Transition economy - Knowledge (XXG)

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output had declined across all transition economies by 41 percent compared to its 1989 level. The Central and Eastern European economies began growing again around 1993, with Poland, which had begun its transition programme earliest emerging from recession in 1992. The Baltic States came out of recession in 1994 and the rest of the former Soviet Union around 1996. Inflation remained above 20 percent a year (except in the Czech Republic and Hungary) until the mid-1990s. Across all transition economies the peak annual inflation rate was 2632 percent (4645 percent in the CIS). Unemployment increased and wages fell in real terms, although in Russia and other CIS economies the rate of unemployment recorded at employment exchanges remained low. Labour force surveys undertaken by the International Labour Organization showed significantly higher rates of joblessness and there was considerable internal migration. High interest rates induced a "credit crunch" and fuelled inter-enterprise indebtedness and hampered the expansion of small and medium-sized enterprises, which often lacked the connections to obtain finance legitimately.

1149:. However, when prices were de-controlled enterprises and retailers raised their prices to match those prevailing in the black market or towards world price levels, earning them windfall profits initially. Consumers reacted by reducing their purchases and by substituting better quality imported goods in place of domestically produced goods. Falling sales led to the collapse of many domestic enterprises, with personnel lay-offs or reduced hours of work and pay. This further reduced effective demand. As imports grew and exporters failed to respond to opportunities in world markets due to the poor quality of their products and lack of resources for investment, the trade deficit expanded, putting downward pressure on the exchange rate. Many wholesalers and retailers marked prices according to their dollar values and the falling exchange rate fed inflation. The central banks in several countries raised interest rates and tightened credit conditions, depriving state agencies and enterprises of working capital. These in turn found it impossible to pay wages on time, dampening effective demand further. 1103:" would limit the reallocation of resources and prevent profitable enterprises from expanding to absorb the workers displaced from the liquidation of non-viable enterprises. A hardening of the budget constraints at state-owned enterprises would halt the drain on the state budget from subsidization but would require additional expenditure to counteract the resulting unemployment and drop in aggregate household spending. Monetary overhang meant that price liberalization might convert "repressed inflation" into open inflation, increase the price level still further and generate a price spiral. The transition to a market economy would require state intervention alongside market liberalization, privatization and deregulation. Rationing of essential consumer goods, trade quotas and tariffs and an active monetary policy to ensure that there was sufficient liquidity to maintain commerce might be needed. In addition to tariff protection, measures to control capital flight were also considered necessary in some instances. 1294:

high inequality were less inclined to support a limited and accountable state. In general, the proportion of the population with an income of between US$ 10–50 a day (the so-called "middle class") correlated with the level of democracy; however this correlation disappeared in transition countries with high income inequality. Those countries with large natural resource endowments, for example oil and gas producers like Russia and Kazakhstan, had less accountable governments and faced less electoral pressure to tackle powerful vested interests because the government could rely on resource rents and did not have to tax the population heavily. Countries with a strong institutional environment – that is, effective rule of law, secure property rights and uncorrupted public administration and corporate governance – were better placed to attract investment and undertake restructuring and regulatory change.

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The strategy incorporated a number of interdependent measures including macro-economic stabilization; the liberalization of wholesale and retail prices; the removal of constraints to the development of private enterprises and the privatization of state-owned enterprises; the elimination of subsidies and the imposition of hard budget constraints; and the creation of an export-oriented economy that was open to foreign trade and investment. The creation of a social safety net targeted at the individual to compensate for the removal of job security and the removal of price controls on staple goods was also part of the strategy.

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performance, and by "rapid capital inflows and a credit boom". But such growth had proved volatile and the EBRD considered that governments in the transition economies should foster the development of domestic capital markets and improve the business environment, including financial institutions, real estate markets and the energy, transport and communications infrastructure. The EBRD expressed concerns about regulatory independence and enforcement, price setting, and the market power of incumbent infrastructure operators.

3810:), these agreements acknowledging their ultimate objective of joining the EU. The ten countries were subsequently divided. The five states deemed to have made the most progress (Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovenia and Estonia) - constituting the Luxembourg Group - were invited in July 1997 to begin accession negotiations (these began in March 1998). The remaining five countries (Romania, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Latvia and Lithuania) - constituting the Helsinki Group - joined the Luxembourg Group in December 1999. 4904: 3600: 3532: 1781: 1261:

IMF's Fiscal Affairs Department, gave definition that the transformation to a market economy is not complete until functioning fiscal institutions and reasonable and affordable expenditure programs, including basic social safety nets for the unemployed, the sick, and the elderly, are in place. Mr Tanzi stated that these spending programs must be financed from public revenues generated—through taxation—without imposing excessive burdens on the private sector.

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On the EBRD's measure of transition indicators the transition economies had become "stuck in transition". Price liberalization, small-scale privatization and the opening-up of trade and foreign exchange markets were mostly complete by the end of the 1990s. However economic reform had slowed in areas such governance, enterprise restructuring and competition policy, which remained substantially below the standard of other developed market economies.

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initial conditions during the emerging process of the transition from planned economics to market economics, countries uses different transition model. Countries like the People's Republic of China and Vietnam adopted a gradual transition mode, however Russia and some other East-European countries, such as the former Socialist Republic of Yugoslavia, used a more aggressive and quicker paced model of transition.

4844: 4824: 4784: 4565: 4377: 3432: 3412: 3352: 3192: 2998: 2081: 1961: 1916: 1856: 1826: 1811: 1751: 4994: 4804: 4200: 3312: 2490: 5123: 5054: 5017: 4665: 4465: 4451: 4160: 4120: 3995: 3764: 3682: 3620: 3152: 3110: 3046: 2819: 2772: 2255: 5238: 5215: 5192: 5146: 5077: 4948: 4884: 4864: 4764: 4685: 4645: 4585: 4545: 4525: 4505: 4417: 4080: 4035: 3955: 3784: 3660: 3640: 3580: 3512: 3492: 3472: 3452: 3252: 3232: 3212: 3172: 3094: 3070: 2866: 2678: 2537: 2396: 2349: 2208: 2121: 1946: 1841: 1796: 1766: 1736: 1721: 5040: 4705: 4240: 3332: 2443: 1901: 842: 5169: 5100: 4605: 4397: 4285: 3875: 3722: 3272: 3022: 2725: 2631: 1886: 985:– bringing inflation under control and lowering it over time, after the initial burst of high inflation that follows from liberalization and the release of pent-up demand. This process requires discipline over the government budget and the growth of money and credit (that is, discipline in fiscal and monetary policy) and progress toward sustainable balance of payments. 1286:

shifted to take advantage of the opening-up of foreign trade, price liberalization and foreign direct investment. However the rapid growth rates of that period of catch-up had stalled since the late 2000s and the prospects for income convergence have receded according to the EBRD's prognosis, unless there are additional productivity-enhancing structural reforms.

948:; changes in the role of the state, thereby, the creation of fundamentally different governmental institutions and the promotion of private-owned enterprises, markets and independent financial institutions. In essence, one transition mode is the functional restructuring of state institutions from being a provider of growth to an enabler, with the 1282:. In Central Asia women also experienced significant lack of access to health services, as was the case in Arab countries. While many transition economies performed well with respect to primary and secondary education, and matched that available in many other developed economies, they were weaker when it came to training and tertiary education. 1193:

countries of Central and Eastern Europe was 151 in 2007; for the Balkans/ South-eastern Europe the index was 111, and for the Commonwealth of Independent States and Mongolia it was 102. Several CIS countries in the Caucasus and Central Asia as well as Moldova and Ukraine had economies that were substantially smaller than in 1989.

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Inequality of opportunity was higher in the transition economies of Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia than in some other developed economies in Western Europe (except France, where inequality of opportunity was relatively high). The highest inequality of opportunity was found in the Balkans

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According to the EBRD a well-functioning market economy should enjoy a diverse range of economic activities, equality of opportunity and convergence of incomes. These outcomes had not yet been achieved by 2013 and progress in establishing well-functioning market economies had stalled since the 1990s.

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In time domestic producers were able to upgrade their production capacity and foreign direct investment was attracted to the transition economies. Local-manufactured higher quality consumer goods became available and won market share back from imports. Stabilization of the exchange rate was made more

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programmes – and other donors (including the US AID, the UK Know-how Fund and UNDP) and by the IMF, the World Bank, EBRD and KfW, which also advanced loans for stabilization, structural adjustment, industrial restructuring and social protection. Technical assistance was delivered through the exchange

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assessed the level of democracy in terms of the Polity IV Index on the type of governance regime, published by the Center for Systemic Peace, which rates governance on the basis of whether states have institutionalized processes for open, competitive and deliberative political participation; chooses

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According to Stuart Shields, liberalization of the ECE economies took place notably through various changes which were supported by the EBRD, for instance, set in different different steps. Firstly, measures of competition and financial discipline were put in place in the beginning. As part of

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By 2007, the year before the global financial crisis hit, the index for GDP had reached 112 compared to 100 in 1989 for the transition economies. In other words, it took nearly 20 years to restore the level of output that had existed prior to the transition. The index of economic output (GDP) in the

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favoured by the IMF and the World Bank. Stabilization was deemed a necessity in Hungary and Poland where state budget deficits had grown and foreign debts had become larger than the country's capacity to service. Western advisers and domestic experts working with the national governments and the IMF

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looked at the relationship between transition and democratization. The report acknowledged that the academic literature was divided on whether economic development fostered democracy but argued that there was nonetheless strong empirical support for the hypothesis. It suggested that countries with

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report "... the wide dispersion in the productivity of labour and capital across types of enterprises at the onset of transition and the erosion of those differences between old and new sectors during the reform provide a natural definition of the end of transition." Mr. Vito Tanzi, Director of the

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Some economists have argued that the growth performance of the transition economies stemmed from the low level of development, decades of trade isolation and distortions in the socialist planned economies. They have emphasized that the transition strategies adopted reflected the need to resolve the

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The most influential strategy for the transition to a market economy was that adopted by Poland launched in January 1990. The strategy was strongly influenced by IMF and World Bank analyses of successful and unsuccessful stabilization programmes which had been adopted in Latin America in the 1980s.

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its engine. Another transition mode is change the way that economy grows and practice mode. The relationships between these two transition modes are micro and macro, partial and whole. The truly transition economics should include both the micro transition and macro transition. Due to the different

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During the 1990s, the GDP of the transition economies declined sharply relative to its 1989 level. However, this decline varied considerably from country to country: for some, GDP bottomed out at or over 75% of its 1989 level, while for others, it plummeted to below a third. The worst among the 15

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The global recession of 2008-09 and the Eurozone crisis of 2011-13 destabilized the transition economies, reduced growth rates and increased unemployment. The slowdown hit government revenues and widened fiscal deficits but almost all transition economies had experienced a partial recovery and had

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rose significantly in the transition economies between 1987 and 1988 and the mid-1990s. Poverty re-emerged with between 20 and 50 percent of people living below the national poverty line in the transition economies. The UN Development Programme calculated that overall poverty in Eastern Europe and

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The choice of the transition strategy was influenced by the critical state of most post-socialist countries. Policy-makers were persuaded that political credibility took precedence over a sequenced reform plan and to introduce macro-economic stabilization measures ahead of structural measures that

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countries – low growth rates and diminishing returns on investment – led many domestic and Western economists to advocate market-based solutions and a sequenced programme of economic reform. It was recognized that micro-economic reform and macro-economic stabilization had to be combined carefully.

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The many foreign advisers from, principally, the United States, the United Kingdom and Sweden were often under contract to the international financial institutions and bilateral or multilateral technical assistance programmes. They favoured free trade and exchange rate convertibility rather than

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The impacts of the conventional transition strategies proved to be de-stabilizing in the short-term and left the population impoverished in the long-term. Economic output declined much more than expected. The decline in output lasted until 1992-96 for all transition economies. By 1994, economic

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Over the decade 1994 to 2004, the transition economies had closed some of the gap in income per person with the average for the European Union in purchasing power parity terms. These gains had been driven by sustained growth in productivity as obsolete capital stock was scrapped and production

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and to foster entrepreneurship in those economies. Thus, they turned to labour market transformation by highlighting the need for a more flexible labour market. Furthermore, new institutional frameworks were needed, to help with transformations such as privatisation and the increasing flows of

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Following the collapse of Communism, the transition economies underwent various degrees of deindustrialization. Deindustrialization varied widely across the region, both in terms of when the fall in output bottomed out and how steep the decline in output was. The extremes were represented by

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for 2010, the EBRD was still finding that the quality of market-enabling institutions continued to fall short of what was necessary for well-functioning market economies. Growth in the transition economies had been driven by trade integration into the world economy with "impressive" export

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But by 2000, the EBRD was reporting that the effects of the initial starting point in each transition economy on the reform process had faded. Although the foundations had been laid for a functioning market economy through sustained liberalization, comprehensive privatization, openness to

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international trade and investment, and the establishment of democratic political systems there remained institutional challenges. Liberalized markets were not necessarily competitive and political freedom had not prevented powerful private interests from exercising undue influence.

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Open up trade and finance, which made reform more resilient to popular pressure ("market aversion") and meant that countries could access the EU single market either as member states or through association agreements (such as those being negotiated with Ukraine, Moldova and

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difficult by large-scale capital flight, with domestic agents sending part of their earning abroad to destinations where they believed their capital was more secure. The promise of European Union membership and the adoption of the EU's legislation and regulations (the

1044:(EBRD) developed a set of indicators to measure the progress in transition. The classification system was originally created in the EBRD's 1994 Transition Report, but has been refined and amended in subsequent Reports. The EBRD's overall transition indicators are: 4331:

Uzbekistan, where industrial output bottomed out in 1992 at 96.4% of its 1989 level, and Bosnia, where industrial output fell to 1.7% of its 1989 level in 1994. Such data is available for 27 countries, plus the territory of the former German Democratic Republic:

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At the beginning of the 1990s, Communist leaders remained in power in Romania and - with the exception of Kyrgyzstan - in Central Asia. These two countries were both exceptions within their respective regions: Romania was the only one of the 6 former non-Soviet

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and Central Asia. In terms of legal regulations and access to education and health services, inequality of opportunity related to gender was low in Europe and Central Asia but medium to high in respect of labour practices, employment and entrepreneurship and in

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Price liberalization without prior remedial measures to eliminate macro-economic imbalances, including an escalating fiscal deficit, a growing money supply due to a high level of borrowing by state-owned enterprises, and the accumulated savings of households ("

2028:'s Structural Reform Index, a country can be defined as a "full-fledged market economy" once it crosses the threshold of 0.70, which Kyrgyzstan accomplished in 1994 (the first CIS country to do so) and Romania in 1998 (and Russia, for reference, in 1996). 1342:

In a wider sense, the definition of transition economy refers to all countries which attempt to change their basic constitutional elements towards market-style fundamentals. Their origin could be also in a post-colonial situation, in a heavily regulated

1249:). Transition trajectories also differ in terms of the extent of central planning being relinquished (e.g., high centralized coordination among the CIS states) as well as the scope of liberalization efforts being undertaken (e.g., relatively limited in 1339:, there are countries emerging from a socialist-type command economy towards a market-based economy (e.g., China). Despite such movements, some countries have chosen to remain non-free states with regard to political freedoms and human rights. 1142:

of civil servants and by management consultants, including Agriconsulting, Atos, COWI, Ernst & Young, GOPA, GTZ, Human Dynamics, Idom, IMC Consulting, Louis Berger, NIRAS, PA Consulting, PE International, Pohl Consulting, PwC, and SOFRECO.

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Edgar Feige, cognizant of the trade-off between efficiency and equity, suggests that the social and political costs of transition adjustments can be reduced by adopting privatization methods that are egalitarian in nature, thereby providing a

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the CIS increased from 4 percent of the population in 1988 to 32 percent by 1994, or from 14 million people to 119 million. Unemployment and rates of economic inactivity were still high in the late 1990s according to survey data.

1986:. Transition economics investigates how an economy should reform itself to endorse capitalism and democracy. There are usually two sides: one which argues for a rapid transformation and one which argues for a gradual approach. 1129:

trade protection and capital controls, which might have checked capital flight. They tended to support privatization without prior industrial restructuring; an exception was to be found in Eastern Germany where the

994:– creating a viable financial sector and reforming the enterprises in these economies to render them capable of producing goods that could be sold in free markets and transferring their ownership into private hands. 956:

The term "transition period" is also used to describe the process of transition from capitalism to the first stage of socialism, preceding the establishment of fully developed socialism (aka communism).

1099:") could result in macro-economic destabilization instead of micro-economic efficiency. Unless entrepreneurs enjoyed secure property rights and farmers owned their farms the process of Schumpeterian " 1169:

economic crisis besetting the socialist planned economies and the overriding objective was the transformation to capitalist market economies rather than the fostering of economic growth and welfare.

1133:(Trust Agency) prepared state-owned enterprises for the market at considerable cost to the government. Western technical assistance programmes were established by European Union – through the 6214: 1205:

Transition trajectories have varied considerably in practice. Some nations have been experimenting with market reform for several decades, while others are relatively recent adopters (e.g.,

979: – the process of allowing most prices to be determined in free markets and lowering trade barriers that had shut off contact with the price structure of the world's market economies. 6353: 1705: 6838:

Achieving Growth and Prosperity Through Freedom: A Compilation of 1999-2000 Joint Economic Committee Reports Submitted to the Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the United States

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is a special branch of economics dealing with the transformation of a planned economy to a market economy. It has become especially important after the collapse of Communism in

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It had been expected that the introduction of current account convertibility and foreign trade liberalization would force a currency devaluation that would support

6044: 905:, where prices are set by market forces rather than by a central planning organization. In addition to this trade barriers are removed, there is a push to 1701:, "the transition is over" for the 10 countries that joined the EU in 2004 and 2007. It can be also understood as all countries of the Eastern Bloc. 6430: 1289:

The recent history of transition suggested that weak political institutions and entrenched interest groups had hindered economic reform. The EBRD's

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UNITED NATIONS Economic and Social Council, ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR EUROPE - COMMITTEE FOR TRADE, INDUSTRY AND ENTERPRISE DEVELOPMENT, 3 May 2005,

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may be the most basic element of a market economy, and therefore implementation of these rights is the key indicator of the transition process.

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and replaces chief executives in open, competitive elections; and imposes checks and balances on the discretionary power of the executive; see

865: 6365: 6415: 6297: 6003: 5965: 5474: 5389: 1253:). Some countries, such as Vietnam, have experienced macro-economic upheavals over different periods of transition, even transition turmoil. 6119:""The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the lessons from Eastern Central Europe for Middle East/North African Transition" 2947:'s GDP declined to only 12% of its 1989 level. All the transition countries for which such data is available are listed below (countries in 3807: 6965: 1269:

the second wave of reforms, changes were focused on the opening of key parts of the economy to foreign competition in order to improve

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establishing an institutional and legal framework to secure property rights, the rule of law, and transparent market-entry regulations.

6896: 6028: 5453: 2021: 1000:– redefining the role of the state in these economies, establishing the rule of law, and introducing appropriate competition policies. 300: 6883: 6057: 5944: 5923: 5881: 5826: 5805: 5793: 5772: 5744: 5724: 5687: 5630: 1146: 858: 235: 5406: 6955: 6888: 5856: 5596: 1309:

Encourage transparent and accountable government, with media and civil society scrutiny, and political competition at elections;

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would by their nature take longer to implement. The "credibility" of the transition process was enhanced by the adoption of the

901:. Transition economies undergo a set of structural transformations intended to develop market-based institutions. These include 1070: 1016:

liberalizing economic activity, prices, and market operations, along with reallocating resources to their most efficient use;

401: 6338: 1165:) helped secure trust in property rights and economic and governmental institutions in much of Central and Eastern Europe. 5274: 1085: 846: 741: 711: 461: 451: 6387: 1987: 1237:). In other cases economic reforms have been adopted by incumbent governments with little interest in political change ( 771: 6323: 6063: 6092: 6020: 5581: 5333: 1359: 1009: 6936: 5706:, 1995, London: Royal Institute for International Affairs and Washington DC: The Brookings Institution, pp. 122–123. 3806:

Between 16 December 1991 and 10 June 1996, a total of 10 transition countries signed Europe Association Agreements (

1983: 1328: 6478:

How Capitalism Was Built: The Transformation of Central and Eastern Europe, Russia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia

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How Capitalism Was Built: The Transformation of Central and Eastern Europe, Russia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia

6960: 3840: 2066: 1122: 694: 622: 43: 5475:"The Determinants & Excessiveness of Current Account Deficits in Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union" 6970: 5652:, 1995, London: Royal Institute for International Affairs and Washington DC: The Brookings Institution, p. 122. 230: 2936:, its GDP amounting to only 60.4% of its 1989 level in 1992. The absolute worst was to be found in the former 5669:, 1995, London: Royal Institute for International Affairs and Washington DC: The Brookings Institution, p. 5. 1221:. In some cases reforms have been accompanied with political upheaval, such as the overthrow of a dictator ( 902: 796: 746: 627: 355: 225: 2928:

had the highest GDP bottom among the post-Soviet countries, with 83.4% of its 1989 level in the year 1995.

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introduced stabilization programmes aiming to achieve external and internal balance, which became known as

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The transition process is usually characterized by the changing and creating of institutions, particularly

6913: 5481: 5264: 4909: 3605: 3537: 2944: 1786: 1631: 1405: 806: 205: 5914:

The UNDP used a poverty line of $ 4 per person per day in 1990 dollars at purchasing power parity; UNDP,

6256: 6182:, 2013, London: European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, pp. 5, 8-9, 34-35, 38-39 and 106. The 5550: 5504: 4749: 4730: 3749: 3397: 3137: 1635: 1322: 801: 446: 136: 106: 91: 6052:. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. 2002. pp. xix, xxxi. 1005: 5371:"The Transition to a Market Economy in Russia: Property Rights, Mass Privatization and Stabilization" 1117: 1100: 706: 514: 411: 375: 220: 153: 101: 6433:

Governance, Equity, and Global Markets: The Annual Bank Conference on Development Economics, Europe

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report, the following 17 countries are classified as "economies in transition" as of January 2024:

918: 816: 761: 756: 689: 679: 365: 200: 6924:

Quarterly Newsletter issued by UNDP and LSE on Development and Transition issues in Europe and CIS

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achieving effective enterprise management and economic efficiency, usually through privatization;

945: 781: 652: 557: 176: 158: 148: 141: 5902: 6928: 6902: 6892: 6874: 6835: 6820: 6760: 6745: 6700: 6670: 6655: 6610: 6595: 6565: 6535: 6520: 6505: 6490: 6460: 6411: 6293: 6088: 6053: 6024: 5999: 5961: 5940: 5919: 5898: 5877: 5822: 5801: 5789: 5768: 5740: 5720: 5683: 5626: 5385: 5345: 5269: 4889: 3517: 2917: 1801: 1410: 1279: 1096: 1034: 674: 426: 406: 193: 186: 181: 6850: 6808:

From Transition to Accession: Developing Stable and Competitive Financial Markets in Bulgaria

6805: 6791:

Yitzhak Brudny, Jonathan Frankel, Stefani Hoffman, Cambridge University Press, Jun 21, 2004,

6790: 6775: 6730: 6715: 6685: 6625: 6580: 6550: 6475: 6445: 6929:

IMF: Nsouli, S. M. "A Decade of Transition – An Overview of the Achievements and Challenges"

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Foreign direct investment as part of what is described as “an institutional shock therapy”.

1185: 1158: 914: 667: 602: 587: 539: 529: 523: 496: 481: 252: 215: 6118: 1994:(MIT Press 2000) gives a good overview of the field. A more recent overview is provided in 6940: 6836:

United States. Congress. Joint Economic Committee, U.S. Government Printing Office, 2000,

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Demographic Consequences of Economic Transition in Countries of Central and Eastern Europe

6327: 6269: 6204:, 2013, London: European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, pp. 5, 34, 38 and 52-53. 5860: 5600: 5563: 5517: 5460: 5299: 5279: 4630: 3707: 3297: 2589: 1876: 1650:

is in transition to a market economy, demonstrating early stages of a transition economy.

1553: 1499: 1430: 1344: 1206: 966: 910: 894: 791: 751: 716: 612: 572: 567: 534: 380: 360: 350: 340: 325: 305: 240: 126: 51: 31: 6340:

Unleashing Prosperity: Productivity Growth in Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union

6217:. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. October 2010 6046:

The first ten years. Analysis and Lessons for Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union

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in the year 1994, with 25.4% of its 1989 GDP. The lowest decline was represented by the

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Robert A. Mundell, Armand Clesse, Springer Science & Business Media, Mar 31, 2000,

6238:"Growth diagnostics for a resource-rich transition economy : the case of Mongolia" 5995: 5425: 5421: 5304: 4976: 4442: 3920: 2979: 2921: 2307: 1658: 1654: 1464: 1348: 949: 898: 776: 592: 486: 330: 4347: Lowest yearly industrial output during the 1990s higher than half of 1980 output 2016:

countries to opt for gradual instead of radical reform, while Kyrgyzstan was the only

6949: 6169:, 2013, London: European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, pp. 4, 8 and 10-17. 5853: 5641: 5593: 5370: 5294: 5289: 5284: 4355: Lowest yearly industrial output during the 1990s lower than half of 1980 output 3848: 1270: 1025:

imposing hard budget constraints, which provide incentives to improve efficiency; and

990: 941:

countries, and detailed work has been undertaken on its economic and social effects.

826: 811: 617: 607: 597: 582: 562: 491: 335: 257: 168: 131: 121: 111: 17: 6407:

Transition Economies: Political Economy in Russia, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia

5981:, 2013, London: European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, pp. 8 and 99-105. 4743: 4490: 3377: 3131: 2017: 1996:

Transition Economies: Political Economy in Russia, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia

1936: 1563: 1332: 1312:

Invest in human capital, especially by improving the quality of tertiary education.

1234: 1226: 930: 926: 701: 577: 441: 436: 431: 416: 370: 345: 320: 315: 262: 116: 6918: 6823:

EVOLUTION OF THE INDUSTRIAL SECTOR IN TRANSITION ECONOMIES: A STATISTICAL OVERVIEW

6143:, 2013, London: European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, pp. 6 and 78-96. 909:

state-owned enterprises and resources, state and collectively run enterprises are

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Sustaining Competitiveness in the New Global Economy: The Experience of Singapore

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Financial Markets in Vietnam's Transition Economy: Facts, Insights, Implications.

5960:, London: European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Table A.1.1.1, p. 13 5378:

A Fourth way?: privatization, property, and the emergence of new market economics

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developing indirect, market-oriented instruments for macroeconomic stabilization;

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is created to facilitate macroeconomic stabilization and the movement of private

6671:

Martín Uribe, Stephanie Schmitt-Grohé, Princeton University Press, Apr 4, 2017,

2941: 2933: 2013: 938: 766: 721: 684: 662: 657: 270: 245: 6107:, 2013, London: European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, pp. 8 and 13. 1351:

post-dictatorship, or even in a somehow economically underdeveloped country in

5939:, London: European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Table 5.2, p. 103 4849: 4829: 4789: 4570: 4382: 4339: Lowest yearly industrial output during the 1990s higher than 1980 output 3437: 3417: 3357: 3197: 3003: 2937: 2925: 2086: 1966: 1921: 1861: 1831: 1816: 1756: 1698: 1627: 1568: 1558: 1548: 1425: 1214: 96: 64: 6906: 5918:, 1999, New York: United Nations Development Programme, Table 2.5, pp. 20–21 1689:) and the two second-wave accession countries that joined on 1 January 2007 ( 6320: 6091:, Finance & Development Magazine, June 1999, Volume 36, Number 2 by the 5580:, Finance & Development Magazine, June 1999, Volume 36, Number 2 by the 5381: 4999: 4809: 4205: 3317: 2932:

experienced the worst decline among the non-Soviet countries of the defunct

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To spur further economic reform and break out of a vicious circle, the EBRD

906: 786: 310: 275: 210: 74: 69: 6933: 6923: 6243:. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank 1642:

in the list of transition economies. Some World Bank studies also include

841: 6611:

Daniel Gros, Alfred Steinherr, Cambridge University Press, Mar 25, 2004,

6491:

Daniel Gros, Alfred Steinherr, Cambridge University Press, Mar 25, 2004,

5767:, 1999, New York: United Nations Development Programme, Table 2.1, p. 14 5759:, April 1996, IMF Working Paper WP/96/31, Table 2, p. 8; downloaded from 5128: 5059: 5022: 4670: 4470: 4456: 4165: 4125: 4000: 3769: 3687: 3625: 3157: 3115: 3051: 2824: 2777: 2260: 1694: 1686: 1682: 1643: 1608: 1575: 1504: 1454: 1327:

Although the term "transition economies" usually covers the countries of

1130: 163: 6393:. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. p. 135. 6016: 5760: 6628:

Economics of Institutional Change: Central and Eastern Europe Revisited

6156:, 2013, London: European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, p. 6. 5991: 5243: 5220: 5197: 5151: 5082: 4953: 4869: 4769: 4690: 4650: 4590: 4550: 4530: 4510: 4422: 4085: 4040: 3960: 3789: 3665: 3645: 3585: 3497: 3477: 3457: 3257: 3237: 3217: 3177: 3099: 3075: 2929: 2871: 2683: 2542: 2401: 2354: 2213: 2126: 1951: 1846: 1771: 1741: 1726: 1690: 1666: 1662: 1590: 1494: 1474: 1469: 1459: 1445: 1420: 1400: 1395: 1390: 1250: 1246: 1230: 1222: 1218: 1091: 519: 295: 6431:

Joseph E. Stiglitz, Pierre-Alain Muet, Oxford University Press, 2001,

5757:

Stabilization and growth in transition economies: The early experience

6934:

GDP and Industrial Output during transition 1990–present – statistics

6613:

Economic Transition in Central and Eastern Europe: Planting the Seeds

6508:

Natural Resource Management Strategy: Eastern Europe and Central Asia

6493:

Economic Transition in Central and Eastern Europe: Planting the Seeds

6405: 6286:

Islamic Republic of Iran: Managing the Transition to a Market Economy

5897:, London: European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, pp. 2–5. 5819:

The Economies of Transition: From socialist economy to market economy

5755:

IMF staff estimates in Stanley Fischer, Ratna Sahay and Carlos Vegh,

5737:

The Economies of Transition: From socialist economy to market economy

5717:

The Economies of Transition: From socialist economy to market economy

5680:

The Economies of Transition: From socialist economy to market economy

5594:

Perestroika and Socialist Privatization: What is to be Done? and How?

5454:

Community Interests: An Insolvency Objective in Transition Economies?

5174: 5105: 5045: 4710: 4610: 4402: 4290: 4245: 3880: 3727: 3337: 3277: 3027: 2730: 2636: 2448: 1906: 1891: 1678: 1670: 1639: 1489: 1479: 1440: 1435: 1415: 1352: 1336: 1210: 934: 647: 5786:

Structural Adjustment without Mass Unemployment? Lessons from Russia

5535:"Transition Economies: An IMF Perspective on Progress and Prospects" 6806:

Esen Ulgenerk, Leila Zlaoui, World Bank Publications, Jan 1, 2000,

5916:

Human Development Report for Central and Eastern Europe and the CIS

5765:

Human Development Report for Central and Eastern Europe and the CIS

4922:

Trade openness and competitive industrial performance (CIP) in 1998

6731:

Dimitŭr Filipov, Jürgen Dorbritz, Council of Europe, Jan 1, 2003,

5876:, London: European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, p. 13 5798:

Unemployment in Capitalist, Communist and Post-Communist Economies

5341: 1580: 1238: 1138: 1134: 1125:. It was argued that "one cannot jump over a chasm in two leaps". 922: 6538:

Building Capitalism: The Transformation of the Former Soviet Bloc

6523:

Building Capitalism: The Transformation of the Former Soviet Bloc

6463:

Building Capitalism: The Transformation of the Former Soviet Bloc

6361: 5905:

The ISBN printed in the document (978-1-898802-33-1) is invalid.

5337: 2025: 2024:

other than Russia to implement radical reform. According to the

1647: 1585: 1242: 6658:

Germany's Economic Performance: From Unification to Euroization

6017:

What we see, why we worry, why we hope: Vietnam going forward.

6583:

The Euro as a Stabilizer in the International Economic System

1037:

to cushion the disruptive effects of the transition process.

27:

Economy changing from a centrally planned to a market economy

5463:, No. 01/02, Frankfurter Institut für Transformationsstudien 1638:) as transition economies. In 2009, the World Bank included 1365: 6765:, pp. 112, 120, 124, 136, 148, 152, 160, 164, 168, 176, 180 6750:, pp. 113, 121, 125, 137, 149, 153, 161, 165, 169, 177, 181 6705:, pp. 113, 121, 125, 137, 149, 153, 161, 165, 169, 177, 181 6354:"Central and Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia" 6236:

Ianchovichina, Elena; Gooptu, Sudarshan (1 November 2007).

1697:), have completed the transition process. According to the 1653:

The eight first-wave accession countries, which joined the

6851:

Ramkishen S. Rajan, Edward Elgar Publishing, Jan 1, 2003,

5603:, Comparative Economic Studies Vol. XXXII, No.3 Fall 1990] 1362:

listed the following countries with transition economies:

6641:

Nicholas Crafts, Peter Fearon, OUP Oxford, Feb 28, 2013,

6283:

Jbili, A.; Kramarenko, V.; Bailén, J. M. (1 March 2007).

2955:, when 1933 American GDP was 73.4% of its 1929 level): 2951:

bottomed out at a higher level than the U.S. during the

1706:

United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs

6778:

Foreign Direct Investment in Central and Eastern Europe

6553:

Foreign Direct Investment in Central and Eastern Europe

6321:

Law in transition online 2006 – Focus on central Europe

5788:, 1998, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, pp. 40–41, 49 and 53 5625:, 1990, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, pp. xiii-xxii and 164 5376:. In Alexander, Gregory S.; Skąpska, Grażyna (eds.). 1992:

Transition and Economics. Politics, Markets and Firms

6776:

Svetla Trifonova Marinova, Routledge, Jan 12, 2018,

6643:

The Great Depression of the 1930s: Lessons for Today

6551:

Svetla Trifonova Marinova, Routledge, Jan 12, 2018,

972:

The main ingredients of the transition process are:

6686:Helena Tang, World Bank Publications, Jan 1, 2000, 6914:Policy Research Working Papers from the World Bank 6718:OECD Review of Agricultural Policies: Romania 2000 5854:http://jeffsachs.org/2012/03/what-i-did-in-russia/ 6536:Anders Åslund, Cambridge University Press, 2002, 6521:Anders Åslund, Cambridge University Press, 2002, 6476:Anders Åslund, Cambridge University Press, 2013, 6461:Anders Åslund, Cambridge University Press, 2002, 6446:Anders Åslund, Cambridge University Press, 2013, 5821:, 1995, London: Macmillan, pp. 130, 146, 150-154 5323:1998 GDP per capita multiplied by 1998 population 1335:, this term may have a wider context. Outside of 6292:. The International Monetary Fund. p. xii. 1634:, and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (later 1301:proposed that the transition economies should: 1197:maintained low and stable inflation since 2012. 1042:European Bank for Reconstruction and Development 2924:, with 84.6% of its 1989 GDP in the year 1992. 1066:Banking reform and interest rate liberalization 6089:Transition and the Changing Role of Government 5839:Transformation as a subject of economic theory 5578:Determinants of Growth in Transition Countries 6388:"World Economic Situation and Prospects 2024" 5800:, 1995, London: Macmillan pp. 98–100 and 117 3802:The EU candidate countries plus Russia (1998) 866: 8: 5739:, 1995, London: Macmillan, pp. 130–135, 121 5719:, 1995, London: Macmillan, pp. 116–117, 121 5682:, 1995, London: Macmillan, pp. 117–119, 121 6626:Tomasz Mickiewicz, Springer, Aug 11, 2010, 6919:Health in transition economies – a dossier 5623:The Soviet Economy: Problems and Prospects 873: 859: 38: 6688:Progress Toward the Unification of Europe 6566:Boris Z. Rumer, Routledge, Apr 15, 2015, 5529: 5527: 2916:post-Soviet countries was represented by 6596:Nikolai Genov, Routledge, Apr 22, 2016, 6410:. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell. 4925: 4359: 3812: 3564: 2957: 2161: 2030: 1523: 1369: 1233:), or integration with another country ( 6404:Myant, Martin; Jan Drahokoupil (2010). 5473:Aristovnik, Aleksander (19 July 2006). 5448: 5446: 5361: 5316: 1054:Governance and enterprise restructuring 1012:, transition in a broad sense implies: 893:is an economy which is changing from a 50: 6506:World Bank Publications, Jan 1, 2000, 6343:, World Bank, Washington (2008), p. 42 6265: 6254: 6039: 6037: 5848:, retrieved 1/11/2013; Jeffrey Sachs, 5841:in Zbyněk Balandrán and Vít Havránek, 5704:Challenges for Russian Economic Reform 5667:Challenges for Russian Economic Reform 5650:Challenges for Russian Economic Reform 5559: 5548: 5513: 5502: 5407:"Perestroika and Ruble Convertibility" 1710:World Economic Situation and Prospects 6656:J. Hölscher, Springer, Jan 22, 2016, 6015:Napier, Nancy K.; Vuong, Quan Hoang. 5761:http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/20631/ 3860:Asset share of state-owned banks (%) 3857:greater number = more authoritarian) 1998:by Martin Myant and Jan Drahokoupil. 1225:), the collapse of a government (the 1184:Income inequality as measured by the 7: 2007:Two extremes: Romania and Kyrgyzstan 6793:Restructuring Post-Communist Russia 6123:Spectrum: Journal of Global Studies 1374:IMF (2000), World Bank (2002, 2009) 1090:The economic malaise affecting the 1229:), a declaration of independence ( 921:. The process has been applied in 25: 6884:Concise Encyclopedia of Economics 5576:Havrylyshyn, Oleh; Wolf, Thomas. 1060:Trade and foreign exchange system 847:Business and economics portal 6889:Library of Economics and Liberty 6568:Central Asia: A Gathering Storm? 6021:Boise State University CCI Press 5763:; retrieved on 1/11.2013; UNDP, 5236: 5213: 5190: 5167: 5144: 5121: 5098: 5075: 5052: 5038: 5015: 4992: 4969: 4946: 4902: 4882: 4862: 4842: 4822: 4802: 4782: 4762: 4742: 4723: 4703: 4683: 4663: 4643: 4623: 4603: 4583: 4563: 4543: 4523: 4503: 4483: 4463: 4449: 4435: 4415: 4395: 4375: 4283: 4238: 4198: 4158: 4118: 4078: 4033: 3993: 3953: 3913: 3873: 3782: 3762: 3742: 3720: 3700: 3680: 3658: 3638: 3618: 3598: 3578: 3530: 3510: 3490: 3470: 3450: 3430: 3410: 3390: 3370: 3350: 3330: 3310: 3290: 3270: 3250: 3230: 3210: 3190: 3170: 3150: 3130: 3108: 3092: 3068: 3044: 3020: 2996: 2972: 2864: 2817: 2770: 2723: 2676: 2629: 2582: 2535: 2488: 2441: 2394: 2347: 2300: 2253: 2206: 2119: 2079: 2020:country and the only one in the 1959: 1944: 1929: 1914: 1899: 1884: 1869: 1854: 1839: 1824: 1809: 1794: 1779: 1764: 1749: 1734: 1719: 840: 6716:OECD Publishing, Sep 29, 2000, 6598:Global Trends in Eastern Europe 1071:non-bank financial institutions 998:Legal and institutional reforms 6887:(2nd ed.). Indianapolis: 5480:. William Davidson Institute, 2964:1990s lowest GDP (1989 = 100) 1256:According to the World Bank's 1: 6215:"Kosovo – Country Brief 2010" 5612:EBRD's 1994 Transition Report 1086:Soviet-type economic planning 742:Commons-based peer production 462:Socialism of the 21st century 3845:(1989 to 1998; $ millions) 2071:(1989 to 1998; $ millions) 6673:Open Economy Macroeconomics 6093:International Monetary Fund 5852:, posted 14 March 2012, at 5582:International Monetary Fund 2158:Real wages during the 1990s 1383:Transition complete (2019) 1010:International Monetary Fund 983:Macroeconomic stabilization 6987: 6966:Former communist economies 3855:cumulative score (8 to 56; 1984:Central and Eastern Europe 1626:In addition, in 2002, the 1540:Central and Southeast Asia 1329:Central and Eastern Europe 1320: 1083: 911:restructured as businesses 29: 4368:as % of 1989 (year) 4274: 4069: 3864: 1051:Small-scale privatization 1048:Large-scale privatization 965:The existence of private 895:centrally planned economy 236:Socialist-oriented market 32:Transition town economics 6117:Shields, Stuart (2015). 5702:in Alan Smith (editor), 5700:Privatization in the CIS 5665:in Alan Smith (editor), 5648:in Alan Smith (editor), 5646:Privatization in the CIS 5405:Feige, Edgar L. (1991). 5369:Feige, Edgar L. (1994). 5332:the average between the 4366:Lowest industrial output 1646:. According to the IMF, 30:Not to be confused with 6956:Economic liberalization 5843:Atlas of Transformation 5784:Simon Clarke (editor), 1515:— World Bank assessment 1317:Countries in transition 1069:Securities markets and 1008:and Thomas Wolf of the 903:economic liberalization 6875:"Transition Economies" 6763:Transition report 2004 6748:Transition report 2004 6703:Transition report 2004 6264:Cite journal requires 6202:Transition Report 2013 6184:Transition Report 2013 6180:Transition Report 2013 6167:Transition Report 2013 6154:Transition Report 2013 6141:Transition Report 2013 6105:Transition Report 2013 5994:Saarbrücken, Germany: 5979:Transition Report 2013 5958:Transition Report 2008 5937:Transition Report 2000 5895:Transition Report 2010 5874:Transition Report 2000 5558:Cite journal requires 5537:. IMF. 3 November 2000 5512:Cite journal requires 5482:University of Michigan 5344:estimate (used by the 5336:estimate (used by the 5265:Demographic transition 4910:Bosnia and Herzegovina 3606:Bosnia and Herzegovina 3538:Bosnia and Herzegovina 2945:Bosnia and Herzegovina 1787:Bosnia and Herzegovina 1632:Bosnia and Herzegovina 1406:Bosnia and Herzegovina 1299:Transition Report 2013 1291:Transition Report 2013 1258:10 Years of Transition 1107:Transition in practice 5859:16 March 2013 at the 5599:7 August 2011 at the 4731:Serbia and Montenegro 4322:Industrial indicators 3750:Serbia and Montenegro 3398:Serbia and Montenegro 1636:Serbia and Montenegro 1323:Democratic transition 1321:Further information: 1176:Ten years on, in the 1084:Further information: 1075:Infrastructure reform 961:Transition indicators 5863:retrieved 1/11/2013. 5850:What I did in Russia 5459:5 March 2009 at the 3834:Private sector share 2060:Private sector share 1980:Transition economics 1163:acquis communautaire 1118:Washington Consensus 1101:creative destruction 1057:Price liberalization 891:transitional economy 772:Newly industrialized 515:Collective ownership 376:Vertical archipelago 18:Transition countries 6939:8 July 2011 at the 6326:7 July 2007 at the 5990:Vuong, Quan-Hoang. 5275:Soviet-type economy 4932:Trade openness rank 4327:Deindustrialization 1975:Branch of economics 1657:on 1 May 2004 (the 1530: 1376: 1345:Asian-style economy 946:private enterprises 757:Inclusive Democracy 6879:David R. Henderson 6368:on 1 December 2012 6189:Polity data series 5384:. pp. 57–78. 3853:Nations in Transit 3821:GDP ($ billions) 2042:GDP ($ billions) 2002:Comparative tables 1524: 1370: 1063:Competition policy 989:Restructuring and 887:transition economy 695:Material balancing 177:Buddhist economics 6417:978-0-470-59619-7 6299:978-1-58906-441-6 6004:978-3-639-23383-4 5966:978-1-898802-31-0 5698:Michael Kaser on 5391:978-0-415-90697-5 5346:Council of Europe 5270:Energy transition 5256: 5255: 4919: 4918: 4319: 4318: 3865:Luxembourg Group 3799: 3798: 3571:Years in default 3547: 3546: 2908: 2907: 2155: 2154: 1704:According to the 1623: 1622: 1616: 1615: 1601: 1541: 1529: 1516: 1512: 1511: 1375: 1280:access to finance 1178:Transition Report 1147:export-led growth 1097:monetary overhang 1035:social safety net 883: 882: 393:By regional model 187:Sabbath economics 16:(Redirected from 6978: 6961:Economic systems 6910: 6857: 6848: 6842: 6833: 6827: 6818: 6812: 6803: 6797: 6788: 6782: 6773: 6767: 6758: 6752: 6743: 6737: 6728: 6722: 6713: 6707: 6698: 6692: 6683: 6677: 6668: 6662: 6653: 6647: 6638: 6632: 6623: 6617: 6608: 6602: 6593: 6587: 6578: 6572: 6563: 6557: 6548: 6542: 6533: 6527: 6518: 6512: 6503: 6497: 6488: 6482: 6473: 6467: 6458: 6452: 6443: 6437: 6428: 6422: 6421: 6401: 6395: 6394: 6392: 6384: 6378: 6377: 6375: 6373: 6364:. 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3276: 3274: 3273: 3260: 3256: 3254: 3253: 3240: 3236: 3234: 3233: 3220: 3216: 3214: 3213: 3200: 3196: 3194: 3193: 3180: 3176: 3174: 3173: 3160: 3156: 3154: 3153: 3135: 3134: 3118: 3114: 3112: 3111: 3102: 3098: 3096: 3095: 3078: 3074: 3072: 3071: 3054: 3050: 3048: 3047: 3030: 3026: 3024: 3023: 3006: 3002: 3000: 2999: 2982: 2978: 2976: 2975: 2958: 2953:Great Depression 2911:1990s lowest GDP 2874: 2870: 2868: 2867: 2827: 2823: 2821: 2820: 2780: 2776: 2774: 2773: 2733: 2729: 2727: 2726: 2686: 2682: 2680: 2679: 2639: 2635: 2633: 2632: 2592: 2588: 2586: 2585: 2545: 2541: 2539: 2538: 2498: 2494: 2492: 2491: 2451: 2447: 2445: 2444: 2404: 2400: 2398: 2397: 2357: 2353: 2351: 2350: 2310: 2306: 2304: 2303: 2263: 2259: 2257: 2256: 2216: 2212: 2210: 2209: 2162: 2129: 2125: 2123: 2122: 2089: 2085: 2083: 2082: 2050:Population under 2031: 1969: 1965: 1963: 1962: 1954: 1950: 1948: 1947: 1939: 1935: 1933: 1932: 1924: 1920: 1918: 1917: 1909: 1905: 1903: 1902: 1894: 1890: 1888: 1887: 1879: 1875: 1873: 1872: 1864: 1860: 1858: 1857: 1849: 1845: 1843: 1842: 1834: 1830: 1828: 1827: 1819: 1815: 1813: 1812: 1804: 1800: 1798: 1797: 1789: 1785: 1783: 1782: 1774: 1770: 1768: 1767: 1759: 1755: 1753: 1752: 1744: 1740: 1738: 1737: 1729: 1725: 1723: 1722: 1599: 1539: 1531: 1527: 1514: 1377: 1373: 1366: 1186:Gini coefficient 1159:Community acquis 1006:Oleh Havrylyshyn 915:financial sector 875: 868: 861: 845: 844: 603:Municipalization 588:Financialization 558:Collectivization 540:Social ownership 530:Private property 524:Common ownership 482:Common ownership 296:Closed (autarky) 253:State capitalism 231:Socialist market 216:Market socialist 52:Economic systems 39: 21: 6986: 6985: 6981: 6980: 6979: 6977: 6976: 6975: 6971:Decommunization 6946: 6945: 6941:Wayback Machine 6899: 6869: 6866: 6861: 6860: 6849: 6845: 6834: 6830: 6819: 6815: 6804: 6800: 6789: 6785: 6774: 6770: 6759: 6755: 6744: 6740: 6729: 6725: 6714: 6710: 6699: 6695: 6684: 6680: 6669: 6665: 6654: 6650: 6639: 6635: 6624: 6620: 6609: 6605: 6594: 6590: 6579: 6575: 6564: 6560: 6549: 6545: 6534: 6530: 6519: 6515: 6504: 6500: 6489: 6485: 6474: 6470: 6459: 6455: 6444: 6440: 6429: 6425: 6418: 6403: 6402: 6398: 6390: 6386: 6385: 6381: 6371: 6369: 6352: 6351: 6347: 6337: 6333: 6328:Wayback Machine 6318: 6314: 6304: 6302: 6300: 6289: 6282: 6281: 6277: 6263: 6253: 6246: 6244: 6240: 6235: 6234: 6230: 6220: 6218: 6213: 6212: 6208: 6199: 6195: 6177: 6173: 6164: 6160: 6151: 6147: 6138: 6134: 6116: 6115: 6111: 6102: 6098: 6086: 6082: 6072: 6070: 6069:on 30 June 2007 6066: 6060: 6049: 6043: 6042: 6035: 6014: 6010: 5989: 5985: 5976: 5972: 5955: 5951: 5934: 5930: 5913: 5909: 5892: 5888: 5871: 5867: 5861:Wayback Machine 5836: 5832: 5817:Marie Lavigne, 5816: 5812: 5783: 5779: 5754: 5750: 5735:Marie Lavigne, 5734: 5730: 5715:Marie Lavigne, 5714: 5710: 5697: 5693: 5678:Marie Lavigne, 5677: 5673: 5660: 5656: 5640: 5636: 5620: 5616: 5611: 5607: 5601:Wayback Machine 5591: 5587: 5575: 5571: 5557: 5547: 5540: 5538: 5533: 5532: 5525: 5511: 5501: 5494: 5492: 5491:on 20 July 2011 5488: 5477: 5472: 5471: 5467: 5461:Wayback Machine 5451: 5444: 5434: 5432: 5428: 5409: 5404: 5403: 5399: 5392: 5373: 5368: 5367: 5363: 5358: 5353: 5352: 5331: 5327: 5322: 5318: 5313: 5300:Corporatization 5280:Planned economy 5261: 5237: 5235: 5234: 5214: 5212: 5211: 5191: 5189: 5188: 5168: 5166: 5165: 5145: 5143: 5142: 5122: 5120: 5119: 5099: 5097: 5096: 5076: 5074: 5073: 5053: 5051: 5050: 5049: 5039: 5037: 5036: 5016: 5014: 5013: 4993: 4991: 4990: 4970: 4968: 4967: 4947: 4945: 4944: 4938: 4933: 4903: 4901: 4900: 4883: 4881: 4880: 4863: 4861: 4860: 4843: 4841: 4840: 4823: 4821: 4820: 4803: 4801: 4800: 4783: 4781: 4780: 4763: 4761: 4760: 4750:Eastern Germany 4741: 4724: 4722: 4721: 4704: 4702: 4701: 4684: 4682: 4681: 4664: 4662: 4661: 4644: 4642: 4641: 4631:North Macedonia 4624: 4622: 4621: 4604: 4602: 4601: 4584: 4582: 4581: 4564: 4562: 4561: 4544: 4542: 4541: 4524: 4522: 4521: 4504: 4502: 4501: 4484: 4482: 4481: 4464: 4462: 4461: 4460: 4450: 4448: 4447: 4446: 4436: 4434: 4433: 4416: 4414: 4413: 4396: 4394: 4393: 4376: 4374: 4373: 4367: 4352: 4351: 4344: 4343: 4336: 4335: 4329: 4324: 4284: 4282: 4281: 4239: 4237: 4236: 4199: 4197: 4196: 4159: 4157: 4156: 4119: 4117: 4116: 4079: 4077: 4076: 4070:Helsinki Group 4034: 4032: 4031: 3994: 3992: 3991: 3954: 3952: 3951: 3914: 3912: 3911: 3874: 3872: 3871: 3856: 3844: 3835: 3830: 3825: 3804: 3783: 3781: 3780: 3763: 3761: 3760: 3743: 3741: 3740: 3734: 3721: 3719: 3718: 3708:North Macedonia 3701: 3699: 3698: 3681: 3679: 3678: 3672: 3659: 3657: 3656: 3639: 3637: 3636: 3619: 3617: 3616: 3599: 3597: 3596: 3579: 3577: 3576: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3553: 3552: 3531: 3529: 3528: 3511: 3509: 3508: 3491: 3489: 3488: 3471: 3469: 3468: 3451: 3449: 3448: 3431: 3429: 3428: 3411: 3409: 3408: 3391: 3389: 3388: 3371: 3369: 3368: 3351: 3349: 3348: 3331: 3329: 3328: 3311: 3309: 3308: 3298:North Macedonia 3291: 3289: 3288: 3271: 3269: 3268: 3251: 3249: 3248: 3231: 3229: 3228: 3211: 3209: 3208: 3191: 3189: 3188: 3171: 3169: 3168: 3151: 3149: 3148: 3138:Eastern Germany 3129: 3109: 3107: 3106: 3104: 3093: 3091: 3090: 3069: 3067: 3066: 3045: 3043: 3042: 3021: 3019: 3018: 2997: 2995: 2994: 2973: 2971: 2970: 2913: 2865: 2863: 2862: 2818: 2816: 2815: 2771: 2769: 2768: 2724: 2722: 2721: 2677: 2675: 2674: 2630: 2628: 2627: 2590:North Macedonia 2583: 2581: 2580: 2536: 2534: 2533: 2489: 2487: 2486: 2442: 2440: 2439: 2395: 2393: 2392: 2348: 2346: 2345: 2301: 2299: 2298: 2254: 2252: 2251: 2207: 2205: 2204: 2167: 2160: 2120: 2118: 2117: 2080: 2078: 2077: 2070: 2061: 2056: 2051: 2046: 2009: 2004: 1977: 1972: 1960: 1958: 1957: 1945: 1943: 1942: 1930: 1928: 1927: 1915: 1913: 1912: 1900: 1898: 1897: 1885: 1883: 1882: 1877:North Macedonia 1870: 1868: 1867: 1855: 1853: 1852: 1840: 1838: 1837: 1825: 1823: 1822: 1810: 1808: 1807: 1795: 1793: 1792: 1780: 1778: 1777: 1765: 1763: 1762: 1750: 1748: 1747: 1735: 1733: 1732: 1720: 1718: 1717: 1624: 1554:Kyrgyz Republic 1526: 1525:Other countries 1519: 1500:Slovak Republic 1431:North Macedonia 1372: 1331:and the former 1325: 1319: 1207:North Macedonia 1203: 1109: 1088: 1082: 967:property rights 963: 879: 839: 832: 831: 797:Post-industrial 792:Post-capitalist 752:Hunter-gatherer 737: 729: 728: 643: 635: 634: 613:Nationalization 573:Demutualization 568:Corporatization 553: 545: 544: 535:State ownership 510: 502: 501: 477: 469: 468: 394: 386: 385: 356:Robinson Crusoe 291: 290:By coordination 283: 282: 267:Traditionalist 127:Neomercantilist 87: 79: 60: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6984: 6982: 6974: 6973: 6968: 6963: 6958: 6948: 6947: 6944: 6943: 6931: 6926: 6921: 6916: 6911: 6898:978-0865976658 6897: 6871:Åslund, Anders 6865: 6864:External links 6862: 6859: 6858: 6843: 6828: 6813: 6798: 6783: 6768: 6753: 6738: 6723: 6708: 6693: 6678: 6663: 6648: 6633: 6618: 6603: 6588: 6573: 6558: 6543: 6528: 6513: 6498: 6483: 6468: 6453: 6438: 6423: 6416: 6396: 6379: 6345: 6331: 6312: 6298: 6275: 6266:|journal= 6228: 6206: 6193: 6171: 6158: 6145: 6132: 6109: 6096: 6080: 6058: 6033: 6029:978-0985530587 6008: 5983: 5970: 5949: 5928: 5907: 5886: 5865: 5837:László Csaba, 5830: 5810: 5796:; J L Porket, 5777: 5748: 5728: 5708: 5691: 5671: 5654: 5634: 5614: 5605: 5585: 5569: 5560:|journal= 5523: 5514:|journal= 5465: 5442: 5422:Cato Institute 5397: 5390: 5360: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5351: 5350: 5325: 5315: 5314: 5312: 5309: 5308: 5307: 5305:Real socialism 5302: 5297: 5292: 5287: 5282: 5277: 5272: 5267: 5260: 5257: 5254: 5253: 5250: 5247: 5231: 5230: 5227: 5224: 5208: 5207: 5204: 5201: 5185: 5184: 5181: 5178: 5162: 5161: 5158: 5155: 5139: 5138: 5135: 5132: 5116: 5115: 5112: 5109: 5093: 5092: 5089: 5086: 5070: 5069: 5066: 5063: 5033: 5032: 5029: 5026: 5010: 5009: 5006: 5003: 4987: 4986: 4983: 4980: 4977:Czech Republic 4964: 4963: 4960: 4957: 4941: 4940: 4935: 4930: 4917: 4916: 4913: 4897: 4896: 4893: 4877: 4876: 4873: 4857: 4856: 4853: 4837: 4836: 4833: 4817: 4816: 4813: 4797: 4796: 4793: 4777: 4776: 4773: 4757: 4756: 4753: 4738: 4737: 4734: 4718: 4717: 4714: 4698: 4697: 4694: 4678: 4677: 4674: 4658: 4657: 4654: 4638: 4637: 4634: 4618: 4617: 4614: 4598: 4597: 4594: 4578: 4577: 4574: 4558: 4557: 4554: 4538: 4537: 4534: 4518: 4517: 4514: 4498: 4497: 4494: 4478: 4477: 4474: 4443:Czech Republic 4430: 4429: 4426: 4410: 4409: 4406: 4390: 4389: 4386: 4370: 4369: 4364: 4358: 4357: 4349: 4341: 4323: 4320: 4317: 4316: 4313: 4310: 4307: 4304: 4301: 4298: 4295: 4277: 4276: 4272: 4271: 4268: 4265: 4262: 4259: 4256: 4253: 4250: 4232: 4231: 4228: 4225: 4222: 4219: 4216: 4213: 4210: 4192: 4191: 4188: 4185: 4182: 4179: 4176: 4173: 4170: 4152: 4151: 4148: 4145: 4142: 4139: 4136: 4133: 4130: 4112: 4111: 4108: 4105: 4102: 4099: 4096: 4093: 4090: 4072: 4071: 4067: 4066: 4063: 4060: 4057: 4054: 4051: 4048: 4045: 4027: 4026: 4023: 4020: 4017: 4014: 4011: 4008: 4005: 3987: 3986: 3983: 3980: 3977: 3974: 3971: 3968: 3965: 3947: 3946: 3943: 3940: 3937: 3934: 3931: 3928: 3925: 3921:Czech Republic 3907: 3906: 3903: 3900: 3897: 3894: 3891: 3888: 3885: 3867: 3866: 3862: 3861: 3858: 3846: 3837: 3832: 3827: 3824:Real GDP index 3822: 3819: 3803: 3800: 3797: 3796: 3793: 3777: 3776: 3773: 3757: 3756: 3753: 3737: 3736: 3731: 3715: 3714: 3711: 3695: 3694: 3691: 3675: 3674: 3669: 3653: 3652: 3649: 3633: 3632: 3629: 3613: 3612: 3609: 3593: 3592: 3589: 3573: 3572: 3569: 3551: 3548: 3545: 3544: 3541: 3525: 3524: 3521: 3505: 3504: 3501: 3485: 3484: 3481: 3465: 3464: 3461: 3445: 3444: 3441: 3425: 3424: 3421: 3405: 3404: 3401: 3385: 3384: 3381: 3365: 3364: 3361: 3345: 3344: 3341: 3325: 3324: 3321: 3305: 3304: 3301: 3285: 3284: 3281: 3265: 3264: 3261: 3245: 3244: 3241: 3225: 3224: 3221: 3205: 3204: 3201: 3185: 3184: 3181: 3165: 3164: 3161: 3145: 3144: 3141: 3126: 3125: 3120: 3086: 3085: 3080: 3062: 3061: 3056: 3038: 3037: 3032: 3014: 3013: 3008: 2990: 2989: 2984: 2980:Czech Republic 2966: 2965: 2962: 2922:Czech Republic 2912: 2909: 2906: 2905: 2902: 2899: 2896: 2893: 2890: 2887: 2884: 2881: 2878: 2875: 2859: 2858: 2855: 2852: 2849: 2846: 2843: 2840: 2837: 2834: 2831: 2828: 2812: 2811: 2808: 2805: 2802: 2799: 2796: 2793: 2790: 2787: 2784: 2781: 2765: 2764: 2761: 2758: 2755: 2752: 2749: 2746: 2743: 2740: 2737: 2734: 2718: 2717: 2714: 2711: 2708: 2705: 2702: 2699: 2696: 2693: 2690: 2687: 2671: 2670: 2667: 2664: 2661: 2658: 2655: 2652: 2649: 2646: 2643: 2640: 2624: 2623: 2620: 2617: 2614: 2611: 2608: 2605: 2602: 2599: 2596: 2593: 2577: 2576: 2573: 2570: 2567: 2564: 2561: 2558: 2555: 2552: 2549: 2546: 2530: 2529: 2526: 2523: 2520: 2517: 2514: 2511: 2508: 2505: 2502: 2499: 2483: 2482: 2479: 2476: 2473: 2470: 2467: 2464: 2461: 2458: 2455: 2452: 2436: 2435: 2432: 2429: 2426: 2423: 2420: 2417: 2414: 2411: 2408: 2405: 2389: 2388: 2385: 2382: 2379: 2376: 2373: 2370: 2367: 2364: 2361: 2358: 2342: 2341: 2338: 2335: 2332: 2329: 2326: 2323: 2320: 2317: 2314: 2311: 2308:Czech Republic 2295: 2294: 2291: 2288: 2285: 2282: 2279: 2276: 2273: 2270: 2267: 2264: 2248: 2247: 2244: 2241: 2238: 2235: 2232: 2229: 2226: 2223: 2220: 2217: 2201: 2200: 2197: 2194: 2191: 2188: 2185: 2182: 2179: 2176: 2173: 2170: 2159: 2156: 2153: 2152: 2149: 2146: 2143: 2140: 2137: 2134: 2131: 2113: 2112: 2109: 2106: 2103: 2100: 2097: 2094: 2091: 2073: 2072: 2063: 2058: 2053: 2048: 2045:Real GDP index 2043: 2040: 2037: 2008: 2005: 2003: 2000: 1976: 1973: 1971: 1970: 1955: 1940: 1925: 1910: 1895: 1880: 1865: 1850: 1835: 1820: 1805: 1790: 1775: 1760: 1745: 1730: 1714: 1659:Czech Republic 1655:European Union 1621: 1620: 1614: 1613: 1612: 1611: 1603: 1602: 1596: 1595: 1594: 1593: 1588: 1583: 1578: 1572: 1571: 1566: 1561: 1556: 1551: 1543: 1542: 1536: 1535: 1534:In transition 1521: 1510: 1509: 1508: 1507: 1502: 1497: 1492: 1487: 1482: 1477: 1472: 1467: 1465:Czech Republic 1462: 1457: 1450: 1449: 1448: 1443: 1438: 1433: 1428: 1423: 1418: 1413: 1408: 1403: 1398: 1393: 1385: 1384: 1381: 1380:In transition 1364: 1349:Latin American 1318: 1315: 1314: 1313: 1310: 1307: 1202: 1199: 1108: 1105: 1081: 1078: 1077: 1076: 1073: 1067: 1064: 1061: 1058: 1055: 1052: 1049: 1030: 1029: 1026: 1023: 1020: 1017: 1002: 1001: 995: 986: 980: 977:Liberalization 962: 959: 950:private sector 899:market economy 881: 880: 878: 877: 870: 863: 855: 852: 851: 850: 849: 834: 833: 830: 829: 824: 819: 814: 809: 807:Resource-based 804: 799: 794: 789: 784: 779: 774: 769: 764: 759: 754: 749: 744: 738: 735: 734: 731: 730: 727: 726: 725: 724: 719: 714: 704: 699: 698: 697: 692: 687: 682: 672: 671: 670: 665: 660: 650: 644: 641: 640: 637: 636: 633: 632: 631: 630: 620: 615: 610: 605: 600: 595: 593:Liberalization 590: 585: 580: 575: 570: 565: 560: 554: 551: 550: 547: 546: 543: 542: 537: 532: 527: 517: 511: 509:Property types 508: 507: 504: 503: 500: 499: 494: 489: 484: 478: 475: 474: 471: 470: 467: 466: 465: 464: 458:Latin America 456: 455: 454: 449: 444: 439: 434: 429: 421: 420: 419: 414: 409: 404: 395: 392: 391: 388: 387: 384: 383: 378: 373: 368: 363: 358: 353: 348: 343: 338: 333: 328: 323: 318: 313: 308: 303: 298: 292: 289: 288: 285: 284: 281: 280: 279: 278: 273: 265: 260: 255: 250: 249: 248: 243: 238: 233: 228: 223: 218: 213: 208: 198: 197: 196: 191: 190: 189: 179: 171: 166: 161: 156: 151: 146: 145: 144: 139: 134: 129: 124: 119: 114: 109: 104: 94: 88: 85: 84: 81: 80: 78: 77: 72: 67: 61: 58: 55: 54: 48: 47: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6983: 6972: 6969: 6967: 6964: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6954: 6953: 6951: 6942: 6938: 6935: 6932: 6930: 6927: 6925: 6922: 6920: 6917: 6915: 6912: 6908: 6904: 6900: 6894: 6890: 6886: 6885: 6880: 6876: 6872: 6868: 6867: 6863: 6856: 6854: 6847: 6844: 6841: 6839: 6832: 6829: 6826: 6824: 6817: 6814: 6811: 6809: 6802: 6799: 6796: 6794: 6787: 6784: 6781: 6779: 6772: 6769: 6766: 6764: 6757: 6754: 6751: 6749: 6742: 6739: 6736: 6734: 6727: 6724: 6721: 6719: 6712: 6709: 6706: 6704: 6697: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6682: 6679: 6676: 6675:, pp. 582-585 6674: 6667: 6664: 6661: 6659: 6652: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6637: 6634: 6631: 6629: 6622: 6619: 6616: 6614: 6607: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6592: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6577: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6562: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6547: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6532: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6517: 6514: 6511: 6509: 6502: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6487: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6472: 6469: 6466: 6464: 6457: 6454: 6451: 6449: 6442: 6439: 6436: 6434: 6427: 6424: 6419: 6413: 6409: 6408: 6400: 6397: 6389: 6383: 6380: 6367: 6363: 6359: 6355: 6349: 6346: 6342: 6341: 6335: 6332: 6329: 6325: 6322: 6316: 6313: 6301: 6295: 6288: 6287: 6279: 6276: 6271: 6258: 6239: 6232: 6229: 6216: 6210: 6207: 6203: 6197: 6194: 6190: 6185: 6181: 6175: 6172: 6168: 6162: 6159: 6155: 6149: 6146: 6142: 6136: 6133: 6128: 6124: 6120: 6113: 6110: 6106: 6100: 6097: 6094: 6090: 6087:Tanzi, Vito. 6084: 6081: 6065: 6061: 6059:0-8213-5038-2 6055: 6048: 6047: 6040: 6038: 6034: 6030: 6026: 6022: 6018: 6012: 6009: 6005: 6001: 5998:, Feb. 2010. 5997: 5993: 5987: 5984: 5980: 5974: 5971: 5967: 5963: 5959: 5953: 5950: 5946: 5945:1-898802-17-3 5942: 5938: 5932: 5929: 5925: 5924:92-1-126109-0 5921: 5917: 5911: 5908: 5904: 5900: 5896: 5890: 5887: 5883: 5882:1-898802-17-3 5879: 5875: 5869: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5855: 5851: 5847: 5844: 5840: 5834: 5831: 5828: 5827:0-333-52731-3 5824: 5820: 5814: 5811: 5807: 5806:0-312-12484-8 5803: 5799: 5795: 5794:1-85898-713-X 5791: 5787: 5781: 5778: 5774: 5773:92-1-126109-0 5770: 5766: 5762: 5758: 5752: 5749: 5746: 5745:0-333-52731-3 5742: 5738: 5732: 5729: 5726: 5725:0-333-52731-3 5722: 5718: 5712: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5695: 5692: 5689: 5688:0-333-52731-3 5685: 5681: 5675: 5672: 5668: 5664: 5658: 5655: 5651: 5647: 5643: 5642:Michael Kaser 5638: 5635: 5632: 5631:0-631-17183-5 5628: 5624: 5621:Padma Desai, 5618: 5615: 5609: 5606: 5602: 5598: 5595: 5589: 5586: 5583: 5579: 5573: 5570: 5565: 5552: 5536: 5530: 5528: 5524: 5519: 5506: 5487: 5483: 5476: 5469: 5466: 5462: 5458: 5455: 5452:Falke, Mike. 5449: 5447: 5443: 5427: 5423: 5419: 5415: 5408: 5401: 5398: 5393: 5387: 5383: 5379: 5372: 5365: 5362: 5355: 5347: 5343: 5339: 5335: 5329: 5326: 5320: 5317: 5310: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5295:Privatization 5293: 5291: 5290:Marketization 5288: 5286: 5285:Mixed economy 5283: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5262: 5258: 5251: 5248: 5245: 5233: 5232: 5228: 5225: 5222: 5210: 5209: 5205: 5202: 5199: 5187: 5186: 5182: 5179: 5176: 5164: 5163: 5159: 5156: 5153: 5141: 5140: 5136: 5133: 5130: 5118: 5117: 5113: 5110: 5107: 5095: 5094: 5090: 5087: 5084: 5072: 5071: 5067: 5064: 5061: 5047: 5035: 5034: 5030: 5027: 5024: 5012: 5011: 5007: 5004: 5001: 4989: 4988: 4984: 4981: 4978: 4966: 4965: 4961: 4958: 4955: 4943: 4942: 4936: 4934:(out of 109) 4931: 4928: 4927: 4924: 4923: 4914: 4911: 4899: 4898: 4894: 4891: 4879: 4878: 4874: 4871: 4859: 4858: 4854: 4851: 4839: 4838: 4834: 4831: 4819: 4818: 4814: 4811: 4799: 4798: 4794: 4791: 4779: 4778: 4774: 4771: 4759: 4758: 4754: 4752: 4751: 4745: 4740: 4739: 4735: 4732: 4720: 4719: 4715: 4712: 4700: 4699: 4695: 4692: 4680: 4679: 4675: 4672: 4660: 4659: 4655: 4652: 4640: 4639: 4635: 4632: 4620: 4619: 4615: 4612: 4600: 4599: 4595: 4592: 4580: 4579: 4575: 4572: 4560: 4559: 4555: 4552: 4540: 4539: 4535: 4532: 4520: 4519: 4515: 4512: 4500: 4499: 4495: 4492: 4480: 4479: 4475: 4472: 4458: 4444: 4432: 4431: 4427: 4424: 4412: 4411: 4407: 4404: 4392: 4391: 4387: 4384: 4372: 4371: 4365: 4362: 4361: 4350: 4342: 4334: 4333: 4332: 4328: 4321: 4314: 4311: 4308: 4305: 4302: 4299: 4296: 4294: 4292: 4279: 4278: 4273: 4269: 4266: 4263: 4260: 4257: 4254: 4251: 4249: 4247: 4234: 4233: 4229: 4226: 4223: 4220: 4217: 4214: 4211: 4209: 4207: 4194: 4193: 4189: 4186: 4183: 4180: 4177: 4174: 4171: 4169: 4167: 4154: 4153: 4149: 4146: 4143: 4140: 4137: 4134: 4131: 4129: 4127: 4114: 4113: 4109: 4106: 4103: 4100: 4097: 4094: 4091: 4089: 4087: 4074: 4073: 4068: 4064: 4061: 4058: 4055: 4052: 4049: 4046: 4044: 4042: 4029: 4028: 4024: 4021: 4018: 4015: 4012: 4009: 4006: 4004: 4002: 3989: 3988: 3984: 3981: 3978: 3975: 3972: 3969: 3966: 3964: 3962: 3949: 3948: 3944: 3941: 3938: 3935: 3932: 3929: 3926: 3924: 3922: 3909: 3908: 3904: 3901: 3898: 3895: 3892: 3889: 3886: 3884: 3882: 3869: 3868: 3863: 3859: 3854: 3850: 3849:Freedom House 3847: 3842: 3838: 3833: 3829:External debt 3828: 3823: 3820: 3818: 3815: 3814: 3811: 3809: 3801: 3794: 3791: 3779: 3778: 3774: 3771: 3759: 3758: 3754: 3751: 3739: 3738: 3732: 3729: 3717: 3716: 3712: 3709: 3697: 3696: 3692: 3689: 3677: 3676: 3670: 3667: 3655: 3654: 3650: 3647: 3635: 3634: 3630: 3627: 3615: 3614: 3610: 3607: 3595: 3594: 3590: 3587: 3575: 3574: 3570: 3567: 3566: 3558: 3550:Debt defaults 3549: 3542: 3539: 3527: 3526: 3522: 3519: 3507: 3506: 3502: 3499: 3487: 3486: 3482: 3479: 3467: 3466: 3462: 3459: 3447: 3446: 3442: 3439: 3427: 3426: 3422: 3419: 3407: 3406: 3402: 3399: 3387: 3386: 3382: 3379: 3367: 3366: 3362: 3359: 3347: 3346: 3342: 3339: 3327: 3326: 3322: 3319: 3307: 3306: 3302: 3299: 3287: 3286: 3282: 3279: 3267: 3266: 3262: 3259: 3247: 3246: 3242: 3239: 3227: 3226: 3222: 3219: 3207: 3206: 3202: 3199: 3187: 3186: 3182: 3179: 3167: 3166: 3162: 3159: 3147: 3146: 3142: 3140: 3139: 3133: 3128: 3127: 3124: 3121: 3119: 3117: 3103: 3101: 3088: 3087: 3084: 3081: 3079: 3077: 3064: 3063: 3060: 3057: 3055: 3053: 3040: 3039: 3036: 3033: 3031: 3029: 3016: 3015: 3012: 3009: 3007: 3005: 2992: 2991: 2988: 2985: 2983: 2981: 2968: 2967: 2963: 2960: 2959: 2956: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2910: 2903: 2900: 2897: 2894: 2891: 2888: 2885: 2882: 2879: 2876: 2873: 2861: 2860: 2856: 2853: 2850: 2847: 2844: 2841: 2838: 2835: 2832: 2829: 2826: 2814: 2813: 2809: 2806: 2803: 2800: 2797: 2794: 2791: 2788: 2785: 2782: 2779: 2767: 2766: 2762: 2759: 2756: 2753: 2750: 2747: 2744: 2741: 2738: 2735: 2732: 2720: 2719: 2715: 2712: 2709: 2706: 2703: 2700: 2697: 2694: 2691: 2688: 2685: 2673: 2672: 2668: 2665: 2662: 2659: 2656: 2653: 2650: 2647: 2644: 2641: 2638: 2626: 2625: 2621: 2618: 2615: 2612: 2609: 2606: 2603: 2600: 2597: 2594: 2591: 2579: 2578: 2574: 2571: 2568: 2565: 2562: 2559: 2556: 2553: 2550: 2547: 2544: 2532: 2531: 2527: 2524: 2521: 2518: 2515: 2512: 2509: 2506: 2503: 2500: 2497: 2485: 2484: 2480: 2477: 2474: 2471: 2468: 2465: 2462: 2459: 2456: 2453: 2450: 2438: 2437: 2433: 2430: 2427: 2424: 2421: 2418: 2415: 2412: 2409: 2406: 2403: 2391: 2390: 2386: 2383: 2380: 2377: 2374: 2371: 2368: 2365: 2362: 2359: 2356: 2344: 2343: 2339: 2336: 2333: 2330: 2327: 2324: 2321: 2318: 2315: 2312: 2309: 2297: 2296: 2292: 2289: 2286: 2283: 2280: 2277: 2274: 2271: 2268: 2265: 2262: 2250: 2249: 2245: 2242: 2239: 2236: 2233: 2230: 2227: 2224: 2221: 2218: 2215: 2203: 2202: 2198: 2195: 2192: 2189: 2186: 2183: 2180: 2177: 2174: 2171: 2169: 2164: 2163: 2157: 2150: 2147: 2144: 2141: 2138: 2135: 2132: 2130: 2128: 2115: 2114: 2110: 2107: 2104: 2101: 2098: 2095: 2092: 2090: 2088: 2075: 2074: 2068: 2064: 2059: 2055:External debt 2054: 2049: 2044: 2041: 2038: 2036: 2033: 2032: 2029: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2018:Central Asian 2015: 2006: 2001: 1999: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1988:Gérard Roland 1985: 1981: 1974: 1968: 1956: 1953: 1941: 1938: 1926: 1923: 1911: 1908: 1896: 1893: 1881: 1878: 1866: 1863: 1851: 1848: 1836: 1833: 1821: 1818: 1806: 1803: 1791: 1788: 1776: 1773: 1761: 1758: 1746: 1743: 1731: 1728: 1716: 1715: 1713: 1711: 1707: 1702: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1651: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1619: 1610: 1607: 1606: 1605: 1604: 1598: 1597: 1592: 1589: 1587: 1584: 1582: 1579: 1577: 1574: 1573: 1570: 1567: 1565: 1562: 1560: 1557: 1555: 1552: 1550: 1547: 1546: 1545: 1544: 1538: 1537: 1533: 1532: 1522: 1520: 1517: 1506: 1503: 1501: 1498: 1496: 1493: 1491: 1488: 1486: 1483: 1481: 1478: 1476: 1473: 1471: 1468: 1466: 1463: 1461: 1458: 1456: 1453: 1452: 1451: 1447: 1444: 1442: 1439: 1437: 1434: 1432: 1429: 1427: 1424: 1422: 1419: 1417: 1414: 1412: 1409: 1407: 1404: 1402: 1399: 1397: 1394: 1392: 1389: 1388: 1387: 1386: 1382: 1379: 1378: 1368: 1367: 1363: 1361: 1358:In 2000, the 1356: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1340: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1324: 1316: 1311: 1308: 1304: 1303: 1302: 1300: 1295: 1292: 1287: 1283: 1281: 1275: 1272: 1271:human capital 1266: 1262: 1259: 1254: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1200: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1187: 1182: 1179: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1164: 1160: 1154: 1150: 1148: 1143: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1126: 1124: 1123:shock therapy 1119: 1113: 1106: 1104: 1102: 1098: 1093: 1087: 1079: 1074: 1072: 1068: 1065: 1062: 1059: 1056: 1053: 1050: 1047: 1046: 1045: 1043: 1038: 1036: 1027: 1024: 1021: 1018: 1015: 1014: 1013: 1011: 1007: 1004:According to 999: 996: 993: 992: 991:privatization 987: 984: 981: 978: 975: 974: 973: 970: 968: 960: 958: 954: 951: 947: 942: 940: 936: 933:countries of 932: 928: 925:, the former 924: 920: 916: 912: 908: 904: 900: 896: 892: 888: 876: 871: 869: 864: 862: 857: 856: 854: 853: 848: 843: 838: 837: 836: 835: 828: 825: 823: 820: 818: 815: 813: 810: 808: 805: 803: 802:Post-scarcity 800: 798: 795: 793: 790: 788: 785: 783: 780: 778: 775: 773: 770: 768: 765: 763: 760: 758: 755: 753: 750: 748: 747:Expeditionary 745: 743: 740: 739: 733: 732: 723: 720: 718: 715: 713: 710: 709: 708: 705: 703: 700: 696: 693: 691: 688: 686: 683: 681: 678: 677: 676: 673: 669: 666: 664: 661: 659: 656: 655: 654: 651: 649: 646: 645: 639: 638: 629: 626: 625: 624: 623:Socialization 621: 619: 618:Privatization 616: 614: 611: 609: 608:Mutualization 606: 604: 601: 599: 598:Marketization 596: 594: 591: 589: 586: 584: 583:Expropriation 581: 579: 576: 574: 571: 569: 566: 564: 563:Communization 561: 559: 556: 555: 549: 548: 541: 538: 536: 533: 531: 528: 525: 521: 518: 516: 513: 512: 506: 505: 498: 495: 493: 490: 488: 485: 483: 480: 479: 473: 472: 463: 460: 459: 457: 453: 450: 448: 445: 443: 440: 438: 435: 433: 430: 428: 425: 424: 422: 418: 415: 413: 410: 408: 405: 403: 400: 399: 397: 396: 390: 389: 382: 379: 377: 374: 372: 369: 367: 364: 362: 359: 357: 354: 352: 349: 347: 344: 342: 339: 337: 334: 332: 329: 327: 324: 322: 319: 317: 314: 312: 309: 307: 304: 302: 301:Decentralized 299: 297: 294: 293: 287: 286: 277: 274: 272: 269: 268: 266: 264: 261: 259: 258:Social credit 256: 254: 251: 247: 244: 242: 239: 237: 234: 232: 229: 227: 226:Participatory 224: 222: 219: 217: 214: 212: 209: 207: 204: 203: 202: 199: 195: 192: 188: 185: 184: 183: 180: 178: 175: 174: 172: 170: 167: 165: 162: 160: 157: 155: 152: 150: 147: 143: 140: 138: 137:Social market 135: 133: 132:Protectionist 130: 128: 125: 123: 120: 118: 115: 113: 112:Laissez-faire 110: 108: 105: 103: 100: 99: 98: 95: 93: 90: 89: 83: 82: 76: 73: 71: 68: 66: 63: 62: 57: 56: 53: 49: 45: 41: 40: 37: 33: 19: 6882: 6852: 6846: 6837: 6831: 6822: 6816: 6807: 6801: 6792: 6786: 6777: 6771: 6762: 6761:EBRD, 2004, 6756: 6747: 6746:EBRD, 2004, 6741: 6732: 6726: 6717: 6711: 6702: 6701:EBRD, 2004, 6696: 6687: 6681: 6672: 6666: 6657: 6651: 6642: 6636: 6627: 6621: 6612: 6606: 6597: 6591: 6582: 6576: 6567: 6561: 6552: 6546: 6537: 6531: 6522: 6516: 6507: 6501: 6492: 6486: 6477: 6471: 6462: 6456: 6447: 6441: 6432: 6426: 6406: 6399: 6382: 6370:. Retrieved 6366:the original 6358:www.oecd.org 6357: 6348: 6339: 6334: 6315: 6303:. Retrieved 6285: 6278: 6257:cite journal 6245:. Retrieved 6231: 6219:. Retrieved 6209: 6201: 6196: 6183: 6179: 6174: 6166: 6161: 6153: 6148: 6140: 6135: 6126: 6122: 6112: 6104: 6099: 6083: 6071:. Retrieved 6064:the original 6045: 6011: 5986: 5978: 5973: 5957: 5952: 5936: 5931: 5915: 5910: 5894: 5889: 5873: 5868: 5849: 5842: 5838: 5833: 5818: 5813: 5797: 5785: 5780: 5764: 5756: 5751: 5736: 5731: 5716: 5711: 5703: 5699: 5694: 5679: 5674: 5666: 5663:Introduction 5662: 5661:Alan Smith, 5657: 5649: 5645: 5637: 5622: 5617: 5608: 5588: 5572: 5551:cite journal 5539:. Retrieved 5505:cite journal 5493:. Retrieved 5486:the original 5468: 5433:. Retrieved 5426:the original 5417: 5414:Cato Journal 5413: 5400: 5377: 5364: 5328: 5319: 4939:(out of 87) 4921: 4920: 4895:13.2 (1995) 4875:18.1 (1996) 4855:26.3 (1996) 4835:26.7 (1995) 4815:31.7 (1994) 4795:32.7 (1997) 4775:32.7 (1999) 4755:34.7 (1992) 4748: 4736:35.2 (1999) 4716:38.7 (1995) 4696:39.5 (1993) 4676:40.7 (1999) 4656:41.4 (1999) 4636:42.9 (1995) 4616:46.0 (1998) 4596:47.1 (1994) 4576:47.7 (1995) 4556:49.1 (1998) 4536:49.6 (1994) 4516:62.7 (1995) 4496:63.1 (1997) 4491:Turkmenistan 4476:66.1 (1993) 4428:66.8 (1992) 4408:69.7 (1991) 4388:96.4 (1992) 4326: 4325: 4280: 4235: 4195: 4155: 4115: 4075: 4030: 3990: 3950: 3910: 3870: 3852: 3816: 3805: 3795:1998 - 2000 3775:1992 - 1996 3755:1992 - 2004 3735:1998 - 2000 3713:1992 - 1997 3693:1997 - 2000 3651:1992 - 1996 3631:1990 - 1994 3611:1992 - 1997 3591:1991 - 1995 3378:Turkmenistan 3136: 3122: 3105: 3089: 3082: 3065: 3058: 3041: 3034: 3017: 3010: 2993: 2986: 2969: 2948: 2914: 2168:(1989=100.0) 2165: 2116: 2076: 2039:Reform type 2034: 2010: 1995: 1991: 1979: 1978: 1937:Turkmenistan 1709: 1703: 1652: 1625: 1617: 1564:Turkmenistan 1518: 1513: 1357: 1341: 1333:Soviet Union 1326: 1298: 1296: 1290: 1288: 1284: 1276: 1267: 1263: 1257: 1255: 1235:East Germany 1227:Soviet Union 1204: 1195: 1191: 1183: 1177: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1162: 1155: 1151: 1144: 1127: 1114: 1110: 1089: 1039: 1031: 1003: 997: 988: 982: 976: 971: 964: 955: 943: 931:Eastern bloc 927:Soviet Union 890: 886: 884: 821: 712:Peer-to-peer 707:Self-managed 642:Coordination 578:Deregulation 263:Distributist 117:Mercantilist 36: 6795:, pp. 53-54 6450:, pp. 95-97 6019:Boise, ID: 4915:1.7 (1994) 3839:Cumulative 3836:(% of GDP) 3831:(% of GDP) 3826:(1989=100) 3733:1991 - 1997 2934:Warsaw Pact 2065:Cumulative 2062:(% of GDP) 2057:(% of GDP) 2052:$ 2.15/day 2047:(1989=100) 2014:Warsaw Pact 1528:(IMF, 2000) 939:Third world 817:Traditional 767:Manorialism 762:Information 736:Other types 722:Open access 685:Cybernetics 427:Anglo-Saxon 412:Singaporean 371:Underground 366:Subsistence 271:Corporatist 246:Syndicalist 206:Communalist 92:Associative 86:By ideology 59:Major types 6950:Categories 6305:3 February 6221:3 February 5996:VDM Verlag 5845:, 2011 at 5356:References 5340:) and the 4850:Azerbaijan 4830:Kyrgyzstan 4790:Tajikistan 4571:Kazakhstan 4383:Uzbekistan 3438:Azerbaijan 3418:Tajikistan 3358:Kyrgyzstan 3198:Kazakhstan 3004:Uzbekistan 2938:Yugoslavia 2926:Uzbekistan 2087:Kyrgyzstan 1967:Uzbekistan 1922:Tajikistan 1862:Montenegro 1832:Kyrgyzstan 1817:Kazakhstan 1757:Azerbaijan 1699:World Bank 1628:World Bank 1569:Uzbekistan 1559:Tajikistan 1549:Kazakhstan 1426:Montenegro 1215:Montenegro 822:Transition 782:Plantation 690:Indicative 552:Transition 402:East Asian 173:Religious 149:Democratic 122:Neoliberal 107:Democratic 97:Capitalist 65:Capitalism 6907:237794267 5903:1356-3424 5382:Routledge 5000:Lithuania 4810:Lithuania 4206:Lithuania 3318:Lithuania 2496:Lithuania 2166:Real wage 1675:Lithuania 1485:Lithuania 1306:Georgia); 937:and some 907:privatize 787:Plutonomy 668:Regulated 497:Voluntary 423:European 276:Feudalism 221:Mutualist 211:Communist 201:Socialist 182:Christian 102:Corporate 75:Communism 70:Socialism 6937:Archived 6873:(2008). 6840:, p. 287 6660:, p. 231 6615:, p. 108 6600:, p. 138 6570:, p. 350 6540:, p. 279 6525:, p. 416 6510:, p. 114 6495:, p. 108 6465:, p. 161 6324:Archived 5857:Archived 5597:Archived 5457:Archived 5259:See also 5129:Slovenia 5060:Bulgaria 5023:Slovakia 4937:CIP rank 4929:Country 4671:Bulgaria 4471:Slovenia 4457:Slovakia 4363:Country 4166:Bulgaria 4126:Slovakia 4001:Slovenia 3770:Slovenia 3688:Mongolia 3626:Bulgaria 3568:Country 3158:Bulgaria 3116:Slovakia 3052:Slovenia 2961:Country 2942:war-torn 2825:Slovenia 2778:Slovakia 2261:Bulgaria 1990:'s book 1695:Bulgaria 1687:Slovenia 1683:Slovakia 1644:Mongolia 1630:defined 1609:Botswana 1576:Cambodia 1505:Slovenia 1455:Bulgaria 1131:Treuhand 913:, and a 675:Planning 326:Informal 311:Dirigist 164:Georgist 159:Feminist 44:a series 42:Part of 6881:(ed.). 6855:, p. 76 6825:, p. 11 6810:, p. 13 6780:, p. 41 6735:, p. 29 6720:, p. 34 6690:, p. 12 6630:, p. 90 6585:, p. 74 6555:, p. 41 6480:, p. 96 6247:9 March 6073:9 March 5541:9 March 5244:Croatia 5221:Albania 5198:Romania 5152:Ukraine 5083:Hungary 4954:Estonia 4890:Georgia 4870:Albania 4770:Moldova 4691:Armenia 4651:Romania 4591:Estonia 4551:Ukraine 4531:Croatia 4511:Belarus 4423:Hungary 4275:Russia 4086:Romania 4041:Estonia 3961:Hungary 3843:inflows 3790:Ukraine 3666:Moldova 3646:Croatia 3586:Albania 3518:Georgia 3498:Armenia 3478:Moldova 3458:Ukraine 3258:Croatia 3238:Albania 3218:Estonia 3178:Belarus 3100:Romania 3076:Hungary 2930:Albania 2918:Georgia 2872:Ukraine 2684:Romania 2543:Moldova 2402:Hungary 2355:Estonia 2214:Armenia 2133:gradual 2127:Romania 2093:radical 2069:inflows 1952:Ukraine 1847:Moldova 1802:Georgia 1772:Belarus 1742:Armenia 1727:Albania 1691:Romania 1667:Hungary 1663:Estonia 1591:Vietnam 1495:Romania 1475:Hungary 1470:Estonia 1460:Croatia 1446:Ukraine 1421:Moldova 1411:Georgia 1401:Belarus 1396:Armenia 1391:Albania 1347:, in a 1251:Romania 1247:Vietnam 1231:Croatia 1223:Romania 1219:Albania 1217:), and 1201:Process 1092:Comecon 1080:Context 919:capital 717:Sharing 680:In kind 628:Marxist 520:Commons 487:Private 476:Sectors 447:Rhenish 417:Keralan 407:Chinese 381:Virtual 361:Sharing 351:Planned 341:Natural 306:Digital 194:Islamic 154:Fascist 142:Welfare 6905: 6895: 6645:, p. 3 6435:, p. 8 6414: 6372:26 May 6319:EBRD. 6296: 6200:EBRD, 6178:EBRD, 6165:EBRD, 6152:EBRD, 6139:EBRD, 6103:EBRD, 6056: 6027: 6002: 5977:EBRD, 5964: 5956:EBRD, 5943: 5935:EBRD, 5922: 5901: 5893:EBRD, 5880: 5872:EBRD, 5825: 5804: 5792: 5771: 5743: 5723: 5686: 5629: 5495:5 July 5435:3 July 5388: 5241: 5218: 5195: 5175:Russia 5172: 5149: 5126: 5106:Poland 5103: 5080: 5057: 5046:Latvia 5043: 5020: 4997: 4974: 4951: 4907: 4887: 4867: 4847: 4827: 4807: 4787: 4767: 4728: 4711:Latvia 4708: 4688: 4668: 4648: 4628: 4611:Russia 4608: 4588: 4568: 4548: 4528: 4508: 4488: 4468: 4454: 4440: 4420: 4403:Poland 4400: 4380: 4353: 4345: 4337: 4291:Russia 4288: 4246:Latvia 4243: 4203: 4163: 4123: 4083: 4038: 4010:102.25 3998: 3979:16,459 3958: 3918: 3899:15,066 3881:Poland 3878: 3787: 3767: 3747: 3728:Russia 3725: 3705: 3685: 3663: 3643: 3623: 3603: 3583: 3554:": --> 3535: 3515: 3495: 3475: 3455: 3435: 3415: 3395: 3375: 3355: 3338:Latvia 3335: 3315: 3295: 3278:Russia 3275: 3255: 3235: 3215: 3195: 3175: 3155: 3113: 3097: 3073: 3049: 3028:Poland 3025: 3001: 2977: 2869: 2822: 2775: 2731:Russia 2728: 2681: 2637:Poland 2634: 2587: 2540: 2493: 2449:Latvia 2446: 2399: 2352: 2340:107.1 2305: 2258: 2211: 2151:4,510 2124: 2084: 1964: 1949: 1934: 1919: 1907:Serbia 1904: 1892:Russia 1889: 1874: 1859: 1844: 1829: 1814: 1799: 1784: 1769: 1754: 1739: 1724: 1679:Poland 1671:Latvia 1640:Kosovo 1618: 1600:Africa 1490:Poland 1480:Latvia 1441:Serbia 1436:Russia 1416:Kosovo 1371:Europe 1353:Africa 1337:Europe 1211:Serbia 935:Europe 777:Palace 653:Market 648:Barter 492:Public 452:Soviet 437:Nordic 432:German 398:Asian 331:Market 6877:. 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