Catalytic converter

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design. During such operations, large amounts of unburnt HC are produced by the engine, well beyond the capacity of the catalyst to release oxygen. The surface of the catalyst quickly becomes saturated with HC. When returning to lower power output and leaner air–fuel ratios, the control system must prevent excessive oxygen from reaching the catalyst too quickly, as this will rapidly burn the HC in the already hot catalyst, potentially exceeding the design temperature limit of the catalyst. Excessive catalyst temperature can prematurely age the catalyst, reducing its efficiency before reaching its design lifetime. Excessive catalyst temperature can also be caused by cylinder misfire, which continuously flows unburnt HC combined with oxygen to the hot catalyst, burning in the catalyst and increasing its temperature.

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restriction. These conditions include failure of the upstream components of the exhaust system (manifold or header assembly and associated clamps susceptible to rust, corrosion or fatigue such as the exhaust manifold splintering after repeated heat cycling), ignition system (e.g., coil packs, primary ignition components, distributor cap, wires, ignition coil and spark plugs) or damaged fuel system components (e.g., fuel injectors, fuel pressure regulator, and associated sensors). Oil and coolant leaks, perhaps caused by a head gasket leak, can also cause high unburned hydrocarbons.

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jurisdictions, it is illegal to remove or disable a catalytic converter for any reason other than its direct and immediate replacement. Nevertheless, some vehicle owners remove or "gut" the catalytic converter on their vehicle. In such cases, the converter may be replaced by a welded-in section of ordinary pipe or a flanged "test pipe", ostensibly meant to check if the converter is clogged by comparing how the engine runs with and without the converter. This facilitates temporary reinstallation of the converter in order to pass an emission test.

356: 1651:(DPF). In the U.S., all on-road light, medium, and heavy-duty diesel-powered vehicles built after 1 January 2007, are subject to diesel particulate emission limits, and so are equipped with a 2-way catalytic converter and a diesel particulate filter. As long as the engine was manufactured before 1 January 2007, the vehicle is not required to have the DPF system. This led to an inventory runup by engine manufacturers in late 2006 so they could continue selling pre-DPF vehicles well into 2007. 1824: 2159:

across the catalytic converter with plans and pre-assembled devices available on the Internet. Although these are not legal for on-road use, they have been used with mixed results. Similar devices apply an offset to the sensor signals, allowing the engine to run a more fuel-economical lean burn that may, however, damage the engine or the catalytic converter.

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catalytic-converter designs are not as susceptible to temperature damage and can withstand sustained temperatures of 900 °C (1,650 °F). Temperature sensors are also used to monitor catalyst functioning: usually two sensors will be fitted, with one before the catalyst and one after to monitor the temperature rise over the catalytic-converter core.

33: 215:, a French mechanical engineer. Houdry was an expert in catalytic oil refining, having invented the catalytic cracking process that all modern refining is based on today. Houdry moved to the United States in 1930 to live near the refineries in the Philadelphia area and develop his catalytic refining process. When the results of early studies of 1433:. Slightly rich of stoichiometric, the production of CO and unburnt HC by the engine starts to increase dramatically, available oxygen decreases, and the efficiency of the catalyst for oxidizing CO and HC decreases significantly, especially as stored oxygen becomes depleted. However, the efficiency of the catalyst at reducing 1340: 2089:

Thefts of catalytic converters rose over tenfold in the United States from the late 2010s to early 2020s, driven presumably by the rise in the price of precious metals contained within the converters. Study findings reveal an average price elasticity of 1.98, which means that a 10 percent increase in

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Depending on the contaminant, catalyst poisoning can sometimes be reversed by running the engine under a very heavy load for an extended period of time. The increased exhaust temperature can sometimes vaporize or sublimate the contaminant, removing it from the catalytic surface. However, removal of

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in the exhaust system. When oxygen is detected by the sensor, the air–fuel ratio is lean of stoichiometric, and when oxygen is not detected, it is rich. The control system adjusts the rate of fuel being injected into the engine based on this signal to keep the air–fuel ratio near the stoichiometric

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is "switching", the computer recognizes that the catalytic converter either is not functioning or has been removed, and will operate a malfunction indicator lamp and affect engine performance. Simple "oxygen sensor simulators" have been developed to circumvent this problem by simulating the change

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catalytic converters are also targets for thieves. The catalytic converters of hybrids need more of the precious metals to work properly compared to conventional internal combustion vehicles because they do not get as hot as those installed on conventional vehicles, since the combustion engines of

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Some vehicles contain a pre-cat, a small catalytic converter upstream of the main catalytic converter which heats up faster on vehicle start up, reducing the emissions associated with cold starts. A pre-cat is most commonly used by an auto manufacturer when trying to attain the Ultra Low Emissions

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Faulty catalytic converters as well as undamaged early types of converters can restrict the flow of exhaust, which negatively affects vehicle performance and fuel economy. Modern catalytic converters do not significantly restrict exhaust flow. A 2006 test on a 1999 Honda Civic, for example, showed

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diagnostic systems are designed to alert the driver to a misfire condition by means of illuminating the "check engine" light on the dashboard, or flashing it if the current misfire conditions are severe enough to potentially damage the catalytic converter. On-board diagnostic systems take several

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where catalytic converters were alleged to be stolen for use in illicit street drug production. The drug, a powder known as "bombé," was said to be a mixture of powdered pills/vitamins and pulverized honeycomb structures of catalytic converters. In 2023, however, a study of various samples of the

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Rising metal prices in the U.S. during the 2000s commodities boom led to a significant increase in converter theft. A catalytic converter can cost more than $ 1,000 to replace, more if the vehicle is damaged during the theft. Apart from damaging other systems of the vehicle, theft can also cause

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Three-way converters are effective when the engine is operated within a narrow band of air–fuel ratios near the stoichiometric point. Total conversion efficiency falls very rapidly when the engine is operated outside of this band. Slightly lean of stoichiometric, the exhaust gases from the engine

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Closed loop control is often not used during high load/maximum power operation, when an increase in emissions is permitted and a rich mixture is commanded to increase power and prevent exhaust gas temperature from exceeding design limits. This presents a challenge for control system and catalyst

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reduction and HC+CO oxidation. The control system allows the catalyst to release oxygen during slightly rich operating conditions, which oxidizes CO and HC under conditions that also favor the reduction of NOx. Before the stored oxygen is depleted, the control system shifts the air–fuel ratio to

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reduction) and second (HC and CO oxidation) stages of the converter. As in two-way converters, this injected air provides oxygen for the oxidation reactions. An upstream air injection point, ahead of the catalytic converter, is also sometimes present to provide additional oxygen only during the

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for a vehicle repair shop to remove a converter from a vehicle, or cause a converter to be removed from a vehicle, except in order to replace it with another converter, and Section 203(a)(3)(B) makes it illegal for any person to sell or to install any part that would bypass, defeat, or render

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Emissions regulations vary considerably from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Most automobile spark-ignition engines in North America have been fitted with catalytic converters since 1975, and the technology used in non-automotive applications is generally based on automotive technology. In many

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Temperature sensors are used for two purposes. The first is as a warning system, typically on two-way catalytic converters such as those used on LPG forklifts. The function of the sensor is to warn of catalytic converter temperature above the safe limit of 750 °C (1,380 °F). Modern

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ahead of the air pump, after which a two-way catalytic converter (palladium/platinum) removed HC and CO. This cumbersome and expensive system was soon made redundant, after it was noted that under some conditions the initial catalyst also removed HC and CO. This led to the development of the

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absorber in a feedback system. When fitted to an SCR system, there may be one or two sensors. When one sensor is fitted it will be pre-catalyst; when two are fitted, the second one will be post-catalyst. They are used for the same reasons and in the same manner as an oxygen sensor; the only

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Any condition that causes abnormally high levels of unburned hydrocarbons (raw or partially burnt fuel or oils) to reach the converter will tend to significantly elevate its temperature bringing the risk of a meltdown of the substrate and resultant catalytic deactivation and severe exhaust

1679:. The converter heats up quickly, due to its exposure to the very hot exhaust gases, allowing it to reduce undesirable emissions during the engine warm-up period. This is achieved by burning off the excess hydrocarbons which result from the extra-rich mixture required for a cold start. 723:

that in effect require three-way converters on gasoline-powered vehicles. The reduction and oxidation catalysts are typically contained in a common housing; however, in some instances, they may be housed separately. A three-way catalytic converter does three simultaneous tasks:

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Catalytic converters require a temperature of 400 °C (750 °F) to operate effectively. Therefore, they are placed as close to the engine as possible, or one or more smaller catalytic converters (known as "pre-cats") are placed immediately after the exhaust manifold.

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response of the oxygen sensors. Typical control systems are designed to rapidly sweep the air–fuel ratio such that it oscillates slightly around the stoichiometric point, staying near the optimal efficiency point while managing the levels of stored oxygen and unburnt HC.

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reduction efficiency. Then the air–fuel mixture is brought back to slightly rich, at a small penalty in CO and HC oxidation efficiency, and the cycle repeats. Efficiency is improved when this oscillation around the stoichiometric point is small and carefully controlled.

1053: 2094:, there were 1,298 reported cases of catalytic converter theft in 2018, which increased to 14,433 in 2020. In 2022, it was reported that the number of catalytic converter thefts in the United States sharply rose to 153,000 total thefts for the year. 647:

reducing, rhodium/platinum catalyst ahead of the air pump, which led to the development of the three-way catalytic converter. The two-way catalytic comverter also continued to be used on certain, lower-cost cars in some markets such as Europe, where

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engine warm up period. This causes unburned fuel to ignite in the exhaust tract, thereby preventing it reaching the catalytic converter at all. This technique reduces the engine runtime needed for the catalytic converter to reach its "light-off" or

968: 2642:

Carter, Robert N.; Smith, Lance L.; Karim, Hasan; Castaldi, Marco; Etemad, Shah; Muench, George; Boorse, R. Samuel; Menacherry, Paul; Pfefferle, William C. (1998). "Catalytic Combustion Technology Development for Gas Turbine Engine Applications".

2077:. The Preventing Auto Recycling Thefts Act (PART Act) would mandate catalytic converters in new vehicles to come with traceable identification numbers. Additionally, the legislation would make catalytic converter theft a federal criminal offense. 338:

and carbon monoxide. Four-way catalytic converters have also been developed which also remove particulates from engine exhaust; since most of these particulates are unburned hydrocarbons, they can be burned to convert them into carbon dioxide.

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levels are monitored to see the efficiency of the burn process. The on-board computer makes comparisons between the readings of the two sensors. The readings are taken by voltage measurements. If both sensors show the same output or the rear

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point in order to maximize the catalyst conversion efficiency. The control algorithm is also affected by the time delay between the adjustment of the fuel flow rate and the sensing of the changed air–fuel ratio by the sensor, as well as the

1189: 1549:(PM), hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide and water. These converters often operate at 90 percent efficiency, virtually eliminating diesel odor and helping reduce visible particulates. These catalysts are ineffective for 1183: 809: 1924:

on pre-1981 vehicles without feedback fuel-air mixture control could easily provide too much fuel to the engine, which could cause the catalytic converter to overheat and potentially ignite flammable materials under the car.

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Millet, Claire-Noelle; Chédotal, Romain; Da Costa, Patrick (August 2009). "Synthetic gas bench study of a 4-way catalytic converter: Catalytic oxidation, NOx storage/reduction and impact of soot loading and regeneration".

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Vehicles fitted with catalytic converters emit most of their total pollution during the first five minutes of engine operation; for example, before the catalytic converter has warmed up sufficiently to be fully effective.

2838:"Directive 98/69/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 October 1998 relating to measures to be taken against air pollution by emissions from motor vehicles and amending Council Directive 70/220/EEC" 1118: 304:

and foul catalytic converters by coating the catalyst's surface. Requiring the removal of lead allowed the use of catalytic converters to meet the other emission standards in the regulations. To lower harmful

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Catalytic converter prototypes were first designed in France at the end of the 19th century, when only a few thousand "oil cars" were on the roads; these prototypes had inert clay-based materials coated with

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Catalytic converters have proven to be reliable and effective in reducing noxious tailpipe emissions. However, they also have some shortcomings in use, and also adverse environmental effects in production:

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In 2010, most light-duty diesel manufacturers in the U.S. added catalytic systems to their vehicles to meet federal emissions requirements. Two techniques have been developed for the catalytic reduction of

2892: 227:, called "cats" for short, and later developed catalytic converters for warehouse forklifts that used low grade, unleaded gasoline. In the mid-1950s, he began research to develop catalytic converters for 1666:

engines, an oxidation catalyst is used in the same manner as in a diesel engine. Emissions from lean burn spark ignition engines are very similar to emissions from a diesel compression ignition engine.

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Since 1981, the three-way (oxidation-reduction) catalytic converters have been used in vehicle emission control systems in the United States and Canada; many other countries have also adopted stringent

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systems, and do not require air injection systems in their exhausts. Instead, they provide a precisely controlled air-fuel mixture that quickly and continually cycles between lean and rich combustion.

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occurs when the catalytic converter is exposed to exhaust containing substances that coat the working surfaces, so that they cannot contact and react with the exhaust. The most notable contaminant is

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control system on a spark-ignited rich-burn engine; however, it is also used for diagnostics. In vehicles with OBD II, a second oxygen sensor is fitted after the catalytic converter to monitor the O

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The current model BMW 750iL has a maximum electrical load of 428 amps (5.9 kW)! In this car, over half of the maximum load is from the short-term electrical heating of the catalytic converters

138:), they are still used on lean-burn engines to oxidize particulate matter and hydrocarbon emissions (including diesel engines, which typically use lean combustion), as three-way-converters require 1373:

requiring approximately 34% more fuel, requiring modified fuel system tuning and components when using those fuels. Engines fitted with regulated 3-way catalytic converters are equipped with a

257:'s new exhaust emissions regulations, most gasoline-powered vehicles manufactured from 1975 onwards are equipped with catalytic converters. Early catalytic converters were "two-way", combining 2673: 634:

to reduce hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions. They were also used on gasoline engines in American and Canadian automobile markets until 1981. Because of their inability to control

105:'s stricter regulation of exhaust emissions, most gasoline-powered vehicles starting with the 1975 model year are equipped with catalytic converters. These "two-way" converters combine 1949:

inside the catalytic converter assemblies are electrified just after the engine is started, bringing the catalyst up to operating temperature very quickly to qualify the vehicle for

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that removing the stock catalytic converter netted only a 3% increase in maximum horsepower; a new metallic core converter only cost the car 1% horsepower, compared to no converter.

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Obadia, Paul; Kapia, Patrice; Bonneure, Arne; Duca, Radu-Corneliu; Creta, Matteo; Kayembe-Kitenge, Tony; Tytgat, Jan; Okitundu, Daniel; Nkulu, Célestin; Nemery, Benoit (2023).

888: 2051:, because of their high ground clearance and easily removed bolt-on catalytic converters. Welded-on converters are also at risk of theft, as they can be easily cut off. The 1394:

equipped with feedback mixture control were used. An unregulated three-way converter features the same chemical processes but without the oxygen sensor, which meant higher

1335:{\displaystyle a\,{\text{C}}_{x}{\text{H}}_{y}+b\,{\text{O}}_{2}\,\rightarrow \,c\,{\text{CO}}_{2}+d\,{\text{H}}_{2}{\text{O}}\qquad a,\,b,\,c,\,d,\,x,\,y\in \mathbb {Z} } 1454:

Closed-loop engine control systems are used for effective operation of three-way catalytic converters because of this continuous rich-lean balance required for effective

3401: 2591: 815: 3297: 3079: 2896: 1694:) levels in the exhaust stream were therefore generally insufficient for the catalytic reaction to occur efficiently. Most designs of the time therefore included 3241: 1937:

In the early 2000s it became common to place the catalyst converter right next to the exhaust manifold, close to the engine, for much quicker warm-up. In 1995,

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inoperative any emission control system, device, or design element. Vehicles without functioning catalytic converters generally fail emission inspections. The

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is sometimes added to the washcoat to limit hydrogen-sulfide emissions. Sulfur-free or low-sulfur fuels eliminate or minimize problems with hydrogen sulfide.

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is the most active catalyst and is widely used, but is not suitable for all applications because of unwanted additional reactions and historically high cost.

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to control emissions. This is usually in response to government regulation, either through environmental regulation or through health and safety regulations.

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are extremely expensive and are in general used only when a compression-ignition engine is fitted with a selective catalytic-reduction (SCR) converter, or a

1767: 1124: 746: 2105:) which have more precious metals than newer vehicles—sometimes worth more than the value of the car—leading to scarcity and long delays in replacing them. 2952:

Cooper, B. J. (October 1983). "Durability of Platinum-Containing Automotive Exhaust Control Catalysts: Improvements in Resistance to Thermal Degradation".

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reduction) catalyst from becoming oxygen-loaded, while simultaneously ensuring the second (HC and CO oxidation) catalyst is sufficiently oxygen-saturated.

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are two other precious metals used, though as of February 2023, platinum has become the least expensive of the platinum group metals. Rhodium is used as a

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by the engine decreases. To maintain catalyst efficiency, the air–fuel ratio must stay close to stoichiometric and not remain rich or lean for too long.

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emissions, particularly under partial loads. These were low-cost solutions, typically used for retrofitting to older cars or for smaller, cheaper cars.

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are also used, although each has limitations. Nickel is not legal for use in the European Union because of its reaction with carbon monoxide into toxic

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For years, the exhaust system ... remained virtually unchanged until 1975 when a strange new component was added. It's called a catalytic converter...

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contains relatively high levels of particulate matter. Catalytic converters remove only 20–40% of PM so particulates are cleaned up by a soot trap or

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supplies high-flow converters for vehicles with upgraded engines, or whose owners prefer an exhaust system with larger-than-stock capacity.

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can be used. The catalytic materials are suspended in the washcoat prior to applying to the core. Washcoat materials are selected to form a

4705: 3207: 1841: 3999: 3427: 3454: 4520: 2309: 2278: 394:(FeCrAl) are used in applications where particularly high heat resistance is required. The substrate is structured to produce a large 3025: 1953:(LEV) designation. BMW later introduced the same heated catalyst, developed jointly by Emitec, Alpina, and BMW, in its 750i in 1999. 1345:

These three reactions occur most efficiently when the catalytic converter receives exhaust from an engine running slightly above the

3586:"Stolen in 60 Seconds: The Treasure in Your Car — As Precious Metals Prices Soar, Catalytic Converters Are Targets for Thieves" 2412: 1863: 1464:

become slightly lean, improving HC and CO oxidation while storing additional oxygen in the catalyst material, at a small penalty in

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into the exhaust, which then undergoes thermal decomposition and hydrolysis into ammonia. The urea solution is also referred to as

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The washcoat. A washcoat is a carrier for the catalytic materials and is used to disperse the materials over a large surface area.

3655: 3191: 1698:, which injected air into the exhaust stream. This increased the available oxygen, allowing the catalyst to function as intended. 4680: 2125:

to monitor the function and condition of the emissions-control system, including the catalytic converter. Vehicles equipped with

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emissions, a twin-catalyst system was developed in the 1970s – this added a separate (rhodium/platinum) catalyst which reduced

3405: 2862:

Kaspar, Jan; Fornasiero, Paolo; Hickey, Neal (2003). "Automotive Catalytic Converters: Current Status and Some Perspectives".

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O). Although two-way converters on gasoline engines were rendered obsolete in 1981 by "three-way" converters that also reduce

43: 4198: 3331: 1845: 3829:"Bombé, an undetermined substance that caused an outbreak of illicit drug use in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo" 3626: 4495: 3375: 1881: 1585: 372: 3309: 2479: 1349:

point. For gasoline combustion, this ratio is between 14.6 and 14.8 parts air to one part fuel, by weight. The ratio for

253:

The first widespread introduction of catalytic converters was in the United States automobile market. To comply with the

101:

The first widespread introduction of catalytic converters was in the United States automobile market. To comply with the

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in Los Angeles were published, Houdry became concerned about the role of smokestack exhaust and automobile exhaust in

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falls off rapidly. However, the conversion of HC and CO is very efficient due to the available oxygen, oxidizing to H

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introduced an electrically heated catalyst. Called "E-KAT", it was used in Alpina's B12 5,7 E-KAT based on the BMW

68: 3156: 4631: 4545: 4490: 4442: 4350: 1719: 1648: 1568: 720: 56: 2837: 2759:

Votsmeier, Martin; Kreuzer, Thomas; Gieshoff, Jürgen; Lepperhoff, Gerhard (2009). "Automobile Exhaust Control".

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Twigg, Martyn V. (15 April 2005). "Controlling automotive exhaust emissions: successes and underlying science".

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Some three-way catalytic converter systems have air injection systems with the air injected between the first (

1377: 1048:{\displaystyle {\text{H}}_{2}+{\text{NO}}\,\rightarrow \,{\text{H}}_{2}{\text{O}}+{\frac {1}{2}}{\text{N}}_{2}} 2355: 411: 4401: 3569: 3181:

Ullman, Owen (14 June 1976). "Catalytic Converter Still Controversial after Two Years of Use". The Bulletin.

2499: 1834: 1695: 1354: 453:, irregular surface, which increases the surface area compared to the smooth surface of the bare substrate. 4223: 657:

emissions were not universally regulated until the introduction of the Euro 3 emissions standard in 2000.

963:{\displaystyle 2{\text{CO}}+{\text{NO}}_{2}\,\rightarrow \,2{\text{CO}}_{2}+{\frac {1}{2}}{\text{N}}_{2}} 4340: 4181: 2802:

Kašpar, J.; Fornasiero, P.; Graziani, M. (1999). "Use of CeO2-based oxides in the three-way catalysis".

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A 2-way (or "oxidation", sometimes called an "oxi-cat") catalytic converter has two simultaneous tasks:

355: 3720: 530:. The precious metals inside the converter, including platinum, palladium, and rhodium, are extracted. 211:

and sealed into a double metallic cylinder. A few decades later, a catalytic converter was patented by

3979: 3881: 4700: 4335: 4107: 3828: 2715: 2600: 2524: 2122: 2102: 2074: 1950: 1791: 1638: 581: 511: 327: 266: 163: 114: 386:(commonly square, not hexagonal). (Prior to the mid 1980s, the catalyst material was deposited on a 4383: 4113: 3061: 3044: 2043:, catalytic converters are a target for thieves. The problem is especially common among late-model 1727: 1374: 877:{\displaystyle {\text{CO}}+{\text{NO}}\,\rightarrow \,{\text{CO}}_{2}+{\frac {1}{2}}{\text{N}}_{2}} 383: 3627:"A man was crushed to death while allegedly attempting to steal a catalytic converter, police say" 2558: 1687: 4690: 4406: 4203: 3856: 3130: 2969: 2784: 2624: 2509: 2202: 1946: 1794:(ZDDP). Beginning in 2004, a limit of phosphorus concentration in engine oils was adopted in the 1747: 1546: 301: 187: 3215: 3042:

Crutsinger, Martin (29 September 1982). "Kits to Foil Auto Pollution Control Are Selling Well".

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drug concluded that its alleged origin from catalytic exhausts was found to be unsubstantiated.

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The three-way catalytic converters have the additional advantage of controlling the emission of

3746: 3682: 4208: 4148: 4099: 3848: 3402:"Crews have 400-acre Jennings Fire in Lakeside 100 percent contai - KUSI News - San Diego, CA" 2819: 2774: 2693: 2616: 2465: 2460: 2418: 2408: 2250: 2197: 2063: 1755: 450: 79: 3005:"Heavy-Duty Engine and Vehicle Standards and Highway Diesel Fuel Sulfur Control Requirements" 4500: 4457: 4416: 4365: 4330: 4251: 4238: 3840: 3758: 3694: 3568: 3462: 2961: 2934: 2871: 2811: 2766: 2723: 2652: 2608: 2192: 1782:

is another catalyst contaminant. Although phosphorus is no longer used in gasoline, it (and

1676: 1539: 1500: 1483: 670: 438: 430: 368: 1806:

lead deposits in this manner is usually not possible because of lead's high boiling point.

1390:(also known as Lambda Sonds or sensors). Other variants combined three-way converters with 223:

and founded a company called Oxy-Catalyst. Houdry first developed catalytic converters for

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the price of metal leads to an approximate 20 percent increase in thefts.According to the

2073:

In 2023, bipartisan legislation to combat catalytic converter theft was introduced in the

560: 467: 434: 391: 297: 294: 262: 110: 3947:: "Apparatus for purifying exhaust gases of an internal combustion engine". 29 April 1969 3004: 2377: 2719: 2604: 4477: 4447: 4302: 4069: 2988:"Air Pollution Control Technology Fact Sheet (PDF, US Environmental Protection Agency)" 2441: 1998: 1897: 1893: 1663: 1644: 1383: 1346: 1178:{\displaystyle {\text{CO}}+{\frac {1}{2}}{\text{O}}_{2}\,\rightarrow \,{\text{CO}}_{2}} 804:{\displaystyle {\text{C}}+2{\text{NO}}_{2}\,\rightarrow \,{\text{CO}}_{2}+2{\text{NO}}} 564: 471: 460: 426: 335: 278: 243: 159: 143: 139: 2919: 2875: 2815: 1477:

Closed-loop control under light to moderate load is accomplished by using one or more

4664: 4649: 4540: 4533: 4510: 4355: 4287: 4282: 4246: 4163: 4103: 4064: 4054: 3965:: "Combination muffler and catalytic converter having low backpressure". 13 June 1978 3860: 2788: 2748:(24 ed.). Aachen, Germany: Lehrstuhl Für Verbrennungskraftmachinen. p. 335. 2504: 2138: 1726:

monitor the exhaust oxygen content before and after the catalytic converter, and the

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three-way catalyst, made possible by electronics and engine management developments.

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O). These stringent emission control regulations also resulted in the removal of the

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In the United States, it is a violation of Section 203(a)(3)(A) of the 1990 amended

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Because of the external location and the use of valuable precious metals including

1975: 1589: 666: 395: 82:. Catalytic converters are usually used with internal combustion engines fueled by 3988:: "Process And Synthesizer For Molecular Engineering of Materials". 13 March 2002. 3844: 2770: 2279:"General Motors Believes it has an Answer to the Automotive Air Pollution Problem" 2062:

are often used to quietly remove the converter but other tools such as a portable

17: 2920:"Dynamic Modeling of a Three Way Catalyst for SI Engine Exhaust Emission Control" 2727: 1675:

Many vehicles have a close-coupled catalytic converter located near the engine's

4644: 4528: 4345: 4297: 4256: 4213: 4143: 2965: 2436: 2245:

Petersen Publishing (1975). "The Catalytic Converter". In Erwin M. Rosen (ed.).

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from automotive gasoline, to reduce lead in the air. Lead and its compounds are

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uses this information to adjust the fuel injection so as to prevent the first (

238:

Catalytic converters were further developed by a series of engineers including

4616: 4576: 4555: 4550: 4452: 4437: 4360: 4292: 4218: 4158: 4089: 3970: 3961: 3952: 3943: 3908:"Settlement Involves Illegal Emission Control 'Defeat Devices' Sold for Autos" 2987: 2422: 2098: 2067: 2059: 2005:, Russia, where the industry (among others) has caused Norilsk to be added to 1958: 1921: 1892:

Catalytic converters have been mandatory on all new gasoline cars sold in the

1779: 1775: 1683: 1391: 399: 390:

of alumina pellets in early GM applications.) Metallic foil monoliths made of

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Airvore ou la face obscure des transports; chronique d'une pollution annoncée

4571: 4312: 4307: 4094: 4074: 3561:"Thieves Nationwide Are Slithering Under Cars, Swiping Catalytic Converters" 3478:"An Exhausting New Crime — What Thieves Are Stealing from Today's Cars" 2097:

From 2019 to 2020, thieves in the United Kingdom were targeting older-model

2036: 2013: 1990: 1979: 1799: 1763: 1660: 1532: 1512: 1366: 708: 556: 503: 479: 247: 208: 91: 72: 60: 3852: 2620: 2612: 3585: 1774:, which can enter the exhaust stream if the engine has a leak that allows 1633:

and water. Ammonia is supplied to the catalyst system by the injection of

4594: 4590: 4462: 4193: 4118: 4084: 2407:. Montréal (Québec): écosociété. pp. 109–110 and illustration p. 7. 2142: 2032: 1994: 1630: 1612:

absorbers, most manufacturers selected base-metal SCR systems that use a

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in the early 1970s, allowing combustion without significant formation of

200: 167: 95: 83: 3956:: "Anisotropic Cordierite Monolith" (Ceramic substrate). 5 November 1973 2656: 1786:, another low-level catalyst contaminant) was widely used in engine oil 1416:

by the engine increases, and the efficiency of the catalyst at reducing

1113:{\displaystyle {\text{C}}+{\text{O}}_{2}\,\rightarrow \,{\text{CO}}_{2}} 250:

Corporation, creating the first production catalytic converter in 1973.

32: 4621: 4505: 3784:"Catalytic converter theft: hybrid car owners face insurance nightmare" 2040: 2002: 1942: 1848: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1771: 1617: 1613: 1542: 1504: 1362: 1350: 483: 446: 376: 224: 204: 3745:

Stickle, Ben; Rennhoff, Adam; Morris, Charles; Fritts, Samuel (2024).

3681:

Stickle, Ben; Rennhoff, Adam; Morris, Charles; Fritts, Samuel (2024).

3428:"Catalytic converters make 2004-09 Toyota Prius unlikely theft target" 2938: 4432: 4411: 4188: 4138: 3747:"Catalytic converter theft:An examination of the elasticity of crime" 3683:"Catalytic converter theft:An examination of the elasticity of crime" 2126: 1938: 1759: 1508: 515: 507: 495: 442: 258: 106: 3536:"Vance introduces legislation to address catalytic converter thefts" 2887: 2885: 2525:"John J. Mooney, an Inventor of the Catalytic Converter, Dies at 90" 1682:

When catalytic converters were first introduced, most vehicles used

402:

ceramic substrate used in most catalytic converters was invented by

3477: 3111:, US Environmental Protection Agency, US Federal Register Volume 51 1059: 728: 585: 527: 519: 491: 487: 456: 354: 346: 286: 171: 76: 42: 3026:"Which cars are least likely to have catalytic converter stolen?" 2070:, wiring or fuel lines, with potentially dangerous consequences. 1754:, so vehicles equipped with catalytic converters can run only on 638:, manufacturers briefly installed twin catalyst systems, with an 494:

catalyst, and platinum is used both for reduction and oxidation.

4586: 3656:"WATCH: Catalytic converter thefts are skyrocketing. Here's why" 2505:"Carl D. Keith, a Father of the Catalytic Converter, Dies at 88" 1783: 1751: 1634: 712: 499: 216: 3995: 4033: 3974:: '"Caseless monolithic catalytic converter". 10 February 1981 3634: 3332:"Here's how to avoid accidentally starting the next firestorm" 2048: 1817: 1370: 1062:

of carbon, hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide

697: 678: 635: 175: 126: 2739: 2737: 2671:

Connecticut chemist receives award for cleaner air technology

1974:

An engine equipped with a three-way catalyst must run at the

1527:) engines, the most commonly used catalytic converter is the 375:. For automotive catalytic converters, the core is usually a 463:. These oxides are mainly added as oxygen storage promoters. 3882:"Can A Catalytic Converter Cause A Misfire? - Carsneedcare" 3503:"Catalytic converters are being stolen for valuable metals" 2694:

https://www.greencarcongress.com/2014/12/20141210-basf.html

2247:

The Petersen Automotive Troubleshooting & Repair Manual

518:

can be used in most countries, with a notable exception in

158:

Although catalytic converters are most commonly applied to

36:

A three-way catalytic converter on a gasoline-powered 1996

584:(unburnt and partially burned fuel) to carbon dioxide and 3376:"Catalytic converter blamed for causing SR-52 brush fire" 526:

Upon failure, a catalytic converter can be recycled into

2012:

The extreme heat of the converters themselves can cause

3521:"Cotati police bust catalytic converter theft suspects" 1365:

fuels can vary significantly for each, notably so with

2548:". referenceforbusiness.com. Retrieved 7 January 2011. 363:

The catalytic converter's construction is as follows:

2918:

Brandt, Erich; Wang, Yanying; Grizzle, Jessy (2000).

2439:(January 1988). "10 Best Engineering Breakthroughs". 2310:"Catalytic Converter Heads Auto Fuel Economy Efforts" 1192: 1127: 1072: 977: 891: 818: 749: 2066:

can damage other components of the car, such as the

4604: 4564: 4519: 4476: 4425: 4392: 4374: 4321: 4275: 4237: 4157: 4042: 2249:. New York, NY: Grosset & Dunlap. p. 493. 1900:since January 1, 1993 in order to comply with the 1766:(originating primarily from the gasoline additive 1334: 1177: 1112: 1047: 962: 876: 803: 630:The two-way catalytic converter is widely used on 231:used on cars and was awarded United States Patent 2744:Pischinger, Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Stephan (2011). 2592:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 3109:Sale and Use of Aftermarket Catalytic Converters 1567:emissions from diesel engines are controlled by 3803:"Car-exhaust drug craze alarms Congo's capital" 2927:IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology 2304: 2302: 2300: 47:Simulation of flow inside a catalytic converter 3350:"Catalytic converter-started fires are common" 2762:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 1978:, which means more fuel is consumed than in a 1499:Unwanted reactions result in the formation of 4007: 2480:His Smoke Eating Cats Now Attack Traffic Smog 2183:difference is the substance being monitored. 269:(HC, chemical compounds in fuel of the form C 8: 3921:"Check Engine Lights Come on for a Reason". 3509:. Raidió Teilifís Éireann. 11 December 2019. 1982:engine. This means approximately 10% more CO 1758:fuel. Other common catalyst poisons include 3721:"Why do people steal catalytic converters?" 2684:. 23 June 2003. Retrieved 11 December 2012. 2273: 2271: 2269: 466:The catalyst itself is most often a mix of 186:, and on ships. They are even used on some 4014: 4000: 3992: 3074: 3072: 2240: 2238: 2236: 246:, Antonio Eleazar, and Phillip Messina at 3037: 3035: 2337: 2335: 2333: 2331: 1864:Learn how and when to remove this message 1584:emissions under lean exhaust conditions, 1407:contain excess oxygen, the production of 1328: 1327: 1320: 1313: 1306: 1299: 1292: 1280: 1274: 1269: 1267: 1255: 1250: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1234: 1229: 1227: 1215: 1210: 1203: 1198: 1196: 1191: 1169: 1164: 1162: 1158: 1152: 1147: 1136: 1128: 1126: 1104: 1099: 1097: 1093: 1087: 1082: 1073: 1071: 1039: 1034: 1023: 1015: 1009: 1004: 1002: 998: 993: 984: 979: 976: 954: 949: 938: 929: 924: 919: 915: 909: 904: 895: 890: 868: 863: 852: 843: 838: 836: 832: 827: 819: 817: 796: 784: 779: 777: 773: 767: 762: 750: 748: 4080:Crankcase ventilation system (PCV valve) 3059:"Some of Us Can Only Afford a Clunker". 2584: 2582: 2580: 2469:, September 1951, p. 134, bottom of page 2210: 2176: 2165: 2027:2020–2022 catalytic converter theft ring 2009:magazine's list of most-polluted places. 1989:Catalytic converter production requires 1733: 1704: 1623: 1606: 1592: 1578: 1561: 1552: 1467: 1457: 1445: 1436: 1419: 1410: 1397: 700: 681: 651: 641: 418:, for which they were inducted into the 317: 308: 149: 132: 31: 3610:"Converters Taken by Car Lot Thieves". 2232: 3138: 3128: 2857: 2855: 1957:Vehicle (ULEV) rating, such as on the 162:in automobiles, they are also used on 59:device which converts toxic gases and 3751:Crime Prevention and Community Safety 3687:Crime Prevention and Community Safety 3242:"Goodbye 12 volts... hello 42 volts!" 3235: 3233: 3202: 3200: 3028:. Auto Ride Of Reading. 15 July 2022. 1603:Instead of precious metal-containing 7: 3801:Nyemba, Benoit (27 September 2021). 2840:. Eur-lex.europa.eu. 13 October 1998 1997:; part of the world supply of these 1846:adding citations to reliable sources 330:developed a catalytic combustor for 255:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 103:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2893:"The three way catalytic converter" 2056:hybrids only run part of the time. 3584:Johnson, Alex (12 February 2008). 3534:Pietrasz, Jake (2 February 2023). 3296:Walsh, Bryan (12 September 2007). 2708:Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 2121:Various jurisdictions now require 490:catalyst, palladium is used as an 146:combustion to successfully reduce 117:(HC) to produce carbon dioxide (CO 25: 3567:. 9 February 2021. Archived from 3275:Toyota Owners Club - Toyota Forum 3271:"Pre-cats - What You Should Know" 534:Placement of catalytic converters 351:Cutaway of a metal-core converter 3719:Pender, Caelyn (9 August 2022). 3302:The World's Most Polluted Places 3240:Edgar, Julian (5 October 1999). 3086:. 1 October 2006. Archived from 2110:Democratic Republic of the Congo 1822: 1686:that provided a relatively rich 1655:Lean-burn spark-ignition engines 1523:For compression-ignition (i.e., 677:(both together abbreviated with 4182:Overhead valve (pushrod) layout 3476:Murr, Andrew (9 January 2008). 3157:"Euro emissions standards | AA" 2378:"Choosing the Right Wood Stove" 2221:Roadway air dispersion modeling 2108:In 2021 a trend emerged in the 2092:National Insurance Crime Bureau 1833:needs additional citations for 1442:is good, and the production of 1285: 420:National Inventors Hall of Fame 27:Exhaust emission control device 1241: 1159: 1094: 999: 916: 833: 774: 71:into less-toxic pollutants by 1: 4671:Air pollution control systems 3845:10.1080/15563650.2023.2276040 3625:Razek, Raja (12 March 2023). 2876:10.1016/S0920-5861(02)00384-X 2816:10.1016/S0920-5861(98)00510-0 2771:10.1002/14356007.a03_189.pub2 2523:Roberts, Sam (25 June 2020). 2403:Castaignède, Laurent (2018). 2086:death and injury to thieves. 1778:into the combustion chamber. 1586:selective catalytic reduction 1369:or alcohol based fuels, with 3453:Medici, Joe (31 July 2007). 2728:10.1016/j.apcatb.2009.03.026 2342:Palucka, Tim (Winter 2004). 721:vehicle emission regulations 688:and not to be confused with 4706:Products introduced in 1975 3977:Srinivasan Gopalakrishnan. 3244:. Autospeed. Archived from 2966:10.1595/003214083X274146155 2488:, June 1955, pp. 83-85/244. 1986:emissions from the vehicle. 4722: 4023:Internal combustion engine 3763:10.1057/s41300-024-00207-6 3699:10.1057/s41300-024-00207-6 2746:Verbrennungsmotoren Band 2 2348:Invention & Technology 2024: 2016:, especially in dry areas. 1507:, which poison catalysts. 94:engines, and sometimes on 69:internal combustion engine 4640: 4491:Diesel particulate filter 4443:Idle air control actuator 4384:Engine control unit (ECU) 4029: 2563:Science History Institute 1902:Euro 1 emission standards 1720:electronic fuel injection 1718:Most newer vehicles have 1649:diesel particulate filter 1569:exhaust gas recirculation 1545:. This catalyst converts 1529:diesel oxidation catalyst 1386:system using one or more 4556:Viscous fan (fan clutch) 4468:Throttle position sensor 4177:Overhead camshaft layout 57:exhaust emission control 4681:Automotive technologies 4095:Core plug (freeze plug) 2676:1 December 2017 at the 2283:The Blade: Toledo, Ohio 1696:secondary air injection 1355:liquefied petroleum gas 626:(a combustion reaction) 3950:Lachman, I. M. et al. 3212:alpina-automobiles.com 2954:Platinum Metals Review 2613:10.1098/rsta.2005.1547 2344:"Doing the Impossible" 2314:The Milwaukee Sentinel 1908:Effect on exhaust flow 1887:automotive aftermarket 1336: 1179: 1114: 1049: 964: 878: 805: 731:of nitrogen oxides to 360: 359:Ceramic-core converter 352: 48: 40: 3971:U.S. patent 4,250,146 3962:U.S. patent 4,094,645 3953:U.S. patent 3,885,977 3944:U.S. patent 3,441,381 3941:Keith, C. D., et al. 3465:on 28 September 2007. 3455:"Underhanded thieves" 2546:Engelhard Corporation 2500:registration required 2461:Exhaust Gas Made Safe 1802:GF-4 specifications. 1713:operating temperature 1337: 1180: 1115: 1050: 965: 879: 806: 358: 350: 267:unburned hydrocarbons 164:electrical generators 115:unburned hydrocarbons 46: 35: 4336:Compression ignition 3573:on 28 December 2021. 3192:Catalytic converters 2141:is the basis of the 2123:on-board diagnostics 1976:stoichiometric point 1965:Environmental effect 1951:low emission vehicle 1842:improve this article 1792:zinc dithiophosphate 1639:diesel exhaust fluid 1531:(DOC). DOCs contain 1190: 1125: 1070: 975: 889: 816: 747: 671:nitrogen dioxide (NO 512:nickel tetracarbonyl 328:William C. Pfefferle 170:, mining equipment, 98:heaters and stoves. 4486:Catalytic converter 3968:Charles H. Bailey. 3959:Charles H. Bailey. 3888:. 22 September 2022 3833:Clinical Toxicology 3523:. 29 November 2019. 3338:. 6 September 2016. 3277:. 11 September 2007 3090:on 28 February 2014 3065:. 23 February 1996. 3062:The Palm Beach Post 3045:The Gainesville Sun 2720:2009AppCB..90..339M 2657:10.1557/PROC-549-93 2605:2005RSPTA.363.1013T 2599:(1829): 1013–1033. 2513:. 15 November 2008. 2354:(3). Archived from 2285:. 12 September 1974 1728:engine control unit 384:honeycomb structure 53:catalytic converter 4612:Knocking / pinging 4204:Combustion chamber 3927:. 12 January 2003. 3790:. 1 February 2020. 3565:The New York Times 3434:. 18 November 2021 3356:. 18 November 2008 3312:on 31 October 2007 2899:on 31 January 2022 2529:The New York Times 2510:The New York Times 2358:on 3 December 2008 2316:. 11 November 1974 2203:List of auto parts 1788:antiwear additives 1748:Catalyst poisoning 1547:particulate matter 1495:Unwanted reactions 1332: 1175: 1110: 1045: 960: 874: 801: 707:are precursors to 636:oxides of nitrogen 470:, mostly from the 361: 353: 127:oxides of nitrogen 49: 41: 18:Three-way catalyst 4676:French inventions 4658: 4657: 4627:Stratified charge 4394:Electrical system 4376:Engine management 4209:Compression ratio 4149:Starter ring gear 4048:rotating assembly 3839:(12): 1055–1058. 3298:"Norilsk, Russia" 3010:. 19 August 2015. 2939:10.1109/87.865850 2780:978-3-527-30385-4 2669:Worthy, Sharon. " 2466:Popular Mechanics 2256:978-0-448-11946-5 2198:Cerium(III) oxide 2064:reciprocating saw 2001:is produced near 1874: 1873: 1866: 1283: 1272: 1253: 1232: 1213: 1201: 1167: 1150: 1144: 1131: 1102: 1085: 1076: 1037: 1031: 1018: 1007: 996: 982: 952: 946: 927: 907: 898: 866: 860: 841: 830: 822: 799: 782: 765: 753: 667:nitric oxide (NO) 16:(Redirected from 4713: 4501:Exhaust manifold 4366:Spark plug wires 4252:Boost controller 4239:Forced induction 4016: 4009: 4002: 3993: 3987: 3986: 3982: 3973: 3964: 3955: 3946: 3929: 3928: 3918: 3912: 3911: 3904: 3898: 3897: 3895: 3893: 3878: 3872: 3871: 3869: 3867: 3824: 3818: 3817: 3815: 3813: 3798: 3792: 3791: 3780: 3774: 3773: 3771: 3769: 3742: 3736: 3735: 3733: 3731: 3716: 3710: 3709: 3707: 3705: 3678: 3672: 3671: 3669: 3667: 3662:. 12 August 2022 3652: 3646: 3645: 3643: 3641: 3622: 3616: 3615: 3607: 3601: 3600: 3598: 3596: 3581: 3575: 3574: 3572: 3557: 3551: 3550: 3548: 3546: 3531: 3525: 3524: 3517: 3511: 3510: 3499: 3493: 3492: 3490: 3488: 3473: 3467: 3466: 3461:. Archived from 3450: 3444: 3443: 3441: 3439: 3424: 3418: 3417: 3415: 3413: 3404:. Archived from 3398: 3392: 3391: 3389: 3387: 3380:fox5sandiego.com 3372: 3366: 3365: 3363: 3361: 3346: 3340: 3339: 3328: 3322: 3321: 3319: 3317: 3308:. Archived from 3293: 3287: 3286: 3284: 3282: 3267: 3261: 3260: 3255: 3253: 3237: 3228: 3227: 3225: 3223: 3214:. Archived from 3204: 3195: 3189: 3183: 3182: 3178: 3172: 3171: 3169: 3167: 3153: 3147: 3146: 3140: 3136: 3134: 3126: 3123:Mazda MX-5 Miata 3118: 3112: 3106: 3100: 3099: 3097: 3095: 3076: 3067: 3066: 3056: 3050: 3049: 3039: 3030: 3029: 3022: 3016: 3015: 3011: 3009: 3001: 2995: 2994: 2992: 2984: 2978: 2977: 2949: 2943: 2942: 2924: 2915: 2909: 2908: 2906: 2904: 2895:. Archived from 2889: 2880: 2879: 2859: 2850: 2849: 2847: 2845: 2834: 2828: 2827: 2799: 2793: 2792: 2756: 2750: 2749: 2741: 2732: 2731: 2714:(3–4): 339–346. 2702: 2696: 2691: 2685: 2667: 2661: 2660: 2639: 2633: 2632: 2586: 2575: 2574: 2572: 2570: 2555: 2549: 2539: 2533: 2532: 2520: 2514: 2503: 2495: 2489: 2476: 2470: 2457: 2451: 2450: 2433: 2427: 2426: 2400: 2394: 2393: 2391: 2389: 2374: 2368: 2367: 2365: 2363: 2339: 2326: 2325: 2323: 2321: 2306: 2295: 2294: 2292: 2290: 2275: 2264: 2263: 2242: 2215: 2193:Catalytic heater 2181: 2170: 2103:Toyota's hybrids 2047:and truck-based 1869: 1862: 1858: 1855: 1849: 1826: 1818: 1738: 1709: 1677:exhaust manifold 1628: 1611: 1597: 1583: 1566: 1557: 1501:hydrogen sulfide 1472: 1462: 1450: 1441: 1424: 1415: 1402: 1341: 1339: 1338: 1333: 1331: 1284: 1281: 1279: 1278: 1273: 1270: 1260: 1259: 1254: 1251: 1239: 1238: 1233: 1230: 1220: 1219: 1214: 1211: 1208: 1207: 1202: 1199: 1184: 1182: 1181: 1176: 1174: 1173: 1168: 1165: 1157: 1156: 1151: 1148: 1145: 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3969: 3960: 3951: 3942: 3938: 3936:Further reading 3933: 3932: 3924:Concord Monitor 3920: 3919: 3915: 3906: 3905: 3901: 3891: 3889: 3880: 3879: 3875: 3865: 3863: 3826: 3825: 3821: 3811: 3809: 3800: 3799: 3795: 3782: 3781: 3777: 3767: 3765: 3744: 3743: 3739: 3729: 3727: 3718: 3717: 3713: 3703: 3701: 3680: 3679: 3675: 3665: 3663: 3654: 3653: 3649: 3639: 3637: 3624: 3623: 3619: 3609: 3608: 3604: 3594: 3592: 3583: 3582: 3578: 3559: 3558: 3554: 3544: 3542: 3533: 3532: 3528: 3519: 3518: 3514: 3501: 3500: 3496: 3486: 3484: 3475: 3474: 3470: 3452: 3451: 3447: 3437: 3435: 3426: 3425: 3421: 3411: 3409: 3408:on 14 July 2017 3400: 3399: 3395: 3385: 3383: 3374: 3373: 3369: 3359: 3357: 3348: 3347: 3343: 3330: 3329: 3325: 3315: 3313: 3295: 3294: 3290: 3280: 3278: 3269: 3268: 3264: 3251: 3249: 3239: 3238: 3231: 3221: 3219: 3218:on 30 June 2015 3206: 3205: 3198: 3190: 3186: 3180: 3179: 3175: 3165: 3163: 3155: 3154: 3150: 3137: 3127: 3121:Tanner, Keith. 3120: 3119: 3115: 3107: 3103: 3093: 3091: 3078: 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1702: 1693: 1673: 1657: 1627: 1621: 1610: 1604: 1596: 1590: 1582: 1576: 1565: 1559: 1556: 1550: 1521: 1497: 1471: 1465: 1461: 1455: 1449: 1443: 1440: 1434: 1432: 1428: 1423: 1417: 1414: 1408: 1401: 1395: 1268: 1249: 1228: 1209: 1197: 1188: 1187: 1163: 1146: 1123: 1122: 1098: 1081: 1068: 1067: 1033: 1003: 978: 973: 972: 948: 923: 903: 887: 886: 862: 837: 814: 813: 778: 761: 745: 744: 738: 704: 698: 693: 685: 679: 674: 663: 655: 649: 645: 639: 623: 615: 607: 603: 595: 589: 576: 572: 568: 561:carbon monoxide 550: 545: 536: 468:precious metals 435:silicon dioxide 345: 336:nitrogen oxides 321: 315: 312: 306: 298:tetraethyl lead 295:antiknock agent 292: 284: 276: 272: 263:carbon monoxide 196: 160:exhaust systems 153: 147: 136: 130: 124: 120: 111:carbon monoxide 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4719: 4717: 4709: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4693: 4688: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4663: 4662: 4656: 4655: 4653: 4652: 4647: 4641: 4638: 4637: 4635: 4634: 4629: 4624: 4619: 4614: 4608: 4606: 4602: 4601: 4599: 4598: 4584: 4579: 4574: 4568: 4566: 4562: 4561: 4559: 4558: 4553: 4548: 4543: 4537: 4536: 4531: 4525: 4523: 4521:Cooling system 4517: 4516: 4514: 4513: 4508: 4503: 4498: 4493: 4488: 4482: 4480: 4478:Exhaust system 4474: 4473: 4471: 4470: 4465: 4460: 4455: 4450: 4448:Inlet manifold 4445: 4440: 4435: 4429: 4427: 4423: 4422: 4420: 4419: 4414: 4409: 4404: 4398: 4396: 4393: 4390: 4389: 4387: 4386: 4380: 4378: 4375: 4372: 4371: 4369: 4368: 4363: 4358: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4327: 4325: 4319: 4318: 4316: 4315: 4310: 4305: 4303:Fuel injection 4300: 4295: 4290: 4285: 4279: 4277: 4273: 4272: 4270: 4269: 4264: 4259: 4254: 4249: 4243: 4241: 4235: 4234: 4232: 4231: 4226: 4221: 4216: 4211: 4206: 4201: 4196: 4191: 4185: 4184: 4179: 4174: 4168: 4166: 4155: 4154: 4152: 4151: 4146: 4141: 4136: 4131: 4126: 4121: 4116: 4111: 4097: 4092: 4087: 4082: 4077: 4072: 4070:Connecting rod 4067: 4062: 4057: 4051: 4049: 4040: 4039: 4030: 4027: 4026: 4021: 4019: 4018: 4011: 4004: 3996: 3990: 3989: 3975: 3966: 3957: 3948: 3937: 3934: 3931: 3930: 3913: 3910:. 1 June 2007. 3899: 3873: 3819: 3793: 3775: 3757:(2): 139–156. 3737: 3711: 3693:(2): 139–156. 3673: 3647: 3617: 3614:. 2 July 2009. 3602: 3576: 3552: 3526: 3512: 3494: 3468: 3459:Chroniclet.com 3445: 3419: 3393: 3382:. 29 June 2017 3367: 3354:ocregister.com 3341: 3323: 3288: 3262: 3248:on 28 May 2012 3229: 3196: 3194:, nsls.bnl.gov 3184: 3173: 3148: 3125:. p. 120. 3113: 3101: 3080:"Beat the Law" 3068: 3051: 3031: 3017: 2996: 2979: 2960:(4): 146–155. 2944: 2933:(5): 767–776. 2910: 2881: 2870:(4): 419–449. 2851: 2829: 2810:(2): 285–298. 2794: 2779: 2751: 2733: 2697: 2686: 2662: 2634: 2576: 2550: 2534: 2515: 2490: 2471: 2452: 2442:Car and Driver 2428: 2413: 2395: 2369: 2327: 2296: 2265: 2255: 2231: 2230: 2228: 2225: 2224: 2223: 2218: 2205: 2200: 2195: 2188: 2185: 2155: 2150: 2146: 2118: 2115: 2082: 2079: 2022: 2019: 2018: 2017: 2010: 1987: 1983: 1966: 1963: 1930: 1929:Warm-up period 1927: 1918: 1915: 1909: 1906: 1898:United Kingdom 1894:European Union 1872: 1871: 1830: 1828: 1821: 1815: 1812: 1744: 1741: 1724:Oxygen sensors 1691: 1688:air-fuel ratio 1672: 1669: 1664:spark-ignition 1656: 1653: 1645:Diesel exhaust 1620:to reduce the 1588:(SCR) and the 1520: 1519:Diesel engines 1517: 1496: 1493: 1479:oxygen sensors 1430: 1426: 1388:oxygen sensors 1384:fuel injection 1347:stoichiometric 1343: 1342: 1330: 1326: 1323: 1319: 1316: 1312: 1309: 1305: 1302: 1298: 1295: 1291: 1288: 1277: 1266: 1263: 1258: 1247: 1243: 1237: 1226: 1223: 1218: 1206: 1195: 1185: 1172: 1161: 1155: 1143: 1140: 1135: 1120: 1107: 1096: 1090: 1080: 1056: 1055: 1042: 1030: 1027: 1022: 1012: 1001: 992: 987: 970: 957: 945: 942: 937: 932: 922: 918: 912: 902: 894: 884: 871: 859: 856: 851: 846: 835: 826: 811: 795: 792: 787: 776: 770: 760: 757: 736: 691: 672: 662: 659: 632:diesel engines 628: 627: 621: 613: 605: 597: 591: 578: 574: 570: 565:carbon dioxide 549: 546: 544: 541: 535: 532: 524: 523: 472:platinum group 464: 461:ceria-zirconia 454: 427:Aluminum oxide 423: 344: 341: 290: 282: 279:carbon dioxide 274: 270: 244:John J. Mooney 235:for his work. 195: 192: 144:stoichiometric 122: 121:) and water (H 118: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4718: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4697: 4694: 4692: 4689: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4669: 4668: 4666: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4642: 4639: 4633: 4630: 4628: 4625: 4623: 4620: 4618: 4615: 4613: 4610: 4609: 4607: 4603: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4585: 4583: 4580: 4578: 4575: 4573: 4570: 4569: 4567: 4563: 4557: 4554: 4552: 4549: 4547: 4544: 4542: 4539: 4538: 4535: 4534:Water cooling 4532: 4530: 4527: 4526: 4524: 4522: 4518: 4512: 4511:Oxygen sensor 4509: 4507: 4504: 4502: 4499: 4497: 4494: 4492: 4489: 4487: 4484: 4483: 4481: 4479: 4475: 4469: 4466: 4464: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4451: 4449: 4446: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4431: 4430: 4428: 4426:Intake system 4424: 4418: 4417:Starter motor 4415: 4413: 4410: 4408: 4405: 4403: 4400: 4399: 4397: 4391: 4385: 4382: 4381: 4379: 4373: 4367: 4364: 4362: 4359: 4357: 4356:Ignition coil 4354: 4352: 4349: 4347: 4344: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4328: 4326: 4324: 4320: 4314: 4311: 4309: 4306: 4304: 4301: 4299: 4296: 4294: 4291: 4289: 4288:Petrol engine 4286: 4284: 4283:Diesel engine 4281: 4280: 4278: 4274: 4268: 4265: 4263: 4260: 4258: 4255: 4253: 4250: 4248: 4247:Blowoff valve 4245: 4244: 4242: 4240: 4236: 4230: 4227: 4225: 4222: 4220: 4217: 4215: 4212: 4210: 4207: 4205: 4202: 4200: 4197: 4195: 4192: 4190: 4187: 4186: 4183: 4180: 4178: 4175: 4173: 4170: 4169: 4167: 4165: 4164:Cylinder head 4160: 4156: 4150: 4147: 4145: 4142: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4132: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4122: 4120: 4117: 4115: 4112: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4098: 4096: 4093: 4091: 4088: 4086: 4083: 4081: 4078: 4076: 4073: 4071: 4068: 4066: 4063: 4061: 4058: 4056: 4055:Balance shaft 4053: 4052: 4050: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4035: 4028: 4024: 4017: 4012: 4010: 4005: 4003: 3998: 3997: 3994: 3981: 3976: 3972: 3967: 3963: 3958: 3954: 3949: 3945: 3940: 3939: 3935: 3926: 3925: 3917: 3914: 3909: 3903: 3900: 3887: 3883: 3877: 3874: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3823: 3820: 3808: 3804: 3797: 3794: 3789: 3785: 3779: 3776: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3741: 3738: 3726: 3722: 3715: 3712: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3677: 3674: 3661: 3657: 3651: 3648: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3621: 3618: 3613: 3606: 3603: 3591: 3587: 3580: 3577: 3571: 3566: 3562: 3556: 3553: 3541: 3537: 3530: 3527: 3522: 3516: 3513: 3508: 3504: 3498: 3495: 3483: 3479: 3472: 3469: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3449: 3446: 3433: 3429: 3423: 3420: 3407: 3403: 3397: 3394: 3381: 3377: 3371: 3368: 3355: 3351: 3345: 3342: 3337: 3333: 3327: 3324: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3292: 3289: 3276: 3272: 3266: 3263: 3259: 3247: 3243: 3236: 3234: 3230: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3203: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3188: 3185: 3177: 3174: 3162: 3161:www.theaa.com 3158: 3152: 3149: 3144: 3132: 3124: 3117: 3114: 3110: 3105: 3102: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3075: 3073: 3069: 3064: 3063: 3055: 3052: 3047: 3046: 3038: 3036: 3032: 3027: 3021: 3018: 3014:(123 KB) 3006: 3000: 2997: 2989: 2983: 2980: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2948: 2945: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2921: 2914: 2911: 2898: 2894: 2888: 2886: 2882: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2858: 2856: 2852: 2839: 2833: 2830: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2798: 2795: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2763: 2755: 2752: 2747: 2740: 2738: 2734: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2701: 2698: 2695: 2690: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2672: 2666: 2663: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2638: 2635: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2593: 2585: 2583: 2581: 2577: 2564: 2560: 2554: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2538: 2535: 2530: 2526: 2519: 2516: 2512: 2511: 2506: 2501: 2494: 2491: 2487: 2486: 2481: 2475: 2472: 2468: 2467: 2462: 2456: 2453: 2448: 2444: 2443: 2438: 2432: 2429: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2414:9782897193591 2410: 2406: 2399: 2396: 2383: 2379: 2373: 2370: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2338: 2336: 2334: 2332: 2328: 2315: 2311: 2305: 2303: 2301: 2297: 2284: 2280: 2274: 2272: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2252: 2248: 2241: 2239: 2237: 2233: 2226: 2222: 2219: 2217: 2213: 2206: 2204: 2201: 2199: 2196: 2194: 2191: 2190: 2186: 2184: 2179: 2172: 2168: 2160: 2149:levels. The O 2144: 2140: 2139:oxygen sensor 2135: 2131: 2128: 2124: 2116: 2114: 2111: 2106: 2104: 2100: 2095: 2093: 2087: 2080: 2078: 2076: 2071: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2045:pickup trucks 2042: 2038: 2034: 2028: 2020: 2015: 2011: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1972: 1971: 1964: 1962: 1960: 1954: 1952: 1948: 1947:Heating coils 1944: 1940: 1935: 1928: 1926: 1923: 1916: 1914: 1907: 1905: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1890: 1888: 1883: 1882:Clean Air Act 1878: 1868: 1865: 1857: 1847: 1843: 1837: 1836: 1831:This section 1829: 1825: 1820: 1819: 1813: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1742: 1740: 1736: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1716: 1714: 1707: 1699: 1697: 1689: 1685: 1680: 1678: 1670: 1668: 1665: 1662: 1654: 1652: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1626: 1619: 1615: 1609: 1601: 1599: 1595: 1587: 1581: 1572: 1570: 1564: 1555: 1548: 1544: 1541: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1518: 1516: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1494: 1492: 1488: 1485: 1480: 1475: 1470: 1460: 1452: 1448: 1439: 1422: 1413: 1404: 1400: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1382: 1379: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1324: 1321: 1317: 1314: 1310: 1307: 1303: 1300: 1296: 1293: 1289: 1286: 1275: 1264: 1261: 1256: 1245: 1235: 1224: 1221: 1216: 1204: 1193: 1186: 1170: 1153: 1141: 1138: 1133: 1121: 1105: 1088: 1078: 1066: 1065: 1064: 1063: 1061: 1040: 1028: 1025: 1020: 1010: 990: 985: 971: 955: 943: 940: 935: 930: 920: 910: 900: 892: 885: 869: 857: 854: 849: 844: 824: 812: 793: 790: 785: 768: 758: 755: 743: 742: 741: 740: 734: 730: 725: 722: 716: 714: 710: 706: 703: 695: 687: 684: 676: 668: 660: 658: 654: 644: 637: 633: 619: 611: 601: 594: 587: 583: 580:Oxidation of 579: 566: 562: 558: 555: 554: 553: 547: 542: 540: 533: 531: 529: 521: 517: 513: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 489: 485: 481: 477: 473: 469: 465: 462: 458: 455: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 428: 424: 421: 417: 416:Corning Glass 413: 409: 408:Irwin Lachman 405: 404:Rodney Bagley 401: 397: 393: 389: 385: 381: 378: 374: 370: 366: 365: 364: 357: 349: 342: 340: 337: 333: 329: 325: 320: 311: 303: 299: 296: 288: 280: 277:) to produce 268: 264: 260: 256: 251: 249: 245: 241: 240:Carl D. Keith 236: 234: 230: 226: 222: 221:air pollution 218: 214: 213:Eugene Houdry 210: 206: 202: 193: 191: 189: 185: 181: 177: 173: 169: 165: 161: 156: 152: 145: 141: 135: 128: 116: 112: 108: 104: 99: 97: 93: 89: 85: 81: 78: 74: 70: 66: 62: 58: 54: 45: 39: 34: 30: 19: 4541:Electric fan 4485: 4341:Coil-on-plug 4267:Turbocharger 4262:Supercharger 4134:Main bearing 4124:Firing order 4114:Displacement 4060:Block heater 4044:Engine block 4032:Part of the 4031: 3922: 3916: 3902: 3890:. Retrieved 3886:carsneedcare 3885: 3876: 3864:. Retrieved 3836: 3832: 3822: 3810:. Retrieved 3806: 3796: 3788:the Guardian 3787: 3778: 3766:. Retrieved 3754: 3750: 3740: 3728:. Retrieved 3724: 3714: 3702:. Retrieved 3690: 3686: 3676: 3664:. Retrieved 3660:PBS NewsHour 3659: 3650: 3638:. Retrieved 3630: 3620: 3611: 3605: 3593:. Retrieved 3589: 3579: 3570:the original 3564: 3555: 3543:. Retrieved 3539: 3529: 3515: 3506: 3497: 3485:. Retrieved 3481: 3471: 3463:the original 3458: 3448: 3436:. Retrieved 3431: 3422: 3410:. Retrieved 3406:the original 3396: 3384:. Retrieved 3379: 3370: 3358:. Retrieved 3353: 3344: 3335: 3326: 3314:. Retrieved 3310:the original 3301: 3291: 3279:. Retrieved 3274: 3265: 3257: 3250:. Retrieved 3246:the original 3220:. Retrieved 3216:the original 3211: 3208:"Milestones" 3187: 3176: 3164:. Retrieved 3160: 3151: 3122: 3116: 3104: 3092:. Retrieved 3088:the original 3084:Import Tuner 3083: 3060: 3054: 3043: 3020: 2999: 2982: 2957: 2953: 2947: 2930: 2926: 2913: 2901:. Retrieved 2897:the original 2867: 2863: 2842:. Retrieved 2832: 2807: 2803: 2797: 2761: 2754: 2745: 2711: 2707: 2700: 2689: 2682:Bio-Medicine 2681: 2665: 2648: 2644: 2637: 2596: 2590: 2567:. Retrieved 2562: 2553: 2544:(undated). " 2542:Staff writer 2537: 2528: 2518: 2508: 2493: 2483: 2474: 2464: 2455: 2446: 2440: 2437:Csere, Csaba 2431: 2404: 2398: 2386:. Retrieved 2381: 2372: 2360:. Retrieved 2356:the original 2351: 2347: 2318:. Retrieved 2313: 2287:. Retrieved 2282: 2260: 2246: 2211: 2177: 2166: 2161: 2136: 2132: 2120: 2107: 2096: 2088: 2084: 2072: 2058: 2053:Toyota Prius 2030: 2006: 1968: 1955: 1936: 1932: 1920: 1911: 1891: 1879: 1875: 1860: 1854:January 2017 1851: 1840:Please help 1835:verification 1832: 1808: 1804: 1746: 1734: 1717: 1705: 1700: 1681: 1674: 1671:Installation 1658: 1643: 1624: 1607: 1602: 1593: 1579: 1573: 1562: 1553: 1540:supported on 1528: 1522: 1498: 1489: 1476: 1468: 1458: 1453: 1446: 1437: 1420: 1411: 1405: 1398: 1375:computerized 1344: 1058: 1057: 727: 726: 717: 701: 682: 664: 652: 642: 629: 617: 609: 599: 592: 582:hydrocarbons 551: 537: 525: 412:Ronald Lewis 396:surface area 362: 343:Construction 332:gas turbines 326: 318: 309: 252: 237: 197: 157: 150: 133: 100: 90:, including 52: 50: 29: 4701:NOx control 4565:Lubrication 4529:Air cooling 4346:Distributor 4298:Fuel filter 4276:Fuel system 4257:Intercooler 4224:Timing belt 4214:Head gasket 4144:Piston ring 3866:17 February 3666:26 December 3166:31 December 3139:|work= 2565:. June 2016 2362:14 December 2320:14 December 2289:14 December 2143:closed-loop 2117:Diagnostics 2099:hybrid cars 2075:U.S. Senate 2060:Pipecutters 1922:Carburetors 1814:Regulations 1690:. Oxygen (O 1684:carburetors 1392:carburetors 1378:closed-loop 1359:natural gas 382:that has a 225:smokestacks 188:wood stoves 184:motorcycles 180:locomotives 65:exhaust gas 4665:Categories 4617:Power band 4577:Oil filter 4551:Thermostat 4496:EGT sensor 4458:MAF sensor 4453:MAP sensor 4438:Air filter 4402:Alternator 4361:Spark plug 4293:Carburetor 4219:Rocker arm 4159:Valvetrain 4090:Crankshaft 4034:Automobile 3980:GB 2397782 3612:PoconoNews 2903:31 January 2844:2 February 2569:27 October 2423:1030881466 2227:References 2081:Statistics 2068:alternator 2025:See also: 1961:Roadster. 1959:Toyota MR2 1780:Phosphorus 1367:oxygenated 400:cordierite 388:packed bed 73:catalyzing 61:pollutants 4691:Catalysis 4351:Glow plug 4313:Fuel tank 4308:Fuel pump 4075:Crankcase 3861:265607501 3812:8 October 3595:7 January 3487:7 January 3316:7 January 3252:2 January 3141:ignored ( 3131:cite book 3094:9 January 2824:0920-5861 2789:137166382 2388:2 January 2382:Burn Wise 2101:(such as 2037:palladium 2014:wildfires 1991:palladium 1980:lean-burn 1764:manganese 1661:lean-burn 1533:palladium 1513:manganese 1484:sigmoidal 1325:∈ 1242:→ 1160:→ 1095:→ 1060:Oxidation 1000:→ 917:→ 834:→ 775:→ 729:Reduction 709:acid rain 661:Three-way 557:Oxidation 504:manganese 492:oxidation 488:reduction 480:Palladium 373:substrate 265:(CO) and 248:Engelhard 233:2,742,437 209:palladium 168:forklifts 140:fuel-rich 113:(CO) and 92:lean-burn 38:Dodge Ram 4650:Category 4595:Dry sump 4591:Wet sump 4582:Oil pump 4546:Radiator 4463:Throttle 4323:Ignition 4194:Camshaft 4119:Flywheel 4100:Cylinder 4085:Crankpin 3892:17 March 3853:38047882 3730:15 March 3640:13 March 3590:NBC News 3545:15 March 3482:Newsweek 3438:15 April 3386:15 April 3360:15 April 3281:15 April 2974:36970773 2674:Archived 2629:37283846 2621:15901550 2449:(7): 63. 2384:. US EPA 2216:adsorber 2187:See also 2033:platinum 1995:platinum 1896:and the 1790:such as 1756:unleaded 1631:nitrogen 1616:such as 1598:adsorber 1537:platinum 1429:O and CO 1381:feedback 733:nitrogen 476:Platinum 422:in 2002. 380:monolith 201:platinum 96:kerosene 84:gasoline 80:reaction 67:from an 4622:Redline 4506:Muffler 4407:Battery 4331:Magneto 3807:Reuters 3768:29 June 3704:29 June 3631:cnn.com 3412:14 July 2716:Bibcode 2601:Bibcode 2171:sensors 2130:forms. 2041:rhodium 2003:Norilsk 1917:Dangers 1798:SM and 1776:coolant 1772:silicon 1770:), and 1641:(DEF). 1618:ammonia 1614:reagent 1571:(EGR). 1543:alumina 1505:ammonia 1363:ethanol 1351:autogas 569:2CO + O 548:Two-way 484:rhodium 447:alumina 392:Kanthal 377:ceramic 205:rhodium 194:History 4645:Portal 4433:Airbox 4412:Dynamo 4139:Piston 4129:Stroke 4108:layout 4036:series 3985: 3859: 3851: 3507:RTÉ.ie 3336:pe.com 3222:5 June 3012: 2972: 2822: 2787: 2777: 2627: 2619: 2421: 2411: 2253: 2127:OBD-II 1939:Alpina 1760:sulfur 1743:Damage 1525:diesel 1509:Nickel 1361:, and 1357:LPG), 516:Copper 508:nickel 506:, and 496:Cerium 443:silica 410:, and 398:. 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