127:
28:
360:, making errors difficult to correct but preserving the brilliant colors of the oxides when fired. The glazed and decorated vessels are returned to the kiln for a second firing, usually between 1000 and 1120 °C (the higher temperatures used by modern potters). Lustered wares have a third firing at a lower temperature, necessitating a delicate control of the amount of oxygen in the kiln atmosphere and therefore a flame-burning kiln.
193:
899:
vellum surface finish. The firing temperatures of such glazes are low, in the region of 950 – 1000 °C because of the variable degrees of solution of the individual oxides. The amount of tin oxide used for coloured glazes depends upon the opacifying property of the chosen chromophore and the intensity of the colour desired; if a deep colour is required less opacifier will be needed than for pastel shades.
414:. Whilst zirconium compounds are not as effective, their low price led to a gradual increase in popularity with an associated reduction in use of tin oxide. Today, tin oxide finds limited use in glazes, generally its use is restricted to specialist low temperature applications, and by artisanal studio potters. The whiteness resulting from the use of zirconia has been described as more
443:
300:. In the sixteenth century, the use of subtle and blended colours which were not strong enough to penetrate the opaque glaze made the delicate control of tonal values possible, and the painting therefore had to be done on the glaze surface, which then becomes a common manner of painting on tin-glazed wares.
252:
Though the recipe of tin glazes may differ in different sites and periods, the process of the production of tin glazes is similar. Generally speaking, the first step of the production of tin glazes is to mix tin and lead in order to form oxides, which was then added to a glaze matrix (alkali-silicate
243:
and related types, stronger, lighter and often cheaper than traditional earthenwares, hit the production of tin-glazed wares very hard, and production of "useful" rather than decorative wares almost ceased, so that "by 1850 the industry was almost extinct" in France. In 1947 Arthur Lane wrote it was
111:
and as a white colorant. Tin oxide has long been used to produce a white, opaque and glossy glaze. As well as an opacifying agent, tin oxide also finds use as a colour stabiliser in some pigments and glazes. Minor quantities are also used in the conducting phases in some electrical porcelain glazes.
374:
The recrystallisation of tin oxide during the firing provides evidence of the slightly different methods of different production sites, as the crystal size, the distribution and the concentration may be influenced. For instance, the analysis of the 14th century
Islamic tin glazes from eastern Spain
898:
In combination with chromium compounds addition of 0.5 - 1.5% tin oxide to a glaze result in a pink colour, with such glazes being known as Chrome-tin pinks. In conjunction with small additions of zinc oxide and titanium oxide, additions of tin oxide up to 18% to lead glazes can produce a satin or
703:
helps to increase the hardness of the surface and clarify the colour of the glaze as well. With the development of tin glazes, the significant amount of tin oxide indicates its deliberate addition as an opacifier. A recipe involving the use of three ingredients was given in Abu’l-Qasim’s treatise
740:
have been found in ancient archives. However, recent research has shown that, at least since the 10th century AD, most
Islamic white glazes in Spain were lead-silica glazes with tin oxide as an opacifier. That is, no alkaline glazes or lead-alkaline glazes have been found. Piccolpasso recorded
511:
Some research on medieval tin glaze has shown that the particle size of tin oxide which appears as cassiterite is around several hundred nanometers, which corresponds to the range of wavelength of visible light. In some cases, the tin oxide is presented not only as small crystals but also as
57:. Tin-glaze is plain lead glaze with a small amount of tin oxide added. The opacity and whiteness of tin glaze encourage its frequent decoration. Historically this has mostly been done before the single firing, when the colours blend into the glaze, but since the 17th century also using
579:
increases with the increasing of temperature. During either heating or cooling, the recrystallisation is taken place until the supply of tin is exhausted. In the second heating, lead in the form of lead oxide no longer reacts with tin oxide to form lead silicate, thus the recrystallised
88:, where the basic glaze is transparent; some types of pottery use both. However, when pieces are glazed only with lead, the glaze becomes fluid during firing, and may run or pool. Colours painted on the glaze may also run or blur. Tin-glazing avoids these problems.
351:
which sticks to it, leaving a smooth and absorbent surface when dry. On this surface colours are applied by brush, the colours made from powered oxides mixed with water to a consistency of water-colour paint, sometimes with the addition of a binding agent such as
596:
rates of the precipitation depend upon temperature and time. The particle size of the cassiterite developed is also dependent on the temperature, and smaller than that used in the very beginning. It is the smaller particle size of the recrystallised
188:
by local
Islamic potters. Another might be local glaze-making rather than foreign influence, supported by the similarity between the chemical and microstructural features of pre-Islamic white opaque glazes and that on the first tin-opacified wares
483:
The degree of dissolution increases with the firing temperature, and hence the extent of opacity diminishes. Although dependent on the other constituents the solubility of tin oxide in glaze melts is generally low. Its solubility is increased by
307:
in
English. The wares were fired twice, firstly just the clay body, then again after the glaze and painted colours were added. The colours applied on top of the glaze blended into it during firing (the technique thereby differing from
253:
glaze, for example) and heated. After the mixture cooled, the tin oxide crystallises as what has been mentioned above, therefore generates the so-called white tin-opacified glazes. Besides, the body of tin-opacified wares is generally
601:
in glazes that increases the opacity in tin-opacified glazes. Besides the increasing the opacity, the high lead oxide to tin oxide ratio also reduces the melting point of glazes, lead to a lower firing temperature during production.
1476:
Borgia, I., B. Brunettu, A. Sgamellontti, F. Shokouhi, P. Oliaiy, J. Rahighi, M. Lamehi-rachti, M. Mellini, and C. Viti. 2004. Characterisation of decorations on
Iranian (10th–13th century) lustreware Applied Physics A 79
1544:
Kleimann, B. 1986. History and development of early
Islamic pottery glazes. In Proceedings of the 24th international archaeometry symposium, edited by J. S. Olin and M. J. Blackman. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution
531:
and air bubble as other opacifiers. The microanalysis of later tin glazes reveals the distribution of tin oxide through the glazes rather than just at the interface, which indicates that tin oxide is really acting as an
1638:
Tite, M. S., T. Pradell, and A. Shortland. 2008. Discovery, production and use of tin-based opacifiers in glasses, enamels and glazes from the late Iron Age onwards: a reassessment. Journal of
Archaeological Science
312:
painting used with transparent glazes). The disadvantage was that only a narrow group of pigments produced good colours after firing at the relatively high temperatures of up to 1000 °C. These included
220:, born in Florence about 1400, used tin oxide as an opacifier in glazes. Potters began to draw polychrome paintings on the white opaque surface with metallic oxides such as cobalt oxide and to produce
732:
and quartz. Afterwards, with the spread of tin glazes, lead gradually became the principal background in tin glazes, though a small proportion of alkali was still introduced in order to increase the
1618:
Ravaglioli, A., A. Keajewski, M. S. Tite, R. R. Burn, P. A. Simpson, and G. C. Bojani. 1996. A physico-chemical study on some glazes coming from
Romagna's and Neaples's Moiolica. Fraenza 82:18-29.
344:). A much wider range of colours was possible, but after the fired and glazed wares were painted a third firing was required, at a lower temperature of perhaps 750 °C and 850 °C.
1470:
al-Saad, Z. 2002. Chemical composition and manufacturing technology of a collection of various types of
Islamic glazes excavated from Jordan. Journal of Archaeological Science 29:803-810.
402:
Tin oxide has been widely used as the opacifier in sanitaryware glazes. In this application, additions of up to 6% are reported to be used. The cost of tin oxide rose considerably during
173:. From Mesopotamia, tin glazes spread to Islamic Egypt (868–905 AD) during the 10th century, and then to Andalusian Spain (711-1492 AD), leading to the maximum development of Islamic
265:
during the firing process. On the other hand, the calcareous clay fired in an oxidising atmosphere results in a buff colour, thus lower the concentration of tin oxide used
180:
The history of tin glazes in the
Islamic world is disputed. One possible reason for the earlier production of tin-glazed wares could be attributed to the trade between the
375:
indicates that these samples may be produced by non-fritting methods, as the heterogeneous distribution of tin oxides may be the remains of original grains of tin oxides.
232:
was made to appear white, and hence mimic the appearance of Chinese porcelain, by the application of a glaze opacified and coloured white by the addition of tin oxide.
126:
468:
remains in suspension in the vitreous matrix of the glaze. Because tin's high refractive index is different from the vitreous matrix, light is scattered: hence the
1696:
523:
photomicrographs of some earlier Islamic glazed ceramics, of which the particles of tin oxide are concentrated at the interface, together with the existence of
512:
aggregates of particles. These factors – the high refractive index, the low solubility in glazes and the particle size make tin oxide an excellent opacifier.
418:
than that from tin oxide, and is consequently preferred in some applications. The Koninklijke Tichelaar Makkum factory, or Royal Tichelaar Makkum, based in
1587:
Molera, J., M. Vendrell-Saz, and J. Pérez-Arantegui. 2001. "Chemical and textural characterization of tin glazes in Islamic ceramics from eastern Spain".
476:
between the particles and the glaze matrix, the larger the opacity. Similarly, the closer the particle size to the light wavelength (100-1000 nm for
378:
The interaction between glaze and body also give clues to different handling and firing processes. As mentioned above, tin glaze suspension is applied to
741:
several glazes used in Italy in the 1550s, all variations of lead, tin, lime, soda and potash glazes. It is believed early Spanish glazes were similar.
347:
In modern versions, the pottery vessels are biscuit fired, usually between 900 °C and 1000 °C. The fired vessel is dipped in a liquid glaze
1635:
Tite, M. S., I. Freestone, and R. B. Manson. 1998. "Lead glazes in antiquity - methods of production and reasons for use". archaeometry 40:241-260.
143:
1736:
1038:'Conducting Glazes Part 2 : The Use of Valency Controlled Semiconducting Oxides and the Development of Tin Oxide Glazes'. D.B.Binns.
268:
The white opaque surface makes tin glaze a good base for painted decoration. The decoration is applied as metallic oxides, most commonly
1679:
1613:
1503:
1489:
932:
1580:
Molera, J., T. Pradell, N. Salvadó, and M. Vendrell-Saz. 1999. "Evidence of Tin Oxide Recrystallization in Opacified Lead Glazes".
543:
of tin oxide, and thus enhances the degree of opacification in tin-opacified glazes than in tin-opacified glass. A high PbO/SnO
1651:
1571:
1528:
1359:
Molera, J., Pradell T., Salvadó, N. and Vendrell-Saz, M. "Evidence of Tin Oxide Recrystallization in Opacified Lead Glazes",
1067:
Borgia, I., B. Brunettu, A. Sgamellontti, F. Shokouhi, P. Oliaiy, J. Rahighi, M. Lamehi-rachti, M. Mellini, and C. Viti. 2004
540:
258:
520:
1721:
254:
1174:
Tite, M. S., Freestone, I. and Manson, R.B., "Lead glazes in antiquity - methods of production and reasons for use",
296:. To these oxides modern potters are able to add powdered ceramic colours made from combinations of oxide, sometimes
1691:
1660:
Vendrell, M., J. Molera, and M. S. Tite. 2000. Optical properties of tin-opacified glazes. Archaeometry 42:325-340.
1595:
1716:
1482:
Tin-Glaze Pottery in Europe and the Islamic World: The Tradition of 1000 Years in Maiolica, Faience and Delftware
925:
Tin-Glaze Pottery in Europe and the Islamic World: The Tradition of 1000 Years in Maiolica, Faience and Delftware
1741:
539:
Lead is usually brought into the glazes with tin oxide. The reaction between lead and tin oxide results in the
363:
Traditional kilns were wood firing, which required the pots to be protected in the glaze and luster firings by
386:. This could be inferred from the absence of trapped glaze bubbles. If it is applied to an unfired body, the
1731:
1726:
212:, where the earliest recorded reference to their use is in the 1330s, resulting in the emergence of Italian
85:
567:
occurs at the temperature in the range of 700 °C to 750 °C, resulting in the dissolution of PbSnO
419:
348:
325:
yellow, and the very tricky iron reds and brown, which only some potters were able to make as a good red.
1692:
Book: Tin-Glazed Earthenware: From Maiolica, Faience and Delftware to the Contemporary by Daphne Carnegy
205:
1347:’A Treatise On Ceramic Industries.’ E.Bourry. Fourth edition. Scott, Greenwood & son. London. 1926.
559:) at a temperature higher than 600 °C. After the formation of lead-tin oxide, the melting of PbSiO
638:
in silica. An Islamic opaque white glaze has been analysed, and is quoted below as a Seger formula:
406:(1914-1918), and resulted in a search for cheaper alternatives. The first successful replacement was
394:, the releasing of which from the body to the glaze results in trapped bubbles in the glaze layers.
27:
165:
in the 8th century, fragments having been excavated during the First World War from the palace of
1697:
Low fire majolica glaze recipe cone 04 oxidation by Linda Arbuckle on http://ceramicartsdaily.org
1630:
Italian Renaissance pottery: papers written in association with a colloqium at the British Museum
121:
78:
46:
184:
and ancient China from the 8th to 9th century onwards, resulting in imitation of white Chinese
1675:
1647:
1609:
1567:
1524:
1499:
1485:
928:
864:
826:
631:
387:
379:
281:
217:
1575:
1555:
Mason, R. B., and M. S. Tite. 1997. "The beginnings of tin-opacification of pottery glazes".
1532:
1655:
473:
469:
329:
273:
1240:
J. R. Taylor & A. C. Bull. The Institute Of Ceramics & Pergamon Press. Oxford. 1986
1165:
Ravaglioli, A., A. Keajewski, M. S. Tite, R. R. Burn, P. A. Simpson, and G. C. Bojani. 1996
516:
192:
1701:
1594:
Moon, Iris, "French Faience", in Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, 2016, New York: The
1375:
Manson, R. B., and M. S. Tite, "The beginnings of tin-opacification of pottery glazes",
371:
kiln. Except for those making luster ware, modern tin-glaze potters use electric kilns.
1513:
1187:
1054:
Mason, R. B., and M. S. Tite, "The beginnings of tin-opacification of pottery glazes",
593:
548:
391:
181:
147:
1710:
1644:
Conservation Science for the Cultural Heritage: Applications of Instrumental Analysis
1628:
Tite, M. S. 1991. "Technological investigations of Italian Renaissance ceramics". In
477:
383:
262:
50:
1599:
303:
This method was used until the 18th century, and is often called by the French name
1120:’Pottery’ C.J.Noke & H.J.Plant. Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd. London. 1924.
524:
269:
1496:
Lustre Pottery: Technique, Tradition and Innovation in Islam and the Western World
36:
725:
616:
581:
465:
454:
446:
431:
403:
314:
162:
104:
96:
54:
876:
820:
733:
589:
480:) and the more irregular the surface, the larger the degree of opacification.
353:
309:
292:
blended oxides to produce detailed and realistic polychrome paintings, called
277:
221:
174:
953:
882:
838:
729:
533:
427:
423:
333:
318:
240:
236:
225:
197:
185:
131:
108:
92:
70:
58:
53:
that is white, glossy and opaque, which is normally applied to red or buff
17:
858:
528:
407:
322:
289:
285:
229:
213:
100:
66:
62:
61:
enamels, with a light second firing, allowing a wider range of colours.
1098:’Pottery And Ceramics.’ E.Rosenthal. Pelican Books. Harmondsworth. 1949.
461:), also called stannic acid, is commercially exploited for tin glaze.
620:
442:
170:
166:
155:
74:
32:
519:
layer between the glaze and ceramic body. This could be seen from the
1541:(J. Paul Getty Museum in association with British Museum Press, 1993)
870:
717:
713:
700:
635:
628:
411:
368:
364:
357:
204:
From the Middle East, tin-glaze spread through the Islamic world to
1473:
Allan, J. 1973. Abu'l-Qasim's treatise on ceramics. Iran 9:111-120.
555:, which then reacts with tin oxide to produce lead-tin oxide (PbSnO
547:
ratio is often found in ancient glazes. During the firing process,
515:
In the beginning of the use of tin oxide, it is mainly viewed as a
832:
737:
441:
244:"now only in a few places to provide the tourist with souvenirs"
209:
191:
26:
1021:
1019:
1017:
1015:
1013:
1011:
1009:
814:
810:
744:
A Seger analysis of a tin glaze from the early 20th century is:
721:
709:
705:
624:
297:
158:
139:
135:
999:’Ceramic Glazes’ Third edition. C.W.Parmelee & C.G.Harman.
1334:’A Treatise On Ceramic Industries.’ E.Bourry. Fourth edition.
1608:(trans. A.Caiger Smith and R.Lightbown) (Scolar Press, 1980)
551:
reacts with quartz at approximately 550 °C to form PbSiO
154:
The earliest tin-glazed pottery appears to have been made in
1632:, edited by T. Wilson. London: British Museum Publications.
1317:
340:
in English when talking about faience (the Italian name is
1228:
Molera, J., M. Vendrell-Saz, and J. Pérez-Arantegui. 2001
472:
of tin glaze. Generally speaking, the more different the
138:, and Iraqi tin-glazed earthenware bowl (right) found in
1441:‘Ceramics Glaze Technology.’ J.R.Taylor & A.C.Bull.
1428:‘An Introduction To The Technology Of Pottery.’ P.Rado.
1262:‘Ceramics Glaze Technology.’ J.R.Taylor & A.C.Bull.
1025:‘Ceramics Glaze Technology.’ J.R.Taylor & A.C.Bull.
588:) remain undissolved and precipitate in the glazes. The
1521:
The Art of Ceramics: European Ceramic Design, 1500–1830
235:
By the late 18th-century the reduction in the price of
1274:
1272:
1291:'Science For Craft Potters And Enamellers.' K.Shaw.
995:
993:
1415:'A Text-Book On Ceramic Calculations.' W.Jackson.
382:body made of calcareous clay with high content of
134:white ware bowl, not tin-glazed (left), found in
736:. No specific recipes alluding to tin glazes in
1646:, 2012, Springer Science & Business Media,
1510:Pottery in the making: world ceramic traditions
1443:The Institute Of Ceramics & Pergamon Press.
1388:Tite, M. S., T. Pradell, and A. Shortland. 2008
919:
917:
915:
913:
911:
1264:The Institute Of Ceramics & Pergamon Press
1027:The Institute Of Ceramics & Pergamon Press
356:. The unfired glaze absorbs the pigment like
103:. It was never used in East Asian ceramics.
1355:
1353:
1278:‘Ceramic Glazes.’ F.Singer & W.L.German.
1224:
1222:
77:are among the terms used for common types of
8:
1508:Canby, S. R. 1997. "Islamic lustreware". In
1674:(A&C Black/Chilton Book Company, 1993)
261:is close to that of tin glazes, thus avoid
575:. The degree of the crystallisation of SnO
208:. In the 13th century, tin glazes reached
1371:
1369:
536:instead of only a surface coating layer.
1207:Lane, 1; Varella, 4; Coutts, 15-17; Moon
1050:
1048:
125:
1251:Gruppo Editoriale Faenza Editrice s.p.a
985:A.B.Searle.The Technical Press Limited.
907:
332:began to be used in the same way as on
1702:Colorants for Low fire majolica glazes
1564:Seventeenth-Century French Ceramic Art
453:Only one tin compound, tin (IV) oxide
1107:’Pottery And Ceramics.’ E.Rosenthal.
144:Chinese influences on Islamic pottery
142:, both 9-10th century, an example of
107:is still valued in glazes as both an
99:, with a peak in Italian Renaissance
7:
1566:, 1987, Metropolitan Museum of Art,
1539:Guide To Looking At Italian Ceramics
1040:British Ceramic Research Association
449:, the raw ingredient in Tin-glazing.
257:containing 15-25% CaO, of which the
1606:The Three Books of the Potter's Art
1582:Journal of American Ceramic Society
1361:Journal of American Ceramic Society
983:’The Glazer’s Book’ – 2nd edition.
95:and reached Europe during the late
634:as fluxes in combination with the
500:, and reduced by CaO, BaO, ZnO, Al
25:
1589:Journal of Archaeological Science
1377:Journal of Archaeological Science
1056:Journal of Archaeological Science
336:; this technique is often called
248:Manufacturing process and colours
927:, London, Faber and Faber, 1973
699:In this recipe, the addition of
91:The technique originated in the
1523:, 2001, Yale University Press,
1516:. London: British Museum Press.
1454:’Ceramic Glazes’ C.W.Parmelee.
1085:’Ceramic Glazes’ C.W.Parmelee.
508:, and to a limited extent PbO.
1003:, Boston, Massachusetts. 1973.
224:. The off-white fired body of
1:
1512:, edited by I. Freestone and
1456:Industrial Publications, Inc.
708:in the 14th century: a glass-
606:The technology of tin-glazing
259:thermal expansion coefficient
1307:. 13, No.4, 1992. Pg.103-106
1087:Industrial Publications, Inc
398:Current use and alternatives
1737:Types of pottery decoration
1249:’Sanitaryware’. D.Fortuna.
1216:Lane, 1-2; Varella, 4; Moon
390:will decompose, generating
321:dark purple, copper green,
169:about fifty miles north of
1758:
1596:Metropolitan Museum of Art
1336:Scott, Greenwood & Son
1280:Borax Consolidated Limited
1238:Ceramics Glaze Technology.
288:for yellow. Late Italian
119:
1552:, 1948, Faber & Faber
1430:The Institute Of Ceramics
802:A more recent recipe is:
45:is the process of giving
1623:Pottery Through the Ages
1498:(Faber and Faber, 1985)
1484:(Faber and Faber, 1973)
1417:Longhmans, Green And Co.
426:continue the production
1642:Varella, Evangelia A.,
1604:Piccolpasso, Cipriano,
952:For example polychrome
438:The nature of tin glaze
1672:Tin-glazed Earthenware
1111:. Harmondsworth. 1949.
450:
239:, and the new English
201:
151:
39:
445:
284:for purple-brown and
195:
129:
30:
1494:Caiger-Smith, Alan,
1480:Caiger-Smith, Alan,
1363:, 1999, 82:2871-2875
923:Caiger-Smith, Alan,
611:Analyses and recipes
367:or to be fired in a
328:In the 18th century
1293:A.H.& A.W.Reed.
1138:Lane, v, 1 (quoted)
894:As a glaze colorant
1722:Glass compositions
1198:McNab, 11; Lane, 1
1188:Potters Connection
1178:, 1998, 40:241-260
451:
216:. Amongst others,
202:
152:
122:Tin-glazed pottery
84:An alternative is
79:tin-glazed pottery
47:tin-glazed pottery
40:
1670:Carnegy, Daphne,
1654:, 9783642309854,
1574:, 9780870994906,
1531:, 9780300083873,
1253:. Florence. 2000.
1147:Canby, S. R. 1997
1076:Kleimann, B. 1986
541:recrystallisation
430:using tin-glazed
388:calcium carbonate
380:bisque or biscuit
330:overglaze enamels
282:manganese dioxide
218:Luca della Robbia
16:(Redirected from
1749:
1717:History of glass
1621:Savage, George,
1519:Coutts, Howard,
1459:
1452:
1446:
1439:
1433:
1426:
1420:
1413:
1407:
1404:
1398:
1397:al-Saad, Z. 2002
1395:
1389:
1386:
1380:
1373:
1364:
1357:
1348:
1345:
1339:
1332:
1326:
1325:
1314:
1308:
1302:
1296:
1295:Wellington. 1973
1289:
1283:
1276:
1267:
1260:
1254:
1247:
1241:
1235:
1229:
1226:
1217:
1214:
1208:
1205:
1199:
1196:
1190:
1185:
1179:
1172:
1166:
1163:
1157:
1156:Tite, M. S. 1991
1154:
1148:
1145:
1139:
1136:
1130:
1127:
1121:
1118:
1112:
1105:
1099:
1096:
1090:
1089:. Chicago. 1948.
1083:
1077:
1074:
1068:
1065:
1059:
1052:
1043:
1036:
1030:
1023:
1004:
997:
988:
981:
975:
972:
966:
963:
957:
950:
944:
941:
935:
921:
849:And another is:
619:tin glazes used
474:refractive index
255:calcareous clays
21:
1757:
1756:
1752:
1751:
1750:
1748:
1747:
1746:
1742:Arab inventions
1707:
1706:
1688:
1667:
1665:Further reading
1625:, Penguin, 1959
1562:McNab, Jessie,
1537:Harris, David,
1467:
1462:
1453:
1449:
1440:
1436:
1432:. Oxford. 1968.
1427:
1423:
1414:
1410:
1405:
1401:
1396:
1392:
1387:
1383:
1374:
1367:
1358:
1351:
1346:
1342:
1338:. London. 1926.
1333:
1329:
1316:
1315:
1311:
1305:Klei/Glas/Keram
1303:
1299:
1290:
1286:
1282:. London. 1960.
1277:
1270:
1261:
1257:
1248:
1244:
1236:
1232:
1227:
1220:
1215:
1211:
1206:
1202:
1197:
1193:
1186:
1182:
1173:
1169:
1164:
1160:
1155:
1151:
1146:
1142:
1137:
1133:
1128:
1124:
1119:
1115:
1106:
1102:
1097:
1093:
1084:
1080:
1075:
1071:
1066:
1062:
1053:
1046:
1037:
1033:
1029:. Oxford. 1986.
1024:
1007:
998:
991:
982:
978:
973:
969:
964:
960:
951:
947:
942:
938:
922:
909:
905:
896:
793:
786:
779:
775:
768:
761:
690:
683:
676:
672:
662:
655:
613:
608:
600:
587:
578:
574:
570:
566:
563:, PbO and PbSnO
562:
558:
554:
546:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
460:
440:
400:
250:
200:tin-glazed tile
124:
118:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1755:
1753:
1745:
1744:
1739:
1734:
1732:Arabic pottery
1729:
1727:Ceramic glazes
1724:
1719:
1709:
1708:
1705:
1704:
1699:
1694:
1687:
1686:External links
1684:
1683:
1682:
1666:
1663:
1662:
1661:
1658:
1640:
1636:
1633:
1626:
1619:
1616:
1602:
1592:
1585:
1578:
1560:
1553:
1550:French Faïence
1548:Lane, Arthur,
1546:
1542:
1535:
1517:
1506:
1492:
1478:
1474:
1471:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1460:
1458:Chicago. 1948.
1447:
1434:
1421:
1408:
1406:Allan, J. 1973
1399:
1390:
1381:
1379:39:41-58, 1997
1365:
1349:
1340:
1327:
1309:
1297:
1284:
1268:
1266:. Oxford. 1986
1255:
1242:
1230:
1218:
1209:
1200:
1191:
1180:
1167:
1158:
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1140:
1131:
1122:
1113:
1100:
1091:
1078:
1069:
1060:
1058:39:41-58, 1997
1044:
1031:
1005:
989:
976:
967:
958:
945:
936:
906:
904:
901:
895:
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890:
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887:
886:
880:
874:
868:
862:
847:
846:
845:
844:
843:
842:
836:
835:, calcined: 4%
830:
824:
818:
800:
799:
798:
797:
796:
795:
791:
788:
784:
781:
777:
773:
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688:
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657:
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650:
647:
617:Middle Eastern
612:
609:
607:
604:
598:
585:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
544:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
485:
464:After firing,
458:
439:
436:
399:
396:
392:carbon dioxide
249:
246:
182:Abbasid Empire
161:(750-1258 AD)/
148:British Museum
120:Main article:
117:
114:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1754:
1743:
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1725:
1723:
1720:
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1715:
1714:
1712:
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1700:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1680:0-7136-3718-8
1677:
1673:
1669:
1668:
1664:
1659:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1627:
1624:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1614:0-85967-452-5
1611:
1607:
1603:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1590:
1586:
1584:82:2871-2875.
1583:
1579:
1577:
1573:
1569:
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1536:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1505:
1504:0-571-13507-2
1501:
1497:
1493:
1491:
1490:0-571-09349-3
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1472:
1469:
1468:
1464:
1457:
1451:
1448:
1445:Oxford. 1986.
1444:
1438:
1435:
1431:
1425:
1422:
1419:London. 1904.
1418:
1412:
1409:
1403:
1400:
1394:
1391:
1385:
1382:
1378:
1372:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1356:
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1344:
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1234:
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1201:
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1141:
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1126:
1123:
1117:
1114:
1110:
1109:Pelican Books
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1101:
1095:
1092:
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1016:
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1010:
1006:
1002:
1001:Cahners Books
996:
994:
990:
987:London. 1935.
986:
980:
977:
971:
968:
962:
959:
956:; Savage, 160
955:
949:
946:
940:
937:
934:
933:0-571-09349-3
930:
926:
920:
918:
916:
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881:
878:
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872:
869:
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850:
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837:
834:
831:
828:
825:
822:
819:
816:
812:
809:
808:
807:
806:
805:
804:
803:
789:
782:
771:
764:
757:
754:
751:
750:
749:
748:
747:
746:
745:
742:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
720:, a lead-tin
719:
715:
711:
707:
702:
686:
679:
668:
665:
658:
651:
648:
645:
644:
643:
642:
641:
640:
639:
637:
633:
630:
626:
622:
618:
615:The earliest
610:
605:
603:
595:
591:
583:
550:
542:
537:
535:
530:
526:
522:
518:
513:
509:
481:
479:
478:visible light
475:
471:
467:
462:
456:
448:
444:
437:
435:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
397:
395:
393:
389:
385:
384:calcium oxide
381:
376:
372:
370:
366:
361:
359:
355:
350:
345:
343:
342:piccolo fuoco
339:
335:
331:
326:
324:
320:
316:
311:
306:
301:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
266:
264:
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256:
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245:
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238:
233:
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223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
199:
194:
190:
187:
183:
178:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
157:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
128:
123:
115:
113:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
89:
87:
82:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
51:ceramic glaze
48:
44:
38:
34:
29:
19:
1671:
1656:google books
1643:
1629:
1622:
1605:
1588:
1581:
1576:google books
1563:
1557:Archaeometry
1556:
1549:
1538:
1533:google books
1520:
1509:
1495:
1481:
1465:Bibliography
1455:
1450:
1442:
1437:
1429:
1424:
1416:
1411:
1402:
1393:
1384:
1376:
1360:
1343:
1335:
1330:
1322:tichelaar.nl
1321:
1312:
1304:
1300:
1292:
1287:
1279:
1263:
1258:
1250:
1245:
1237:
1233:
1212:
1203:
1194:
1183:
1176:archaeometry
1175:
1170:
1161:
1152:
1143:
1134:
1125:
1116:
1108:
1103:
1094:
1086:
1081:
1072:
1063:
1055:
1042:RP652. 1973.
1039:
1034:
1026:
1000:
984:
979:
970:
961:
948:
939:
924:
897:
848:
801:
743:
698:
614:
538:
525:wollastonite
514:
510:
482:
463:
452:
415:
401:
377:
373:
362:
346:
341:
337:
327:
304:
302:
293:
274:copper oxide
270:cobalt oxide
267:
251:
234:
228:and English
203:
179:
153:
90:
86:lead-glazing
83:
42:
41:
1591:28:331-340.
1514:D. Gaimster
813:bisilicate
726:calcination
582:cassiterite
455:Tin dioxide
447:Tin dioxide
432:earthenware
404:World War I
315:cobalt blue
280:for brown,
276:for green,
163:Mesopotamia
97:Middle Ages
55:earthenware
43:Tin-glazing
1711:Categories
1652:3642309852
1572:0870994905
1529:0300083874
1477:(257-261).
903:References
877:Zinc oxide
857:Potassium
821:China clay
734:fusibility
590:nucleation
549:lead oxide
410:and later
354:gum arabic
349:suspension
310:underglaze
278:iron oxide
272:for blue,
241:creamwares
222:lustreware
175:lusterware
18:Tin-glazed
1639:50:67-84.
1559:39:41-58.
954:Delftware
943:Lane, 1-2
883:Tin oxide
865:Limestone
839:Tin oxide
730:limestone
632:compounds
534:opacifier
466:tin oxide
428:Delftware
424:Friesland
338:petit feu
334:porcelain
319:manganese
305:grand feu
294:istoriato
237:porcelain
226:Delftware
198:delftware
186:stoneware
132:porcelain
109:opacifier
105:Tin oxide
93:Near East
71:delftware
59:overglaze
37:Lunéville
1129:Lane, 17
859:feldspar
755:CaO=0.16
752:PbO=0.52
666:MgO=0.04
649:CaO=0.32
646:PbO=0.32
529:diopside
416:clinical
408:zirconia
323:antimony
290:maiolica
286:antimony
230:Majolica
214:Maiolica
130:Chinese
101:maiolica
67:maiolica
63:Majolica
49:items a
974:Lane, 3
965:Lane, 1
827:Whiting
621:calcium
492:O and B
470:opacity
365:saggars
298:fritted
263:crazing
171:Baghdad
167:Samarra
156:Abbasid
116:History
75:faience
35:, from
33:faience
31:French
1678:
1650:
1612:
1600:online
1570:
1545:Press.
1527:
1502:
1488:
1318:"Home"
931:
871:Silica
769:O=0.29
762:O=0.03
724:and a
718:potash
714:quartz
706:Persia
701:alkali
663:O=0.29
656:O=0.03
636:silica
629:sodium
594:growth
571:to SnO
420:Makkum
412:zircon
369:muffle
358:fresco
196:Dutch
873:: 11%
867:: 11%
861:: 65%
841:: 10%
833:Flint
823:: 10%
817:: 74%
794:=0.23
787:=2.77
780:=0.15
738:Spain
704:from
691:=0.07
684:=1.73
677:=0.03
210:Italy
206:Spain
1676:ISBN
1648:ISBN
1610:ISBN
1568:ISBN
1525:ISBN
1500:ISBN
1486:ISBN
929:ISBN
885:: 4%
879:: 9%
829:: 2%
815:frit
811:Lead
722:calx
716:and
710:frit
627:and
625:lead
592:and
584:(SnO
517:slip
488:O, K
457:(SnO
159:Iraq
140:Iraq
136:Iran
73:and
790:SnO
783:SiO
728:of
712:of
687:SnO
680:SiO
597:SnO
521:SEM
1713::
1598:,
1368:^
1352:^
1320:.
1271:^
1221:^
1047:^
1008:^
992:^
910:^
772:Al
765:Na
669:Al
659:Na
623:,
527:,
484:Na
434:.
422:,
317:,
177:.
146:.
81:.
69:,
65:,
1324:.
792:2
785:2
778:3
776:O
774:2
767:2
760:2
758:K
689:2
682:2
675:3
673:O
671:2
661:2
654:2
652:K
599:2
586:2
577:2
573:2
569:3
565:3
561:3
557:3
553:3
545:2
506:3
504:O
502:2
498:3
496:O
494:2
490:2
486:2
459:2
150:.
20:)
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