010).
4989:
4541:
4489:
4446:
4015:
3767:, where the electrical network among active and passive devices like
3653:
2370:
is the bulk elastic modulus of the material comprising the film, and
1506:
1424:. If the precursors in use are organic, then the technique is called
1321:
1253:
1068:
295:
54:
5498:
Fischer-Cripps, Anthony C. (2004). "Nanoindentation of Thin Films".
4154:
Knoll, Wolfgang Knoll; Advincula, Rigoberto C., eds. (7 June 2011).
3511:
and film thickness can be used as a scale parameter for soft films.
4797:
Koch, R.; Winau, D.; FĂŒhrmann, A.; Rieder, K. H. (15 August 1991).
4180:"One big wire change in '97 still helping chips achieve tiny scale"
3739:
3058:
is the displacement relative to the undeformed coating surface and
1282:
excitation), rather than a chemical-reaction, to produce a plasma.
4282:
3738:
1585:
1577:
1569:
1461:
1447:
1342:
1310:
4565:
Monatshefte fĂŒr Chemie und verwandte Teile anderer Wissenschaften
4411:
Frank, Frederick Charles; van der Merwe, J. H. (15 August 1949).
1830:{\displaystyle \varepsilon =-(\alpha _{f}-\alpha _{s})(T-T_{0})}
1061:
609:{\displaystyle n=J\sigma \tau _{a}\leftn=J\sigma \tau _{a}\left}
5769:
Korotcenkov, Ghenadii (18 September 2013). "Thin metal films".
4096:
Materials science of thin films : deposition and structure
3800:. Quantum effects in such thin films can significantly enhance
5935:"Influence of Ti and Cr Adhesion Layers on Ultrathin Au Films"
1520:
1036:â any technique for depositing a thin film of material onto a
618:
Adsorption can also be modeled by different isotherms such as
5773:. Integrated Analytical Systems. Springer. pp. 153â166.
4748:"Asymmetry of interface reactions in Ag-Sn thin film couplesâ
3272:{\displaystyle S=\beta {\frac {2}{\surd \pi }}E_{eff}\surd A}
3010:
delamination, and plasticity in both the film and substrate.
2110:{\displaystyle \varepsilon \approx {a_{s}-a_{f} \over a_{f}}}
1385:
is a particularly sophisticated form of thermal evaporation.
5609:
Hay, J. L.; OâHern, M. E.; Oliver, W. C. (1 December 1998).
5570:
Pharr, G. M.; Oliver, W. C.; Brotzen, F. R. (1 March 1992).
4799:"Growth-mode-specific intrinsic stress of thin silver films"
3804:
as compared to that of a bulk crystal, which is employed in
2390:
is the Poissonâs ratio of the material comprising the film,
298:
interactions, no clustering or interaction with step edges.
2471:
integrating the stress over a given film thickness:
2182:
The stresses in Films deposited on flat substrates such as
1742:
The creation or annihilation of defects such as vacancies,
1644:
Techniques used for epitaxial growth of thin films include
1714:
Films may experience a dilatational transformation strain
777:
is the equilibrium vapor pressure of adsorbed adatoms and
449:{\displaystyle {dn \over dt}=J\sigma -{n \over \tau _{a}}}
5351:"The tension of metallic films deposited by electrolysis"
3929:
to create unique batteries for specialized applications.
3743:
Laterally structured metal layer of an integrated circuit
2341:{\displaystyle M_{s}={\frac {\mathrm {E} }{1-\upsilon }}}
1186:), but by far the most commercially important process is
258:
Crystal surfaces have specific bonding sites with larger
1913:
is the thermal expansion coefficient of the substrate,
5979:"Novel surface plasmon waveguide for high integration"
5294:
Magnetic, Ferroelectric, and Multiferroic Metal Oxides
3937:
Thin-film bulk acoustic wave resonators (TFBARs/FBARs)
3491:
is the film thickness. The ratio of penetration depth
3497:
3477:
3457:
3429:
3323:
3287:
3222:
3172:
3150:
3093:
3064:
3044:
3024:
2896:
2858:
2703:
2652:
2616:
2587:
2567:
2479:
2450:
2423:
2396:
2376:
2354:
2304:
2224:
2152:
2125:
2061:
2005:
1976:
1939:
1919:
1892:
1865:
1845:
1766:
1720:
1010:{\displaystyle \tau _{d}=(1/v_{1})\exp(E_{d}/kT_{s})}
929:
805:
783:
756:
685:
656:
632:
626:. The Langmuir model derives an equilibrium constant
463:
396:
374:
368:
is the mean surface lifetime prior to desorption and
347:
327:
307:
264:
234:
207:
180:
6237:"Cell Mechanical Construction - Thin Film Batteries"
5290:"Single and heterostructure multiferroic thin films"
1470:(arc-physical vapor deposition), which is a kind of
1381:
can be deposited without contamination of the film.
97:). It is also being applied to pharmaceuticals, via
797:is the applied vapor pressure of adsorbed adatoms:
41:is a layer of material ranging from fractions of a
4156:Functional Polymer Films, 2 Volume Set 1st Edition
3503:
3483:
3463:
3443:
3412:
3306:
3271:
3204:
3156:
3134:
3077:
3050:
3030:
2991:
2880:
2841:
2689:
2638:
2602:
2573:
2551:
2462:
2436:
2409:
2382:
2362:
2340:
2288:
2165:
2138:
2109:
2035:
1989:
1952:
1925:
1905:
1886:is the thermal expansion coefficient of the film,
1878:
1851:
1829:
1733:
1009:
898:
789:
769:
740:
669:
638:
608:
448:
380:
360:
333:
313:
277:
247:
220:
193:
3727:layers used in car engines or thin films made of
899:{\displaystyle \theta ={Xp \over (p_{e}-p)\left}}
741:{\displaystyle \theta ={bP_{A} \over (1+bP_{A})}}
5404:Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance
5235:"Review of the fundamentals of thin-film growth"
4413:"One-dimensional dislocations. I. Static theory"
3719:. Often, thin films serve as protection against
3588:, is made of several layers that have different
1032:The act of applying a thin film to a surface is
6294:Materials Science of Thin Films, Second Edition
4122:Introduction to Surface and Thin Film Processes
4098:(2nd ed.). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
2195:. Strain in thin films can also be measured by
1356:characteristic of the silver film thickness in
1260:of the element to be deposited. In the case of
1200:uses a liquid precursor, usually a solution of
5523:Oliver, W. C.; Pharr, G. M. (1 January 2004).
1252:generally uses a gas-phase precursor, often a
5977:Liu, Liu; Han, Zhanghua; He, Sailing (2005).
5014:Thin-Film Deposition: Principles and Practice
4966:"Deformation in thin films by thermal strain"
3164:is calculated, the hardness is estimated by:
2581:is the direction normal to the substrate and
1320:The material to be deposited is placed in an
1235:orientations after crystallization on single
1226:or spin casting, uses a liquid precursor, or
301:The rate of change of adatom surface density
8:
6341:The Foundations of Vacuum Coating Technology
6313:Handbook of Thin Film Deposition 3rd Edition
5049:Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A
4970:Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A
2639:{\displaystyle \langle \sigma \rangle h_{f}}
2623:
2617:
2486:
2480:
2457:
2451:
2243:
2237:
2199:or by milling a section of the film using a
4746:Zotov, N.; SchĂŒtzendĂŒbe, P. (3 June 2019).
2690:{\displaystyle {\frac {6}{M_{s}h_{s}^{2}}}}
677:is the vapor pressure of adsorbed adatoms:
116:that allow the study of quantum phenomena.
5728:
5726:
4125:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press.
3648:These layers serve in both reflective and
1159:chemical deposition techniques tend to be
1135:-like process after gas-phase processing.
6085:The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters
6055:
6004:
5909:
5899:
5864:
5709:(3 ed.). Pearson. pp. 476â490.
5673:
5374:
5068:
4937:
4699:Depla, D.; Braeckman, B.R. (April 2016).
4436:
4281:
3496:
3476:
3456:
3433:
3428:
3402:
3391:
3378:
3363:
3350:
3333:
3324:
3322:
3292:
3286:
3251:
3232:
3221:
3185:
3179:
3171:
3149:
3126:
3116:
3092:
3069:
3063:
3043:
3023:
2969:
2948:
2919:
2907:
2895:
2869:
2857:
2798:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2756:
2746:
2737:
2704:
2702:
2678:
2673:
2663:
2653:
2651:
2630:
2615:
2586:
2566:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2501:
2492:
2478:
2449:
2428:
2422:
2401:
2395:
2375:
2355:
2353:
2320:
2318:
2309:
2303:
2277:
2272:
2262:
2250:
2231:
2223:
2157:
2151:
2130:
2124:
2099:
2088:
2075:
2068:
2060:
2025:
2019:
2004:
1981:
1975:
1944:
1938:
1918:
1897:
1891:
1870:
1864:
1844:
1818:
1796:
1783:
1765:
1725:
1719:
1340:Examples of physical deposition include:
1272:Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition
998:
986:
980:
958:
949:
934:
928:
880:
871:
830:
812:
804:
782:
761:
755:
726:
702:
692:
684:
661:
655:
631:
589:
575:
554:
521:
507:
480:
462:
438:
429:
397:
395:
373:
352:
346:
326:
306:
269:
263:
239:
233:
212:
206:
185:
179:
3778:
3715:
3711:
3704:
3689:
3471:is the radius of the contact circle and
1360:(ARPES). Image size is 250 nm by 250 nm.
1064:or molecules to be deposited at a time.
4052:
2463:{\displaystyle \langle \sigma \rangle }
1669:Thin films may be biaxially loaded via
1534:It has been suggested that portions of
1498:and a compound film will be deposited.
6274:Thin Film Analysis by X-Ray Scattering
6140:ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces
5943:ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces
3708:in order to suppress the formation of
3205:{\displaystyle H={\frac {P_{max}}{A}}}
3135:{\displaystyle P=\alpha (h-h_{f})^{m}}
1494:can occur during interaction with the
5493:
5491:
5443:
5441:
5332:"kSA MOS Product Specification Sheet"
5146:"Mechanical properties of thin films"
5139:
5137:
5135:
5133:
5038:
5036:
5034:
4959:
4957:
4855:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics
4694:
4692:
4089:
4087:
4085:
4083:
4081:
2036:{\displaystyle \varepsilon =-e_{T}/3}
647:vapor pressure and applied pressure.
7:
6339:Mattox, Donald M (14 January 2004).
4608:Zeitschrift fĂŒr Physikalische Chemie
4119:Venables, John A. (31 August 2000).
1961:film will develop tensile stresses.
1416:), then a layer of the other (i.e.,
1292:, uses gaseous precursor to deposit
101:. A stack of thin films is called a
5220:10.1146/annurev.ms.26.080196.002243
5193:"Mechanical Behavior of Thin Films"
5144:Nix, William D. (1 November 1989).
3921:is being used to apply solid-state
3880:third generation photovoltaic cells
3755:, as the outer ground conductor in
2417:is the thickness of the substrate,
2186:can be calculated by measuring the
1685:with the substrate. Differences in
1067:It is useful in the manufacture of
6292:Ohring, Milton (26 October 2001).
6195:Energy & Environmental Science
5302:10.1016/b978-0-12-811180-2.00023-2
5200:Annual Review of Materials Science
5011:Smith, Donald L. (22 March 1995).
4964:Murakami, Masanori (1 July 1991).
3943:thin-film bulk acoustic resonators
3806:high-electron-mobility transistors
2956:
2941:
2931:
2923:
2824:
2801:
2764:
2749:
2356:
2321:
2203:and monitoring the relaxation via
1689:and the growth and coalescence of
25:
4036:Thin-film bulk acoustic resonator
3652:systems. Large-area (reflective)
1392:fires a high-energy beam from an
1299:sequential infiltration synthesis
1262:metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy
6311:Seshan, Krishna (11 July 2017).
5349:Stoney, G. Gerald (6 May 1909).
4327:10.1016/j.scriptamat.2013.07.029
3966:Dual-polarisation interferometry
3812:Biosensors and plasmonic devices
1525:
1352:(STM) and from the emergence of
71:electronic semiconductor devices
5736:Surface and Coatings Technology
5233:Kaiser, Norbert (1 June 2002).
4270:Surface and Coatings Technology
4041:Transfer-matrix method (optics)
3735:Electrically operating coatings
2444:is the height of the film, and
5748:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2009.09.075
5615:MRS Online Proceedings Library
5502:. Springer. pp. 132â143.
5448:Chason, Eric (December 2012).
5296:, Elsevier, pp. 487â514,
4875:10.1088/0022-3727/43/42/425205
4292:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2011.01.007
3263:
3238:
3123:
3103:
2913:
2900:
2881:{\displaystyle \sigma (h_{f})}
2875:
2862:
2819:
2807:
2743:
2730:
2597:
2591:
2540:
2534:
1824:
1805:
1802:
1776:
1683:thermal expansion coefficients
1442:relies on a plasma (usually a
1004:
973:
964:
943:
868:
856:
842:
823:
732:
710:
162:The two types of adsorptions,
1:
6343:. William Andrew Publishing.
6315:. William Andrew Publishing.
6243:. Woodbank Communications Ltd
5576:Journal of Materials Research
5529:Journal of Materials Research
4930:10.1016/j.actamat.2022.118432
3991:Kelvin probe force microscope
3919:Thin-film printing technology
1478:resulting in a high level of
1432:) or by a chemical reaction (
1182:in the solution (usually for
388:is the sticking coefficient:
5812:10.1016/j.apsusc.2022.154844
5150:Metallurgical Transactions A
5017:. McGraw Hill Professional.
4752:synchrotron radiation study"
3866:. The rationale for this is
3852:Thin-film photovoltaic cells
3798:two-dimensional electron gas
3584:, as used for instance in a
3540:In the physical sciences, a
2363:{\displaystyle \mathrm {E} }
2211:Wafer Curvature Measurements
2205:scanning electron microscopy
1852:{\displaystyle \varepsilon }
1194:Chemical solution deposition
6097:10.1021/acs.jpclett.9b00869
2178:Measuring stress and strain
1906:{\displaystyle \alpha _{s}}
1879:{\displaystyle \alpha _{f}}
1460:process. Pulses of focused
6400:
5836:Journal of Applied Physics
5191:Vinci, Richard P. (1996).
5106:10.1109/STYSW.2010.5714177
4756:Journal of Applied Physics
4655:Journal of Applied Physics
4378:Journal of Applied Physics
4363:10.1103/PhysRevB.72.235418
3855:
3829:Surface plasmon polaritons
3761:integrated passive devices
3637:
2603:{\displaystyle \sigma (z)}
1621:
1595:Frankâvan der Merwe growth
1426:molecular layer deposition
1358:photoemission spectroscopy
1290:molecular layer deposition
1274:uses an ionized vapor, or
1058:molecular layer deposition
75:integrated passive devices
29:
5474:10.1016/j.tsf.2012.11.001
5424:10.1007/s11665-018-3132-1
5288:Barbier, Antoine (2018),
4725:10.1016/j.tsf.2016.03.039
3825:surface plasmon resonance
3555:The term "multilayer" is
2383:{\displaystyle \upsilon }
1933:is the temperature, and
1650:chemical vapor deposition
1601:StranskiâKrastanov growth
1537:StranskiâKrastanov growth
1315:physical vapor deposition
1288:and its sister technique
1250:Chemical vapor deposition
1133:chemical vapor deposition
1109:aluminium-coated PET film
361:{\displaystyle \tau _{a}}
144:Adsorption and desorption
4823:10.1103/physrevb.44.3369
4131:10.1017/cbo9780511755651
1574:Frankâvan-der-Merwe mode
1390:electron beam evaporator
1198:chemical bath deposition
1123:, and the deposition of
1077:anti-reflective coatings
1060:allow a single layer of
1050:LangmuirâBlodgett method
67:magnetic recording media
5800:Applied Surface Science
5549:10.1557/jmr.2004.19.1.3
4620:10.1515/zpch-1926-11927
4384:(4): 043304â043304â12.
4094:Ohring, Milton (2002).
3900:copper zinc tin sulfide
3819:thin films are used in
3749:electrical conductivity
3596:Giant magnetoresistance
3530:Lead Zirconate Titanate
3307:{\displaystyle E_{eff}}
3144:After the contact area
1859:is the elastic strain,
1654:pulsed laser deposition
1582:StranskiâKrastanov mode
1509:takes a conical shape (
1468:Cathodic arc deposition
1454:Pulsed laser deposition
1422:atomic layer deposition
1286:Atomic layer deposition
1054:atomic layer deposition
381:{\displaystyle \sigma }
99:thin-film drug delivery
6152:10.1021/acsami.0c14732
6006:10.1364/OPEX.13.006645
5956:10.1021/acsami.7b10136
5843:(7): 074303â074303â7.
5707:Introduction to Optics
5675:10.1002/adma.201803312
5376:10.1098/rspa.1909.0021
4534:10.1098/rspa.1949.0163
4482:10.1098/rspa.1949.0096
4438:10.1098/rspa.1949.0095
4231:10.1002/adma.201302283
4021:Thin-film interference
3996:LangmuirâBlodgett film
3908:perovskite solar cells
3753:printed circuit boards
3744:
3505:
3485:
3465:
3445:
3414:
3308:
3273:
3206:
3158:
3136:
3079:
3052:
3032:
2993:
2882:
2843:
2691:
2640:
2604:
2575:
2553:
2464:
2438:
2411:
2384:
2364:
2342:
2290:
2167:
2140:
2111:
2037:
1991:
1954:
1927:
1907:
1880:
1853:
1831:
1735:
1646:molecular beam epitaxy
1591:
1583:
1575:
1406:molecular beam epitaxy
1383:Molecular beam epitaxy
1361:
1046:Molecular beam epitaxy
1011:
900:
791:
771:
742:
671:
640:
610:
450:
382:
362:
335:
315:
279:
249:
222:
195:
110:multiferroic materials
27:Thin layer of material
5588:10.1557/JMR.1992.0613
3868:thin-film solar cells
3856:Further information:
3742:
3699:microelectronic chips
3665:of titanium dioxide,
3638:Further information:
3506:
3486:
3466:
3446:
3415:
3309:
3274:
3207:
3159:
3137:
3080:
3078:{\displaystyle h_{f}}
3053:
3038:designates the load,
3033:
2994:
2883:
2844:
2692:
2641:
2605:
2576:
2554:
2465:
2439:
2437:{\displaystyle h_{f}}
2412:
2410:{\displaystyle h_{s}}
2385:
2365:
2343:
2291:
2168:
2166:{\displaystyle a_{f}}
2141:
2139:{\displaystyle a_{s}}
2112:
2038:
1992:
1990:{\displaystyle e_{T}}
1955:
1953:{\displaystyle T_{0}}
1928:
1908:
1881:
1854:
1832:
1736:
1734:{\displaystyle e_{T}}
1677:between the coherent
1622:Further information:
1589:
1581:
1573:
1434:chemical beam epitaxy
1346:
1012:
901:
792:
772:
770:{\displaystyle p_{e}}
743:
672:
670:{\displaystyle P_{A}}
650:Langmuir model where
641:
611:
451:
383:
363:
336:
316:
280:
278:{\displaystyle E_{a}}
250:
248:{\displaystyle E_{a}}
223:
221:{\displaystyle E_{c}}
196:
194:{\displaystyle E_{p}}
91:thin-film solar cells
79:light-emitting diodes
6369:Artificial materials
6057:10.1364/OE.22.020107
5742:(12â13): 2055â2059.
5259:10.1364/ao.41.003053
4065:www.electropedia.org
4031:Thin-film solar cell
3981:Flexible electronics
3858:Thin film solar cell
3567:", which describe a
3495:
3475:
3455:
3427:
3321:
3285:
3220:
3170:
3148:
3091:
3062:
3042:
3022:
2894:
2856:
2701:
2650:
2614:
2585:
2565:
2477:
2448:
2421:
2394:
2374:
2352:
2302:
2222:
2150:
2123:
2059:
2003:
1974:
1937:
1917:
1890:
1863:
1843:
1764:
1718:
1548:into this section. (
1350:tunneling microscopy
1034:thin-film deposition
927:
803:
781:
754:
683:
654:
630:
461:
394:
372:
345:
325:
305:
262:
232:
205:
178:
153:sticking coefficient
6146:(47): 52643â52651.
6048:2014OExpr..2220107L
6042:(17): 20107â20116.
5997:2005OExpr..13.6645L
5950:(42): 37374â37385.
5849:2010JAP...108g4303S
5666:2019AdM....3103312P
5627:10.1557/PROC-522-27
5541:2004JMatR..19....3O
5466:2012TSF...526....1C
5416:2018JMEP...27..457T
5367:1909RSPSA..82..172S
5251:2002ApOpt..41.3053K
5212:1996AnRMS..26..431V
5162:1989MTA....20.2217N
5061:2018JVSTA..36b0801A
4982:1991JVSTA...9.2469M
4922:2023AcMat.24218432Z
4867:2010JPhD...43P5205R
4815:1991PhRvB..44.3369K
4768:2019JAP...125u5302Z
4717:2016TSF...604...90D
4667:2001JAP....89.4886F
4526:1949RSPSA.200..125F
4474:1949RSPSA.198..216F
4429:1949RSPSA.198..205F
4390:2011JAP...110d3304R
4355:2005PhRvB..72w5418T
4223:2013AdM....25.6477A
3931:Thin-film batteries
3914:Thin-film batteries
3892:polymer solar cells
3872:printed electronics
3846:plasmonic waveguide
3823:structures such as
3765:integrated circuits
3725:diamond-like carbon
3681:Protective coatings
3671:smart phone cameras
3608:Decorative coatings
3444:{\displaystyle a/t}
2797:
2683:
2530:
2282:
1660:Mechanical Behavior
1502:Electrohydrodynamic
1472:ion beam deposition
1456:systems work by an
1354:quantum-well states
1305:Physical deposition
1150:Chemical deposition
1101:integrated circuits
1081:self-cleaning glass
95:thin-film batteries
6296:. Academic Press.
6207:10.1039/D1EE00832C
5887:Scientific Reports
5654:Advanced Materials
5170:10.1007/BF02666659
5100:. pp. 82â85.
4577:10.1007/BF01798103
4315:Scripta Materialia
4211:Advanced Materials
4186:. 15 November 2017
3745:
3590:refractive indexes
3515:Strain engineering
3501:
3481:
3461:
3441:
3410:
3304:
3269:
3202:
3154:
3132:
3075:
3048:
3028:
2989:
2878:
2839:
2776:
2687:
2669:
2636:
2600:
2571:
2549:
2509:
2460:
2434:
2407:
2380:
2360:
2338:
2286:
2268:
2163:
2136:
2107:
2033:
1987:
1950:
1923:
1903:
1876:
1849:
1827:
1731:
1687:interfacial energy
1592:
1584:
1576:
1362:
1007:
896:
787:
767:
738:
667:
636:
606:
446:
378:
358:
341:is the net flux,
331:
311:
275:
245:
218:
191:
6374:Materials science
5991:(17): 6645â6650.
5901:10.1038/srep09929
5857:10.1063/1.3485825
5509:978-1-4757-5943-3
5338:. 18 August 2021.
5311:978-0-12-811180-2
5245:(16): 3053â3060.
5156:(11): 2217â2245.
5115:978-1-4244-8324-2
5070:10.1116/1.5011790
5024:978-0-07-058502-7
4803:Physical Review B
4776:10.1063/1.5094286
4675:10.1063/1.1352563
4520:(1053): 125â134.
4468:(1053): 216â225.
4423:(1053): 205â216.
4398:10.1063/1.3624768
4343:Physical Review B
4276:(12): 3658â3664.
4184:IBM Research Blog
4140:978-0-521-78500-6
3961:Dielectric mirror
3802:electron mobility
3586:dielectric mirror
3559:an extension of "
3546:stratified medium
3536:Multilayer medium
3504:{\displaystyle h}
3484:{\displaystyle t}
3464:{\displaystyle a}
3408:
3373:
3345:
3245:
3200:
3157:{\displaystyle A}
3051:{\displaystyle h}
3031:{\displaystyle P}
2987:
2964:
2963:
2938:
2831:
2771:
2722:
2685:
2574:{\displaystyle z}
2507:
2336:
2284:
2197:x-ray diffraction
2193:optical constants
2105:
2049:Epitaxial Strains
1926:{\displaystyle T}
1590:VolmerâWeber mode
1566:
1565:
1213:LangmuirâBlodgett
1115:(see the work of
1083:, for instance),
921:be describes by:
918:Surface diffusion
913:Surface diffusion
894:
886:
790:{\displaystyle p}
736:
639:{\displaystyle b}
595:
527:
444:
415:
334:{\displaystyle J}
314:{\displaystyle n}
290:Nucleation models
138:surface diffusion
16:(Redirected from
6391:
6354:
6326:
6307:
6288:
6253:
6252:
6250:
6248:
6233:
6227:
6226:
6201:(6): 3420â3429.
6186:
6180:
6179:
6131:
6125:
6124:
6091:(9): 2058â2065.
6076:
6070:
6069:
6059:
6025:
6019:
6018:
6008:
5974:
5968:
5967:
5939:
5930:
5924:
5923:
5913:
5903:
5877:
5871:
5870:
5868:
5830:
5824:
5823:
5791:
5785:
5784:
5766:
5760:
5759:
5730:
5721:
5720:
5702:
5696:
5695:
5677:
5645:
5639:
5638:
5606:
5600:
5599:
5567:
5561:
5560:
5520:
5514:
5513:
5495:
5486:
5485:
5454:Thin Solid Films
5445:
5436:
5435:
5395:
5389:
5388:
5378:
5361:(553): 172â175.
5346:
5340:
5339:
5328:
5322:
5321:
5320:
5318:
5285:
5279:
5278:
5230:
5224:
5223:
5197:
5188:
5182:
5181:
5141:
5128:
5127:
5089:
5083:
5082:
5072:
5040:
5029:
5028:
5008:
5002:
5001:
4990:10.1116/1.577258
4976:(4): 2469â2476.
4961:
4952:
4951:
4941:
4901:
4895:
4894:
4849:
4843:
4842:
4809:(7): 3369â3372.
4794:
4788:
4787:
4743:
4737:
4736:
4705:Thin Solid Films
4696:
4687:
4686:
4661:(9): 4886â4897.
4646:
4640:
4639:
4603:
4597:
4596:
4560:
4554:
4553:
4508:
4502:
4501:
4457:
4451:
4450:
4440:
4408:
4402:
4401:
4373:
4367:
4366:
4337:
4331:
4330:
4310:
4304:
4303:
4285:
4265:
4259:
4258:
4202:
4196:
4195:
4193:
4191:
4176:
4170:
4169:
4151:
4145:
4144:
4116:
4110:
4109:
4091:
4076:
4075:
4073:
4071:
4057:
4026:Thin-film optics
4006:Microfabrication
3976:Flexible display
3925:to a variety of
3923:lithium polymers
3786:Heterostructures
3781:
3773:titanium nitride
3718:
3707:
3692:
3644:Thin film optics
3634:Optical coatings
3628:titanium nitride
3623:titanium dioxide
3619:refractive index
3521:microelectronics
3510:
3508:
3507:
3502:
3490:
3488:
3487:
3482:
3470:
3468:
3467:
3462:
3450:
3448:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3419:
3417:
3416:
3411:
3409:
3407:
3406:
3397:
3396:
3395:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3368:
3367:
3351:
3346:
3344:
3343:
3325:
3313:
3311:
3310:
3305:
3303:
3302:
3278:
3276:
3275:
3270:
3262:
3261:
3246:
3244:
3233:
3211:
3209:
3208:
3203:
3201:
3196:
3195:
3180:
3163:
3161:
3160:
3155:
3141:
3139:
3138:
3133:
3131:
3130:
3121:
3120:
3084:
3082:
3081:
3076:
3074:
3073:
3057:
3055:
3054:
3049:
3037:
3035:
3034:
3029:
2998:
2996:
2995:
2990:
2988:
2986:
2978:
2970:
2965:
2962:
2954:
2953:
2952:
2939:
2937:
2929:
2921:
2920:
2912:
2911:
2887:
2885:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2873:
2848:
2846:
2845:
2840:
2832:
2830:
2822:
2799:
2796:
2795:
2794:
2784:
2772:
2770:
2762:
2761:
2760:
2747:
2742:
2741:
2723:
2721:
2713:
2705:
2696:
2694:
2693:
2688:
2686:
2684:
2682:
2677:
2668:
2667:
2654:
2645:
2643:
2642:
2637:
2635:
2634:
2609:
2607:
2606:
2601:
2580:
2578:
2577:
2572:
2558:
2556:
2555:
2550:
2529:
2528:
2527:
2517:
2508:
2506:
2505:
2493:
2469:
2467:
2466:
2461:
2443:
2441:
2440:
2435:
2433:
2432:
2416:
2414:
2413:
2408:
2406:
2405:
2389:
2387:
2386:
2381:
2369:
2367:
2366:
2361:
2359:
2347:
2345:
2344:
2339:
2337:
2335:
2324:
2319:
2314:
2313:
2295:
2293:
2292:
2287:
2285:
2283:
2281:
2276:
2267:
2266:
2256:
2255:
2254:
2232:
2201:focused ion beam
2172:
2170:
2169:
2164:
2162:
2161:
2145:
2143:
2142:
2137:
2135:
2134:
2116:
2114:
2113:
2108:
2106:
2104:
2103:
2094:
2093:
2092:
2080:
2079:
2069:
2042:
2040:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2023:
1996:
1994:
1993:
1988:
1986:
1985:
1959:
1957:
1956:
1951:
1949:
1948:
1932:
1930:
1929:
1924:
1912:
1910:
1909:
1904:
1902:
1901:
1885:
1883:
1882:
1877:
1875:
1874:
1858:
1856:
1855:
1850:
1836:
1834:
1833:
1828:
1823:
1822:
1801:
1800:
1788:
1787:
1748:grain boundaries
1740:
1738:
1737:
1732:
1730:
1729:
1561:
1558:
1529:
1528:
1521:
1410:gallium arsenide
1113:contemporary art
1021:Ostwald ripening
1016:
1014:
1013:
1008:
1003:
1002:
990:
985:
984:
963:
962:
953:
939:
938:
905:
903:
902:
897:
895:
893:
892:
888:
887:
885:
884:
872:
835:
834:
821:
813:
796:
794:
793:
788:
776:
774:
773:
768:
766:
765:
750:BET model where
747:
745:
744:
739:
737:
735:
731:
730:
708:
707:
706:
693:
676:
674:
673:
668:
666:
665:
645:
643:
642:
637:
615:
613:
612:
607:
605:
601:
600:
596:
594:
593:
584:
576:
559:
558:
537:
533:
532:
528:
526:
525:
516:
508:
485:
484:
455:
453:
452:
447:
445:
443:
442:
430:
416:
414:
406:
398:
387:
385:
384:
379:
367:
365:
364:
359:
357:
356:
340:
338:
337:
332:
320:
318:
317:
312:
284:
282:
281:
276:
274:
273:
254:
252:
251:
246:
244:
243:
227:
225:
224:
219:
217:
216:
200:
198:
197:
192:
190:
189:
83:optical coatings
32:Thin-film memory
21:
6399:
6398:
6394:
6393:
6392:
6390:
6389:
6388:
6359:
6358:
6357:
6351:
6338:
6329:
6323:
6310:
6304:
6291:
6285:
6270:
6261:
6259:Further reading
6256:
6246:
6244:
6235:
6234:
6230:
6188:
6187:
6183:
6133:
6132:
6128:
6078:
6077:
6073:
6027:
6026:
6022:
5976:
5975:
5971:
5937:
5932:
5931:
5927:
5879:
5878:
5874:
5832:
5831:
5827:
5820:1854/LU-8719549
5793:
5792:
5788:
5781:
5768:
5767:
5763:
5732:
5731:
5724:
5717:
5704:
5703:
5699:
5647:
5646:
5642:
5608:
5607:
5603:
5569:
5568:
5564:
5522:
5521:
5517:
5510:
5500:Nanoindentation
5497:
5496:
5489:
5447:
5446:
5439:
5397:
5396:
5392:
5348:
5347:
5343:
5330:
5329:
5325:
5316:
5314:
5312:
5287:
5286:
5282:
5232:
5231:
5227:
5195:
5190:
5189:
5185:
5143:
5142:
5131:
5116:
5091:
5090:
5086:
5042:
5041:
5032:
5025:
5010:
5009:
5005:
4963:
4962:
4955:
4910:Acta Materialia
4903:
4902:
4898:
4851:
4850:
4846:
4796:
4795:
4791:
4745:
4744:
4740:
4698:
4697:
4690:
4648:
4647:
4643:
4605:
4604:
4600:
4562:
4561:
4557:
4510:
4509:
4505:
4459:
4458:
4454:
4410:
4409:
4405:
4375:
4374:
4370:
4339:
4338:
4334:
4312:
4311:
4307:
4267:
4266:
4262:
4204:
4203:
4199:
4189:
4187:
4178:
4177:
4173:
4166:
4153:
4152:
4148:
4141:
4118:
4117:
4113:
4106:
4093:
4092:
4079:
4069:
4067:
4059:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4045:
3986:Hydrogenography
3951:
3939:
3916:
3860:
3854:
3827:(SPR) sensors.
3814:
3790:gallium nitride
3780:
3776:
3737:
3717:
3713:
3709:
3706:
3702:
3691:
3687:
3683:
3667:silicon nitride
3646:
3640:Optical coating
3636:
3610:
3605:
3582:optical coating
3577:
3538:
3517:
3493:
3492:
3473:
3472:
3453:
3452:
3425:
3424:
3398:
3387:
3380:
3359:
3352:
3329:
3319:
3318:
3288:
3283:
3282:
3247:
3237:
3218:
3217:
3181:
3168:
3167:
3146:
3145:
3122:
3112:
3089:
3088:
3065:
3060:
3059:
3040:
3039:
3020:
3019:
3007:Nanoindentation
3004:
3002:Nanoindentation
2979:
2971:
2955:
2944:
2940:
2930:
2922:
2903:
2892:
2891:
2865:
2854:
2853:
2823:
2800:
2786:
2763:
2752:
2748:
2733:
2714:
2706:
2699:
2698:
2659:
2658:
2648:
2647:
2626:
2612:
2611:
2583:
2582:
2563:
2562:
2519:
2497:
2475:
2474:
2446:
2445:
2424:
2419:
2418:
2397:
2392:
2391:
2372:
2371:
2350:
2349:
2325:
2305:
2300:
2299:
2258:
2257:
2246:
2233:
2220:
2219:
2213:
2180:
2153:
2148:
2147:
2126:
2121:
2120:
2095:
2084:
2071:
2070:
2057:
2056:
2051:
2015:
2001:
2000:
1977:
1972:
1971:
1967:
1940:
1935:
1934:
1915:
1914:
1893:
1888:
1887:
1866:
1861:
1860:
1841:
1840:
1814:
1792:
1779:
1762:
1761:
1756:
1721:
1716:
1715:
1712:
1667:
1662:
1626:
1620:
1562:
1556:
1553:
1530:
1526:
1519:
1379:heating element
1307:
1152:
1030:
994:
976:
954:
930:
925:
924:
915:
876:
849:
845:
826:
822:
814:
801:
800:
779:
778:
757:
752:
751:
722:
709:
698:
694:
681:
680:
657:
652:
651:
628:
627:
585:
577:
571:
564:
560:
550:
517:
509:
503:
490:
486:
476:
459:
458:
434:
407:
399:
392:
391:
370:
369:
348:
343:
342:
323:
322:
303:
302:
292:
265:
260:
259:
235:
230:
229:
208:
203:
202:
181:
176:
175:
146:
122:
93:) and storage (
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6397:
6395:
6387:
6386:
6381:
6379:Nanotechnology
6376:
6371:
6361:
6360:
6356:
6355:
6350:978-0815514954
6349:
6335:
6334:
6333:
6328:
6327:
6322:978-1437778731
6321:
6308:
6303:978-1493301720
6302:
6289:
6284:978-3527310524
6283:
6267:
6266:
6265:
6260:
6257:
6255:
6254:
6228:
6181:
6126:
6071:
6035:Optics Express
6020:
5984:Optics Express
5969:
5925:
5872:
5825:
5786:
5780:978-1461471646
5779:
5761:
5722:
5716:978-0131499331
5715:
5697:
5660:(5): 1803312.
5640:
5601:
5582:(3): 613â617.
5562:
5515:
5508:
5487:
5437:
5410:(2): 457â470.
5390:
5341:
5323:
5310:
5280:
5239:Applied Optics
5225:
5183:
5129:
5114:
5084:
5030:
5023:
5003:
4953:
4896:
4861:(42): 425205.
4844:
4789:
4738:
4688:
4641:
4614:(1): 277â301.
4598:
4571:(1): 351â364.
4555:
4503:
4452:
4403:
4368:
4349:(23): 235418.
4332:
4305:
4260:
4197:
4171:
4165:978-3527321902
4164:
4146:
4139:
4111:
4104:
4077:
4051:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4043:
4038:
4033:
4028:
4023:
4018:
4013:
4008:
4003:
4001:Layer by layer
3998:
3993:
3988:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3968:
3963:
3958:
3952:
3950:
3947:
3938:
3935:
3915:
3912:
3888:dye-sensitized
3853:
3850:
3813:
3810:
3794:semiconductors
3757:coaxial cables
3736:
3733:
3729:nanocomposites
3682:
3679:
3635:
3632:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3600:
3599:
3593:
3576:
3573:
3537:
3534:
3516:
3513:
3500:
3480:
3460:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3405:
3401:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3383:
3377:
3372:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3355:
3349:
3342:
3339:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3301:
3298:
3295:
3291:
3268:
3265:
3260:
3257:
3254:
3250:
3243:
3240:
3236:
3231:
3228:
3225:
3199:
3194:
3191:
3188:
3184:
3178:
3175:
3153:
3129:
3125:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3108:
3105:
3102:
3099:
3096:
3072:
3068:
3047:
3027:
3003:
3000:
2985:
2982:
2977:
2974:
2968:
2961:
2958:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2936:
2933:
2928:
2925:
2918:
2915:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2899:
2877:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2861:
2838:
2835:
2829:
2826:
2821:
2818:
2815:
2812:
2809:
2806:
2803:
2793:
2789:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2769:
2766:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2745:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2729:
2726:
2720:
2717:
2712:
2709:
2681:
2676:
2672:
2666:
2662:
2657:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2622:
2619:
2599:
2596:
2593:
2590:
2570:
2548:
2545:
2542:
2539:
2536:
2533:
2526:
2522:
2516:
2512:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2491:
2488:
2485:
2482:
2459:
2456:
2453:
2431:
2427:
2404:
2400:
2379:
2358:
2334:
2331:
2328:
2323:
2317:
2312:
2308:
2280:
2275:
2271:
2265:
2261:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2242:
2239:
2236:
2230:
2227:
2212:
2209:
2179:
2176:
2160:
2156:
2133:
2129:
2102:
2098:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2078:
2074:
2067:
2064:
2050:
2047:
2032:
2028:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2011:
2008:
1984:
1980:
1966:
1963:
1947:
1943:
1922:
1900:
1896:
1873:
1869:
1848:
1826:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1810:
1807:
1804:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1775:
1772:
1769:
1755:
1754:Thermal Strain
1752:
1728:
1724:
1711:
1708:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1619:
1616:
1564:
1563:
1533:
1531:
1524:
1518:
1515:
1398:vapor pressure
1375:vapor pressure
1333:, rather than
1306:
1303:
1266:organometallic
1202:organometallic
1188:electroplating
1165:, rather than
1154:Here, a fluid
1151:
1148:
1121:electroplating
1093:semiconductors
1029:
1026:
1006:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
983:
979:
975:
972:
969:
966:
961:
957:
952:
948:
945:
942:
937:
933:
914:
911:
891:
883:
879:
875:
870:
867:
864:
861:
858:
855:
852:
848:
844:
841:
838:
833:
829:
825:
820:
817:
811:
808:
786:
764:
760:
734:
729:
725:
721:
718:
715:
712:
705:
701:
697:
691:
688:
664:
660:
635:
620:Langmuir model
604:
599:
592:
588:
583:
580:
574:
570:
567:
563:
557:
553:
549:
546:
543:
540:
536:
531:
524:
520:
515:
512:
506:
502:
499:
496:
493:
489:
483:
479:
475:
472:
469:
466:
441:
437:
433:
428:
425:
422:
419:
413:
410:
405:
402:
377:
355:
351:
330:
310:
291:
288:
272:
268:
242:
238:
215:
211:
188:
184:
145:
142:
121:
118:
87:antireflective
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6396:
6385:
6382:
6380:
6377:
6375:
6372:
6370:
6367:
6366:
6364:
6352:
6346:
6342:
6337:
6336:
6331:
6330:
6324:
6318:
6314:
6309:
6305:
6299:
6295:
6290:
6286:
6280:
6277:. Wiley-VCH.
6276:
6275:
6269:
6268:
6263:
6262:
6258:
6242:
6238:
6232:
6229:
6224:
6220:
6216:
6212:
6208:
6204:
6200:
6196:
6192:
6185:
6182:
6177:
6173:
6169:
6165:
6161:
6157:
6153:
6149:
6145:
6141:
6137:
6130:
6127:
6122:
6118:
6114:
6110:
6106:
6102:
6098:
6094:
6090:
6086:
6082:
6075:
6072:
6067:
6063:
6058:
6053:
6049:
6045:
6041:
6037:
6036:
6031:
6024:
6021:
6016:
6012:
6007:
6002:
5998:
5994:
5990:
5986:
5985:
5980:
5973:
5970:
5965:
5961:
5957:
5953:
5949:
5945:
5944:
5936:
5929:
5926:
5921:
5917:
5912:
5907:
5902:
5897:
5893:
5889:
5888:
5883:
5876:
5873:
5867:
5862:
5858:
5854:
5850:
5846:
5842:
5838:
5837:
5829:
5826:
5821:
5817:
5813:
5809:
5805:
5801:
5797:
5790:
5787:
5782:
5776:
5772:
5765:
5762:
5757:
5753:
5749:
5745:
5741:
5737:
5729:
5727:
5723:
5718:
5712:
5708:
5701:
5698:
5693:
5689:
5685:
5681:
5676:
5671:
5667:
5663:
5659:
5655:
5651:
5644:
5641:
5636:
5632:
5628:
5624:
5620:
5616:
5612:
5605:
5602:
5597:
5593:
5589:
5585:
5581:
5577:
5573:
5566:
5563:
5558:
5554:
5550:
5546:
5542:
5538:
5534:
5530:
5526:
5519:
5516:
5511:
5505:
5501:
5494:
5492:
5488:
5483:
5479:
5475:
5471:
5467:
5463:
5459:
5455:
5451:
5444:
5442:
5438:
5433:
5429:
5425:
5421:
5417:
5413:
5409:
5405:
5401:
5394:
5391:
5386:
5382:
5377:
5372:
5368:
5364:
5360:
5356:
5352:
5345:
5342:
5337:
5333:
5327:
5324:
5313:
5307:
5303:
5299:
5295:
5291:
5284:
5281:
5276:
5272:
5268:
5264:
5260:
5256:
5252:
5248:
5244:
5240:
5236:
5229:
5226:
5221:
5217:
5213:
5209:
5205:
5201:
5194:
5187:
5184:
5179:
5175:
5171:
5167:
5163:
5159:
5155:
5151:
5147:
5140:
5138:
5136:
5134:
5130:
5125:
5121:
5117:
5111:
5107:
5103:
5099:
5095:
5088:
5085:
5080:
5076:
5071:
5066:
5062:
5058:
5055:(2): 020801.
5054:
5050:
5046:
5039:
5037:
5035:
5031:
5026:
5020:
5016:
5015:
5007:
5004:
4999:
4995:
4991:
4987:
4983:
4979:
4975:
4971:
4967:
4960:
4958:
4954:
4949:
4945:
4940:
4935:
4931:
4927:
4923:
4919:
4915:
4911:
4907:
4900:
4897:
4892:
4888:
4884:
4880:
4876:
4872:
4868:
4864:
4860:
4856:
4848:
4845:
4840:
4836:
4832:
4828:
4824:
4820:
4816:
4812:
4808:
4804:
4800:
4793:
4790:
4785:
4781:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4765:
4761:
4757:
4753:
4751:
4742:
4739:
4734:
4730:
4726:
4722:
4718:
4714:
4710:
4706:
4702:
4695:
4693:
4689:
4684:
4680:
4676:
4672:
4668:
4664:
4660:
4656:
4652:
4645:
4642:
4637:
4633:
4629:
4625:
4621:
4617:
4613:
4609:
4602:
4599:
4594:
4590:
4586:
4582:
4578:
4574:
4570:
4566:
4559:
4556:
4551:
4547:
4543:
4539:
4535:
4531:
4527:
4523:
4519:
4515:
4507:
4504:
4499:
4495:
4491:
4487:
4483:
4479:
4475:
4471:
4467:
4463:
4456:
4453:
4448:
4444:
4439:
4434:
4430:
4426:
4422:
4418:
4414:
4407:
4404:
4399:
4395:
4391:
4387:
4383:
4379:
4372:
4369:
4364:
4360:
4356:
4352:
4348:
4344:
4336:
4333:
4328:
4324:
4320:
4316:
4309:
4306:
4301:
4297:
4293:
4289:
4284:
4279:
4275:
4271:
4264:
4261:
4256:
4252:
4248:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4220:
4216:
4212:
4208:
4201:
4198:
4185:
4181:
4175:
4172:
4167:
4161:
4158:. Wiley-VCH.
4157:
4150:
4147:
4142:
4136:
4132:
4128:
4124:
4123:
4115:
4112:
4107:
4105:9780125249751
4101:
4097:
4090:
4088:
4086:
4084:
4082:
4078:
4066:
4062:
4056:
4053:
4047:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3992:
3989:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3953:
3948:
3946:
3944:
3936:
3934:
3932:
3928:
3924:
3920:
3913:
3911:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3897:
3894:, as well as
3893:
3889:
3885:
3882:and include,
3881:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3859:
3851:
3849:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3830:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3811:
3809:
3807:
3803:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3754:
3750:
3741:
3734:
3732:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3700:
3696:
3680:
3678:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3655:
3651:
3645:
3641:
3633:
3631:
3629:
3624:
3620:
3615:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3594:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3578:
3574:
3572:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3558:
3553:
3551:
3547:
3543:
3535:
3533:
3531:
3527:
3522:
3514:
3512:
3498:
3478:
3458:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3420:
3403:
3399:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3381:
3375:
3370:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3353:
3347:
3340:
3337:
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3330:
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3316:
3299:
3296:
3293:
3289:
3279:
3266:
3258:
3255:
3252:
3248:
3241:
3234:
3229:
3226:
3223:
3215:
3212:
3197:
3192:
3189:
3186:
3182:
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3173:
3165:
3151:
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3127:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3106:
3100:
3097:
3094:
3086:
3070:
3066:
3045:
3025:
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3008:
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2975:
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2836:
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2810:
2804:
2791:
2787:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2767:
2757:
2753:
2738:
2734:
2727:
2724:
2718:
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2679:
2674:
2670:
2664:
2660:
2655:
2631:
2627:
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2568:
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2483:
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2377:
2332:
2329:
2326:
2315:
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2306:
2296:
2278:
2273:
2269:
2263:
2259:
2251:
2247:
2240:
2234:
2228:
2225:
2217:
2210:
2208:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2189:
2185:
2177:
2175:
2158:
2154:
2131:
2127:
2117:
2100:
2096:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2076:
2072:
2065:
2062:
2054:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2030:
2026:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2009:
2006:
1998:
1982:
1978:
1965:Growth Strain
1964:
1962:
1945:
1941:
1920:
1898:
1894:
1871:
1867:
1846:
1837:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1808:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1784:
1780:
1773:
1770:
1767:
1759:
1753:
1751:
1749:
1745:
1726:
1722:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
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1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1664:
1659:
1657:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1642:
1640:
1639:Heteroepitaxy
1635:
1630:
1625:
1617:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1598:
1596:
1588:
1580:
1572:
1568:
1560:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1538:
1532:
1523:
1522:
1516:
1514:
1512:
1508:
1503:
1499:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1476:power density
1473:
1469:
1465:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1435:
1431:
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1367:
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1355:
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1341:
1338:
1336:
1332:
1327:
1323:
1318:
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1312:
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1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1244:
1240:
1238:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1219:
1218:nanoparticles
1214:
1209:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1170:
1168:
1164:
1163:
1157:
1149:
1147:
1145:
1141:
1136:
1134:
1130:
1127:and enriched
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1065:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1017:
999:
995:
991:
987:
981:
977:
970:
967:
959:
955:
950:
946:
940:
935:
931:
922:
919:
912:
910:
906:
889:
881:
877:
873:
865:
862:
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853:
850:
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839:
836:
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815:
809:
806:
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648:
633:
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616:
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581:
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534:
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522:
518:
513:
510:
504:
500:
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494:
491:
487:
481:
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464:
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439:
435:
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423:
420:
417:
411:
408:
403:
400:
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349:
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308:
299:
297:
289:
287:
270:
266:
256:
240:
236:
213:
209:
186:
182:
173:
172:Van der Waals
169:
168:chemisorption
165:
164:physisorption
160:
158:
154:
150:
143:
141:
139:
135:
131:
126:
119:
117:
115:
114:superlattices
111:
106:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
49:) to several
48:
44:
40:
33:
19:
6340:
6312:
6293:
6273:
6245:. Retrieved
6241:mpoweruk.com
6240:
6231:
6198:
6194:
6184:
6143:
6139:
6129:
6088:
6084:
6074:
6039:
6033:
6023:
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5982:
5972:
5947:
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5885:
5875:
5840:
5834:
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5799:
5789:
5770:
5764:
5739:
5735:
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5700:
5657:
5653:
5643:
5621:(1): 27â32.
5618:
5614:
5604:
5579:
5575:
5565:
5532:
5528:
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5499:
5457:
5453:
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5358:
5354:
5344:
5335:
5326:
5315:, retrieved
5293:
5283:
5242:
5238:
5228:
5203:
5199:
5186:
5153:
5149:
5097:
5087:
5052:
5048:
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5006:
4973:
4969:
4913:
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4854:
4847:
4806:
4802:
4792:
4759:
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4749:
4741:
4708:
4704:
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4654:
4644:
4611:
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4601:
4568:
4564:
4558:
4517:
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4506:
4465:
4461:
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4381:
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4342:
4335:
4318:
4314:
4308:
4273:
4269:
4263:
4214:
4210:
4200:
4188:. Retrieved
4183:
4174:
4155:
4149:
4121:
4114:
4095:
4068:. Retrieved
4064:
4055:
3971:Ellipsometry
3940:
3917:
3876:roll-to-roll
3861:
3815:
3792:and similar
3784:
3746:
3684:
3675:solar panels
3647:
3611:
3603:Applications
3568:
3556:
3554:
3545:
3541:
3539:
3518:
3421:
3317:
3280:
3216:
3213:
3166:
3143:
3087:
3012:
3005:
2890:
2850:
2560:
2473:
2297:
2218:
2214:
2181:
2118:
2055:
2052:
2044:
1999:
1968:
1838:
1760:
1757:
1744:dislocations
1713:
1703:delamination
1668:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1631:
1627:
1612:
1608:
1605:
1599:
1593:
1567:
1554:
1544:from it and
1535:
1517:Growth modes
1500:
1484:dissociation
1466:
1452:
1438:
1403:
1394:electron gun
1387:
1363:
1339:
1334:
1330:
1319:
1308:
1284:
1270:
1248:
1241:
1239:substrates.
1224:Spin coating
1222:
1210:
1192:
1184:noble metals
1174:
1171:
1166:
1160:
1153:
1137:
1066:
1033:
1031:
1018:
923:
916:
907:
799:
749:
679:
649:
617:
457:
390:
300:
293:
257:
161:
147:
123:
107:
38:
36:
5866:10261/87212
5535:(1): 3â20.
5206:: 431â462.
4939:2262/101841
4070:17 November
4011:Organic LED
3904:nanocrystal
3896:quantum dot
3864:solar cells
3817:Noble metal
3769:transistors
3663:multilayers
3659:aberrations
3614:gold leaves
2888:as:
1634:homoepitaxy
1511:Taylor cone
1331:directional
1243:Dip coating
1167:directional
1087:(layers of
1085:electronics
51:micrometers
6384:Thin films
6363:Categories
6332:Historical
5806:: 154844.
4916:: 118432.
4048:References
3927:substrates
3650:refractive
3542:multilayer
1492:excitation
1488:ionization
1480:ionization
1446:, such as
1440:Sputtering
1371:scattering
1366:evaporator
1364:A thermal
1117:Larry Bell
1111:), and in
1097:conductors
1089:insulators
1073:reflective
1042:nanometres
1028:Deposition
157:Desorption
149:Adsorption
134:desorption
130:adsorption
125:Nucleation
120:Nucleation
103:multilayer
63:sputtering
6264:Textbooks
6247:3 October
6223:235510269
6215:1754-5692
6176:226973268
6160:1944-8244
6121:104297006
6105:1948-7185
5756:0257-8972
5684:1521-4095
5635:1946-4274
5596:2044-5326
5557:2044-5326
5482:0040-6090
5432:1544-1024
5385:0950-1207
5267:0003-6935
5178:2379-0180
5079:0734-2101
4998:0734-2101
4948:1359-6454
4891:120309363
4883:1361-6463
4831:0163-1829
4784:0021-8979
4733:0040-6090
4711:: 90â93.
4683:0021-8979
4636:100018452
4628:0942-9352
4585:0343-7329
4550:122413983
4498:137401458
4321:: 13â18.
4283:1303.2741
4255:205251007
4239:1521-4095
3848:designs.
3834:germanium
3821:plasmonic
3697:films in
3561:monolayer
3550:interface
3389:ν
3385:−
3361:ν
3357:−
3264:√
3242:π
3239:√
3230:β
3110:−
3101:α
2976:κ
2957:∂
2942:∂
2932:∂
2927:κ
2924:∂
2917:∝
2898:σ
2860:σ
2825:∂
2805:σ
2802:∂
2778:∫
2765:∂
2750:∂
2728:σ
2725:∝
2711:κ
2624:⟩
2621:σ
2618:⟨
2589:σ
2532:σ
2511:∫
2487:⟩
2484:σ
2481:⟨
2458:⟩
2455:σ
2452:⟨
2378:υ
2333:υ
2330:−
2244:⟩
2241:σ
2238:⟨
2226:κ
2188:curvature
2082:−
2066:≈
2063:ε
2013:−
2007:ε
1895:α
1868:α
1847:ε
1812:−
1794:α
1790:−
1781:α
1774:−
1768:ε
1632:The term
1557:June 2021
1444:noble gas
1377:than the
1335:conformal
1322:energetic
1294:conformal
1280:microwave
1232:viscosity
1162:conformal
1156:precursor
1105:packaging
1038:substrate
971:
932:τ
863:−
837:−
807:θ
687:θ
624:BET model
587:τ
579:−
569:
552:τ
548:σ
519:τ
511:−
501:
495:−
478:τ
474:σ
436:τ
427:−
424:σ
376:σ
350:τ
85:(such as
59:silvering
47:monolayer
43:nanometer
39:thin film
18:Thin Film
6168:33190484
6113:30964305
6066:25321220
6015:19498679
5964:28967257
5920:25905685
5894:: 9929.
5692:30515861
5460:: 1â14.
5275:12064380
5124:31642146
4593:93219029
4300:96130259
4247:24302266
4190:20 April
3949:See also
3842:chromium
3838:titanium
3721:abrasion
3575:Examples
3015:hardness
2348:, where
1699:buckling
1695:cracking
1679:lattices
1671:stresses
1496:ion flux
1458:ablation
1326:entropic
1180:reagents
1144:physical
1140:chemical
321:, where
6044:Bibcode
5993:Bibcode
5911:4407725
5845:Bibcode
5662:Bibcode
5537:Bibcode
5462:Bibcode
5412:Bibcode
5363:Bibcode
5247:Bibcode
5208:Bibcode
5158:Bibcode
5057:Bibcode
4978:Bibcode
4918:Bibcode
4863:Bibcode
4839:9999944
4811:Bibcode
4764:Bibcode
4750:In-situ
4713:Bibcode
4663:Bibcode
4522:Bibcode
4470:Bibcode
4425:Bibcode
4386:Bibcode
4351:Bibcode
4219:Bibcode
3956:Coating
3884:organic
3654:mirrors
3565:bilayer
3563:" and "
3532:(PZT).
1675:strains
1624:Epitaxy
1618:Epitaxy
1550:Discuss
1430:furnace
1418:arsenic
1414:gallium
1258:hydride
1237:crystal
1228:sol-gel
1206:sol-gel
1176:Plating
1129:uranium
1125:silicon
1107:(i.e.,
6347:
6319:
6300:
6281:
6221:
6213:
6174:
6166:
6158:
6119:
6111:
6103:
6064:
6013:
5962:
5918:
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5777:
5754:
5713:
5690:
5682:
5633:
5594:
5555:
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5480:
5430:
5383:
5317:11 May
5308:
5273:
5265:
5176:
5122:
5112:
5077:
5021:
4996:
4946:
4889:
4881:
4837:
4829:
4782:
4762:(21).
4731:
4681:
4634:
4626:
4591:
4583:
4548:
4540:
4496:
4488:
4445:
4298:
4253:
4245:
4237:
4162:
4137:
4102:
4016:Sarfus
3890:, and
3569:single
3451:where
3281:Where
2561:where
2298:where
2184:wafers
2119:where
1839:where
1746:, and
1710:Strain
1691:grains
1665:Stress
1652:, and
1546:merged
1507:nozzle
1276:plasma
1254:halide
1095:, and
1069:optics
1048:, the
296:adatom
136:, and
112:, and
55:mirror
6219:S2CID
6172:S2CID
6117:S2CID
5938:(PDF)
5196:(PDF)
5120:S2CID
4887:S2CID
4632:S2CID
4589:S2CID
4546:S2CID
4542:98394
4538:JSTOR
4494:S2CID
4490:98166
4486:JSTOR
4447:98165
4443:JSTOR
4296:S2CID
4278:arXiv
4251:S2CID
3621:like
3526:phase
1701:, or
1542:split
1462:laser
1448:argon
1311:frost
1264:, an
1131:by a
1099:form
1071:(for
1062:atoms
6345:ISBN
6317:ISBN
6298:ISBN
6279:ISBN
6249:2019
6211:ISSN
6164:PMID
6156:ISSN
6109:PMID
6101:ISSN
6062:PMID
6011:PMID
5960:PMID
5916:PMID
5775:ISBN
5752:ISSN
5711:ISBN
5688:PMID
5680:ISSN
5631:ISSN
5592:ISSN
5553:ISSN
5504:ISBN
5478:ISSN
5428:ISSN
5381:ISSN
5319:2024
5306:ISBN
5271:PMID
5263:ISSN
5174:ISSN
5110:ISBN
5075:ISSN
5019:ISBN
4994:ISSN
4944:ISSN
4879:ISSN
4835:PMID
4827:ISSN
4780:ISSN
4729:ISSN
4679:ISSN
4624:ISSN
4612:119U
4581:ISSN
4243:PMID
4235:ISSN
4192:2021
4160:ISBN
4135:ISBN
4100:ISBN
4072:2023
3906:and
3763:and
3642:and
2146:and
1997:by:
1490:and
1211:The
1056:and
622:and
166:and
6203:doi
6148:doi
6093:doi
6052:doi
6001:doi
5952:doi
5906:PMC
5896:doi
5861:hdl
5853:doi
5841:108
5816:hdl
5808:doi
5804:606
5744:doi
5740:204
5670:doi
5623:doi
5619:522
5584:doi
5545:doi
5470:doi
5458:526
5420:doi
5371:doi
5298:doi
5255:doi
5216:doi
5166:doi
5102:doi
5065:doi
4986:doi
4934:hdl
4926:doi
4914:242
4871:doi
4819:doi
4772:doi
4760:125
4721:doi
4709:604
4671:doi
4616:doi
4573:doi
4569:146
4530:doi
4518:198
4478:doi
4466:198
4433:doi
4421:198
4394:doi
4382:110
4359:doi
4323:doi
4288:doi
4274:205
4227:doi
4127:doi
3840:or
3788:of
3777:SiO
3703:SiO
3695:TiN
3580:An
3557:not
3544:or
1552:)
1540:be
1436:).
1404:In
1388:An
1256:or
1196:or
1142:or
1103:),
1079:or
968:exp
566:exp
498:exp
6365::
6239:.
6217:.
6209:.
6199:14
6197:.
6193:.
6170:.
6162:.
6154:.
6144:12
6142:.
6138:.
6115:.
6107:.
6099:.
6089:10
6087:.
6083:.
6060:.
6050:.
6040:22
6038:.
6032:.
6009:.
5999:.
5989:13
5987:.
5981:.
5958:.
5946:.
5940:.
5914:.
5904:.
5890:.
5884:.
5859:.
5851:.
5839:.
5814:.
5802:.
5798:.
5750:.
5738:.
5725:^
5686:.
5678:.
5668:.
5658:31
5656:.
5652:.
5629:.
5617:.
5613:.
5590:.
5578:.
5574:.
5551:.
5543:.
5533:19
5531:.
5527:.
5490:^
5476:.
5468:.
5456:.
5452:.
5440:^
5426:.
5418:.
5408:27
5406:.
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