910:, spent his time poring over scientific theories attempting to explain rock strata and the diversity of fossils. Geological and fossil evidence was presented to him as contributions to Encyclopedia articles, chief among them "Mammoth", "Fossil", and "Ivory Fossil", all of which noted the existence of mammoth bones in Siberia. As a result of this geological and fossil evidence, Diderot believed that species were mutable. Particularly, he argued that organisms metamorphosized over millennia, resulting in species changes. In Diderot's theory of transformationism, random chance plays a large role in allowing species to change, develop and become extinct, as well as having new species form. Specifically, Diderot believed that given randomness and an infinite number of times, all possible scenarios would manifest themselves. He proposed that this randomness was behind the development of new traits in offspring and as a result the development and extinction of species.
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there helped him to come to the conclusion that complex life had developed from more primitive forms (Laniel-Musitelli). Erasmus was an early proponent of what we now refer to as "adaptations", albeit through a different transformist mechanism – he argued that sexual reproduction could pass on acquired traits through the father’s contribution to the embryon. These changes, he believed, were mainly driven by the three great needs of life: lust, food, and security. Erasmus proposed that these acquired changes gradually altered the physical makeup of organisms as a result of the desires of plants and animals. Notably, he describes insects developing from plants, a grand example of one species transforming into another.
1134:, agreeing with Aristotle that species were immutable. Cuvier believed that the individual parts of an animal were too closely correlated with one another to allow for one part of the anatomy to change in isolation from the others, and argued that the fossil record showed patterns of catastrophic extinctions followed by re-population, rather than gradual change over time. He also noted that drawings of animals and animal mummies from Egypt, which were thousands of years old, showed no signs of change when compared with modern animals. The strength of Cuvier's arguments and his reputation as a leading scientist helped keep transmutational ideas out of the scientific mainstream for decades.
969:. Lamarck also recognized that species were adapted to their environment. He explained this observation by saying that the same nervous fluid driving increasing complexity, also caused the organs of an animal (or a plant) to change based on the use or disuse of that organ, just as muscles are affected by exercise. He argued that these changes would be inherited by the next generation and produce slow adaptation to the environment. It was this secondary mechanism of adaptation through the inheritance of acquired characteristics that became closely associated with his name and would influence discussions of evolution into the 20th century.
854:). It is a stone which has in it branches like those of a tree. After mineral life evolves vegetation. The evolution of vegetation culminates with a tree which bears the qualities of an animal. This is the date-palm. It has male and female genders. It does not wither if all its branches are chopped but it dies when the head is cut off. The date-palm is therefore considered the highest among the trees and resembles the lowest among animals. Then is born the lowest of animals. It evolves into an ape. This is not the statement of Darwin. This is what
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species. In
Zoonomia, however, Erasmus clearly articulates (as a more scientific text) his beliefs about the connections between organic life. He notes particularly that some plants and animals have "useless appendages", which have gradually changed from their original, useful states. Additionally, Darwin relied on cosmological transformation as a crucial aspect of his theory of transformation, making a connection between William Herschel’s approach to natural historical cosmology and the changing aspects of plants and animals.
898:(1796), which encapsulated his view that more complex species, such as mankind, had developed step-by-step from "less perfect" animals. De la Bretonne believed that living forms undergo constant change. Although he believed in constant change, he took a very different approach from Diderot: chance and blind combinations of atoms, in de la Bretonne's opinion, were not the cause of transmutation. De la Bretonne argued that all species had developed from more primitive organisms, and that nature aimed to reach perfection.
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time as a driving force in the universe’s journey towards improvement. In addition, Erasmus believed that nature had some amount of agency in this inheritance. Darwin spun his own story of how nature began to develop from the ocean, and then slowly became more diverse and more complex. His transmutation theory relied heavily on the needs which drove animal competition, as well as the results of this contest between both animals and plants.
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matter possessed an inherent consciousness, which allowed the smallest particles of organic matter to organize into fibers, then a network, and then organs. The idea that organic molecules have consciousness was derived from both
Maupertuis and Lucretian texts. Overall, Diderot’s musings all fit together as a "composite transformist philosophy", one dependent on the randomness inherent to nature as a transformist mechanism.
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1073:. This book proposed an evolutionary scenario for the origins of the solar system and life on earth. It claimed that the fossil record showed an ascent of animals with current animals being branches off a main line that leads progressively to humanity. It implied that the transmutations led to the unfolding of a preordained
862:. The Muslim thinkers state that ape then evolved into a lower kind of a barbarian man. He then became a superior human being. Man becomes a saint, a prophet. He evolves into a higher stage and becomes an angel. The one higher to angels is indeed none but God. Everything begins from Him and everything returns to Him.
1223:, Owen argued that these reptiles contradicted the transmutational ideas of Lamarck because they were more sophisticated than the reptiles of the modern world. Darwin would make good use of the homologies analyzed by Owen in his own theory, but the harsh treatment of Grant, along with the controversy surrounding
1089:, who disliked Chambers' implications of preordained progress, were able to find scientific inaccuracies in the book that they could disparage. Darwin himself openly deplored the author's "poverty of intellect", and dismissed it as a "literary curiosity". However, the high profile of the public debate over
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Charles Darwin acknowledged his grandfather’s contribution to the field of transmutation in his synopsis of
Erasmus’ life, The Life of Erasmus Darwin. Darwin collaborated with Ernst Krause to write a forward on Krause's Erasmus Darwin und Seine Stellung in Der Geschichte Der Descendenz-Theorie, which
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Erasmus Darwin relied on
Lucretian philosophy to form a theory of universal change. He proposed that both organic and inorganic matter changed throughout the course of the universe, and that plants and animals could pass on acquired traits to their progeny. His view of universal transformation placed
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limbs. Owen was concerned by the political implications of the ideas of transmutationists like Robert Grant, and he led a public campaign by conservatives that successfully marginalized Grant in the scientific community. In his famous 1841 paper, which coined the term dinosaur for the giant reptiles
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saw the transmutation of species as part of this development of the world through natural law, which they saw as a challenge to traditional
Christianity. They also believed that human history was progressive, which was another idea becoming increasingly popular in the 18th century. They saw progress
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Erasmus believed that life had one origin, a common ancestor, which he referred to as the "filament" of life. He used his understanding of chemical transmutation to justify the spontaneous generation of this filament. His geological study of
Derbyshire and the sea- shells and fossils which he found
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whose journal published an anonymous paper in 1826 praising "Mr. Lamarck" for explaining how the higher animals had "evolved" from the "simplest worms" – this was the first use of the word "evolved" in a modern sense. Professor
Jameson was a Wernerian, which allowed him to consider transformation
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The German
Abraham Gottlob Werner believed in geological transformism. Specifically, Werner argued that the Earth undergoes irreversible and continuous change. The Edinburgh school, a radical British school of comparative anatomy, fostered a lot of debate around natural history. Edinburgh, which
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developed a theory of universal transformation. His major works, The
Botanic Garden (1792), Zoonomia (1794–96), and The Temple of Nature all touched on the transformation of organic creatures. In both The Botanic Garden and The Temple of Nature, Darwin used poetry to describe his ideas regarding
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Diderot drew from
Leonardo da Vinci’s comparison of the leg structure of a human and a horse as proof of the interconnectivity of species. He saw this experiment as demonstrating that nature could continually try out new variations. Additionally, Diderot argued that organic molecules and organic
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Robert Hooke proposed in a speech to the Royal Society in the late 17th century that species vary, change, and especially become extinct. His “Discourse of Earthquakes” was based on comparisons made between fossils, especially the modern pearly nautilus and the curled shells of ammonites.
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translates into Erasmus Darwin and His Place in the History of the Descent Theory. Krause explains Erasmus' motivations for arguing for the theory of descent, including Darwin's connection with and correspondence with Rousseau, which may have influenced how he saw the world.
1169:(1830–1833) he criticized and dismissed Lamarck's theories of development. Instead, he advocated a form of progressive creation, in which each species had its "centre of creation" and was designed for this particular habitat, but would go extinct when this habitat changed.
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In the 18th century, Jacques-Antoine des Bureaux claimed a "genealogical ascent of species". He argued that through crossbreeding and hybridization in reproduction, "progressive organization" occurred, allowing organisms to change and more complex species to develop.
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in 1837, putting forward the thesis that God had the omnipotence and foresight to create as a divine legislator, making laws (or programs) which then produced species at the appropriate times, rather than continually interfering with
1109:—the idea, popular among many 18th century Western intellectuals that God had initially created the universe, but then left it to operate and develop through natural law rather than through divine intervention. Thinkers like
1093:, with its depiction of evolution as a progressive process, and its popular success, would greatly influence the perception of Darwin's theory a decade later. It also influenced some younger naturalists, including
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believed that each species was fixed and unchangeable because it represented an idea in the mind of the creator. They believed that relationships between species could be discerned from developmental patterns in
965:. He also believed that an innate life force, which he sometimes described as a nervous fluid, drove species to become more complex over time, advancing up a linear ladder of complexity that was related to the
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leading to increasing complexity and culminating in humanity. Owen developed the idea of "archetypes" in the divine mind that would produce a sequence of species related by anatomical homologies, such as
1157:. Geologists influenced by natural theology, such as Buckland and Sedgwick, made a regular practice of attacking the evolutionary ideas of Lamarck and Grant, and Sedgwick wrote a famously harsh review of
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than the ideas of radicals like Robert Grant, but its implication that humans were just the last step in the ascent of animal life incensed many conservative thinkers. Both conservatives like
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in human history as being mirrored by the development of life from the simple to the complex over the history of the Earth. This connection was very clear in the work of Erasmus Darwin and
749:(1859). Transmutation had previously been used as a term in alchemy to describe the transformation of base metals into gold. Other names for evolutionary ideas used in this period include
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which assumed the shape of water in due time. The next stage of development was mineral life. Different kinds of stones developed course of highest form being mirjan (
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961:(1809). Lamarck did not believe that all living things shared a common ancestor. Rather he believed that simple forms of life were created continuously by
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Another source of opposition to transmutation was a school of naturalists who were influenced by the German philosophers and naturalists associated with
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by Robert Chambers shows a model of development where fishes (F), reptiles (R), and birds (B) represent branches from a path leading to mammals (M).
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and human progress. Opposition in the scientific community to these early theories of evolution, led by influential scientists like the anatomists
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is another word used quite as often as transmutation in this context. These early 19th century evolutionary ideas played an important role in the
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Ideas about the transmutation of species were strongly associated with the anti-Christen materialism and radical political ideas of the
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Victorian sensation: the extraordinary publication, reception, and secret authorship of the Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation
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Sánchez González, José Carlos (May 2021). "Evolution before Darwin: Theories of the Transmutation of Species in Edinburgh, 1804–1834".
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1227:, would be factors in his decision to ensure that his theory was fully supported by facts and arguments before publishing his ideas.
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2011:
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1583:"Erasmus Darwin, Herbert Spencer, and the Origins of the Evolutionary Worldview in British Provincial Scientific Culture, 1770–1850"
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The proto-evolutionary thinkers of the 18th and early 19th century had to invent terms to label their ideas, but it was first
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state that God first created matter and invested it with energy for development. Matter, therefore, adopted the form of
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theories and foster the interest in transformism among his students. Jameson's course closed with lectures on the
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in 1809 for his theory, and other 18th and 19th century proponents of pre-Darwinian evolutionary ideas included
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who used the term "transmutation" to refer to species who have had biological changes through hybridization.
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The Emergence of Islam: Lectures on the Development of Islamic World-view, Intellectual Tradition and Polity
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joined Grant in investigations of the life cycle of marine animals. He also studied geology under professor
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in a modern sense was first used in 1826 in an anonymous paper published in Robert Jameson's journal and
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and were greeted with hostility by more conservative thinkers. Cuvier attacked the ideas of Lamarck and
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Transmutation was one of the names commonly used for evolutionary ideas in the 19th century before
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anonymously published an influential and extremely controversial book of popular science entitled
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further developed these ideas. According to some commentators, statements in his 1377 work, the
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1351:"An Analysis of the Work of Joseph Gottlieb Kölreuter and its Relation to Gregor Mendel's Work"
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1505:"Systemes de la Nature and Theories of Life: Bridging the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries"
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of 1851, and at least one earlier example, but was not in general use until about 1865–70.
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plan woven into the laws that governed the universe. In this sense it was less completely
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Evolution before Darwin: theories of the transmutation of species in Edinburgh, 1804-1834
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opposed scriptural geology, he also believed in the immutability of species, and in his
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1438:"THE MUQADDIMAH, Abd Ar Rahman bin Muhammed ibn Khaldun, Translated by Franz Rosenthal"
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This 1847 diagram by Richard Owen shows his conceptual archetype for all vertebrates.
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1555:"The Botanic Universe: Generative Nature and Erasmus Darwin's Cosmic Transformism"
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The terminology did not settle down until some time after the publication of the
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miracles each time a new species was required. In 1844 the Scottish publisher
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2094:"Mind the gap: Did Darwin avoid publishing his theory for many years?"
30:"Transformism" redirects here. For the Italian political concept, see
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723:, was intense. The debate over them was an important stage in the
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states and this is precisely what is written in the Epistles of
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developed ideas about changes in biological species. In 1993,
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are 18th and early 19th-century ideas about the change of one
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The proponents of transmutation were almost all inclined to
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The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2010 Edition)
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Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity (رسائل إخوان الصفا)
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proposed a hypothesis on the transmutation of species in
707:. Such ideas were associated with 18th century ideas of
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Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment
989:, was closely in touch with Lamarck's school of French
1296:, but none in the sense that is used today in biology.
2027:
Evolution:The Remarkable History of Scientific Theory
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Ideological motivations for theories of transmutation
1427:, pp. 143–44. Islamic Research Institute, Islamabad.
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There are three examples of the word 'evolution' in
1097:, to take an interest in the idea of transmutation.
1948:
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1159:The Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation
874:anticipate the biological theory of evolution.
797:was a relative late-comer which can be seen in
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8:
1980:Darwin: The Life of a Tormented Evolutionist
1810:
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1998:Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2005).
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1449:5. The sciences (knowledge) of the prophets
1070:Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation
1042:Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation
1031:Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation
890:Simultaneously, Retif de la Bretonne wrote
704:Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation
2083:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
892:La decouverte australe par un homme-volant
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1468:Diderot and the Metamorphosis of Species
27:18th and 19th-century evolutionary ideas
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2101:Notes and Records of the Royal Society
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2052:, Amherst New York: Prometheus Books,
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1386:– via Online Library of Liberty.
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753:(one of the terms used by Darwin) and
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1137:In Britain, where the philosophy of
701:, the anonymous author of the book
2135:Darwin's Precursors and Influences
1955:. University of California Press.
1553:Daly, Jennifer (27 October 2021).
1024:"Origin of the Species of Animals"
896:La philosophie de monsieur Nicolas
25:
1503:Corsi, Pietro (28 October 2021).
842:described the ideas in lectures:
2092:van Wyhe, John (27 March 2007).
1951:Evolution:The History of an Idea
1085:, and radical materialists like
997:. Grant developed Lamarck's and
820:In the 10th and 11th centuries,
761:in the periodical press such as
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2004:The University of Chicago Press
826:Al-Fawz al-Kabir (الفوز الأكبر)
773:history of evolutionary thought
755:the theory of regular gradation
725:history of evolutionary thought
669:'s theory of evolution through
601:Evolutionary biology portal
1983:. W. W. Norton & Company.
1640:. Cambridge University Press.
1001:'s ideas of transmutation and
995:Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire
727:and influenced the subsequent
687:Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire
560:Creation–evolution controversy
314:History of evolutionary theory
1:
816:Ideas before the 18th century
1581:Elliott, Paul (March 2003).
1565:– via Stanford Arcade.
1515:– via Stanford Arcade.
1465:Gregory, Mary (2006-10-23).
1321:. In Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
1273:William Lawrence (biologist)
1253:James Burnett, Lord Monboddo
545:Evolution as fact and theory
1219:discovered by Buckland and
1122:Opposition to transmutation
1040:Diagram from the 1844 book
882:18th and early 19th century
729:reaction to Darwin's theory
665:into another that preceded
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1638:The life of Erasmus Darwin
1055:Ninth Bridgewater Treatise
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751:the development hypothesis
580:Nature-nurture controversy
29:
2163:Obsolete biology theories
1373:Spencer, Herbert (1851).
1161:. Although the geologist
1052:published his unofficial
780:Joseph Gottlieb Kölreuter
467:Evolutionary neuroscience
442:Evolutionary epistemology
422:Evolutionary anthropology
402:Applications of evolution
1811:Desmond & Moore 1994
1754:Desmond & Moore 1994
1636:Darwin, Charles (2003).
1402:www.muslimphilosophy.com
746:On The Origin of Species
655:Transmutation of species
457:Evolutionary linguistics
452:Evolutionary game theory
427:Evolutionary computation
1798:Bowler & Morus 2005
570:Objections to evolution
477:Evolutionary psychology
472:Evolutionary physiology
417:Evolutionary aesthetics
396:Fields and applications
378:History of paleontology
2142:The Origins of Species
2113:10.1098/rsnr.2006.0171
1698:Jenkins, Bill (2019).
1379:. London: John Chapman
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1141:remained influential,
1132:Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire
1048:The computing pioneer
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963:spontaneous generation
958:Philosophie Zoologique
904:, chief editor of the
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811:Historical development
502:Speciation experiments
482:Experimental evolution
437:Evolutionary economics
259:Recent human evolution
117:Processes and outcomes
2000:Making Modern Science
1477:10.4324/9780203943823
1423:and Afzal Iqbal (I),
1268:William Charles Wells
1258:James Cowles Prichard
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1167:Principles of Geology
1095:Alfred Russel Wallace
1039:
1013:. As a young student
978:included the surgeon
953:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
866:In the 14th century,
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679:Jean Baptiste Lamarck
462:Evolutionary medicine
407:Biosocial criminology
373:History of speciation
286:Evolutionary taxonomy
249:Timeline of evolution
1211:progressive creation
1196:. Idealists such as
967:great chain of being
764:The Oracle of Reason
719:, and the geologist
432:Evolutionary ecology
46:Evolutionary biology
1930:, pp. 181–182)
1878:, pp. 103–104)
1852:, pp. 217–222)
1839:, pp. 218–221)
1800:, pp. 142–143)
1787:, pp. 134–138)
1774:, pp. 120–134)
1559:Republic of Letters
1509:Republic of Letters
1421:Muhammad Hamidullah
1087:Thomas Henry Huxley
973:Ideas after Lamarck
840:Muhammad Hamidullah
677:was a term used by
534:Social implications
522:Universal Darwinism
512:Island biogeography
447:Evolutionary ethics
412:Ecological genetics
358:Molecular evolution
296:Transitional fossil
124:Population genetics
40:Part of a series on
2030:. Modern Library.
1349:Lorenzano, Pablo.
1178:
1151:watchmaker analogy
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830:Brethren of Purity
565:Theistic evolution
497:Selective breeding
209:Parallel evolution
174:Adaptive radiation
2059:978-1-59102-725-6
2022:Larson, Edward J.
1917:, pp. 42–46)
1891:, pp. 37–38)
1709:978-1-4744-7651-5
1685:, pp. 38–41)
1672:, pp. 86–94)
1486:978-1-135-91583-4
991:Transformationism
787:Origin of Species
671:natural selection
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1979:
1975:Moore, James
1950:
1938:Bibliography
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1467:
1441:. Retrieved
1432:
1424:
1416:
1405:. Retrieved
1401:
1392:
1381:. Retrieved
1375:
1368:
1357:. Retrieved
1344:
1331:
1322:
1312:
1293:
1288:
1243:Edward Blyth
1224:
1202:Richard Owen
1179:
1166:
1158:
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1125:
1104:
1090:
1075:orthogenetic
1068:
1060:
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1023:
1003:evolutionism
990:
987:Robert Grant
976:
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907:Encyclopédie
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750:
744:
738:
717:Richard Owen
702:
695:Robert Grant
674:
659:transformism
658:
654:
652:
507:Sociobiology
492:Paleontology
340:
330:
276:Biogeography
271:Biodiversity
189:Coextinction
179:Co-operation
154:Polymorphism
79:Introduction
32:Trasformismo
18:Transformism
1915:Larson 2004
1902:Bowler 2003
1889:Larson 2004
1876:Bowler 2003
1863:Larson 2004
1824:Bowler 2003
1785:Bowler 2003
1772:Bowler 2003
1683:Larson 2004
1670:Bowler 2003
1593:(1): 1–29.
1538:, p. )
1536:Bowler 2003
1337:Secord 2000
1319:"Evolution"
1194:Lorenz Oken
980:Robert Knox
894:(1781) and
868:Ibn Khaldun
789:. The word
735:Terminology
517:Systematics
326:Renaissance
204:Convergence
194:Contingency
184:Coevolution
2168:Speciation
2152:Categories
2073:. Chicago.
1742:: 440–442.
1718:1155496577
1443:2020-10-12
1407:2020-10-12
1383:2020-01-04
1359:2019-12-31
1304:References
1216:vertebrate
1207:embryology
1184:, such as
948:Lamarckism
946:See also:
872:Muqaddimah
828:, and the
757:, used by
743:published
291:Cladistics
214:Extinction
199:Divergence
169:Speciation
149:Adaptation
63:John Gould
2121:202574857
2079:cite book
1850:Ruse 2009
1837:Ruse 2009
1736:Centaurus
1656:470610252
1607:0021-1753
1398:"اﻟﻤﻗﺩﻤﻪ"
1009:to prove
984:anatomist
795:evolution
550:Dysgenics
266:Phylogeny
164:Gene flow
134:Diversity
129:Variation
2069:(2000).
2048:(2009),
2024:(2004).
1977:(1994).
1947:(2003).
1623:25850944
1615:12725102
1231:See also
1225:Vestiges
1182:idealism
1091:Vestiges
1007:homology
982:and the
614:Category
540:Eugenics
382:timeline
363:Evo-devo
321:Overview
139:Mutation
101:Evidence
96:Glossary
942:Lamarck
791:evolved
663:species
106:History
89:Outline
2119:
2056:
2034:
2010:
1987:
1959:
1716:
1706:
1654:
1644:
1621:
1613:
1605:
1483:
1186:Goethe
1061:ad hoc
848:vapour
697:, and
612:
336:Darwin
2117:S2CID
2097:(PDF)
1619:S2CID
1354:(PDF)
1280:Notes
1190:Hegel
1107:Deism
852:coral
709:Deism
74:Index
2085:link
2054:ISBN
2032:ISBN
2008:ISBN
1985:ISBN
1957:ISBN
1714:OCLC
1704:ISBN
1652:OCLC
1642:ISBN
1611:PMID
1603:ISSN
1587:Isis
1481:ISBN
1200:and
1192:and
715:and
657:and
653:The
84:Main
2109:doi
1595:doi
1473:doi
832:'s
824:'s
801:'s
61:by
2154::
2115:.
2105:61
2103:.
2099:.
2081:}}
2077:{{
2006:.
2002:.
1973:;
1761:^
1740:63
1738:.
1726:^
1712:.
1702:.
1690:^
1650:.
1617:.
1609:.
1601:.
1591:94
1589:.
1585:.
1571:^
1561:.
1557:.
1543:^
1521:^
1511:.
1507:.
1495:^
1479:.
1455:^
1400:.
1188:,
1118:.
1026:.
775:.
767:.
731:.
693:,
689:,
685:,
2123:.
2111::
2087:)
2040:.
2016:.
1993:.
1965:.
1926:(
1913:(
1900:(
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1848:(
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1822:(
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1796:(
1783:(
1770:(
1752:(
1720:.
1681:(
1668:(
1658:.
1625:.
1597::
1563:6
1534:(
1513:6
1489:.
1475::
1446:.
1410:.
1362:.
1335:(
1325:.
642:e
635:t
628:v
384:)
380:(
34:.
20:)
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