47:
162:. Mode S transponders are compatible with transmitting the mode C signal, and have the capability to report in 25-foot increments; they receive information from a GPS receiver and also transmit location and speed. Without the pressure altitude reporting, the air traffic controller has no display of accurate altitude information, and must rely on the altitude reported by the pilot via radio. Similarly, the
238:(VFR), when in uncontrolled airspace, will "squawk VFR" (1200 in the US and Canada, 7000 in Europe). Upon contact with an ATC unit, they will be told to squawk a certain code. When changing frequency, for instance because the VFR flight leaves controlled airspace or changes to another ATC unit, the VFR flight will be told to "squawk VFR" again.
198:
Transponder codes are four-digit numbers transmitted by an aircraft transponder in response to a secondary surveillance radar interrogation signal to assist air traffic controllers with traffic separation. A discrete transponder code (often called a squawk code) is assigned by air traffic controllers
245:
Not all ATC units will use radar to identify aircraft, but they assign squawk codes nevertheless. As an example, London
Information—the flight information service station that covers the lower half of the UK—does not have access to radar images, but does assign squawk code 1177 to all aircraft that
134:
A pilot may be requested to squawk a given code by an air traffic controller, via the radio, using a phrase such as "Cessna 123AB, squawk 0363". The pilot then selects the 0363 code on their transponder and the track on the air traffic controller's radar screen will become correctly associated with
117:
Secondary surveillance radar (SSR) is referred to as "secondary", to distinguish it from the "primary radar" that works by passively reflecting a radio signal off the skin of the aircraft. Primary radar determines range and bearing to a target with reasonably high fidelity, but it cannot determine
174:
All mode A, C, and S transponders include an "IDENT" switch which activates a special thirteenth bit on the mode A reply known as IDENT, short for "identify". When ground-based radar equipment receives the IDENT bit, it results in the aircraft's blip "blossoming" on the radar scope. This is often
226:
Some codes can be selected by the pilot if and when the situation requires or allows it, without permission from air traffic control (ATC). Such codes are referred to as "conspicuity codes" in the UK. Other codes are generally assigned by ATC units. For flights on
118:
target elevation (altitude) reliably except at close range. SSR uses an active transponder (beacon) to transmit a response to an interrogation by a secondary radar. This response most often includes the aircraft's
210:
digits; the dials on a transponder read from zero to seven, inclusive. Four octal digits can represent up to 4096 different codes, which is why such transponders are sometimes described as "4096 code transponders."
241:
In order to avoid confusion over assigned squawk codes, ATC units will typically be allocated blocks of squawk codes, not overlapping with the blocks of nearby ATC units, to assign at their discretion.
250:(FIS) from them. This tells other radar-equipped ATC units that a specific aircraft is listening on the London Information radio frequency, in case they need to contact that aircraft.
70:
and sometimes abbreviated to XPDR, XPNDR, TPDR or TP) is an electronic device that produces a response when it receives a radio-frequency interrogation. Aircraft have
158:
there is often a regulatory requirement that all aircraft be equipped with altitude-reporting mode C or mode S transponders. In the United States, this is known as a
780:
654:
182:
Ident can also be used in case of a reported or suspected radio failure to determine if the failure is only one way and whether the pilot can still transmit
142:
transponders also report pressure altitude. Mode C altitude information conventionally comes from the pilot's altimeter, and is transmitted using a modified
513:
1357:
354:
712:
740:
341:
1397:
1352:
1297:
1162:
79:
1417:
163:
773:
567:
639:
317:
1387:
1003:
985:
50:
Cessna ARC RT-359A transponder (beige box), beneath a VHF radio. In this example, the transponder code selected is 1200 for
103:
The transponder receives interrogation from the
Secondary Surveillance Radar on 1030 MHz and replies on 1090 MHz.
82:
have been developed to use transponder transmissions as a means of detecting aircraft at risk of colliding with each other.
231:(IFR), the squawk code is typically assigned as part of the departure clearance and stays the same throughout the flight.
138:
Because primary radar generally gives bearing and range position information, but lacks altitude information, mode C and
1731:
1670:
1511:
766:
215:
112:
329:
664:
326: — July 3, 1988 (incorrect interpretation of transponder code, a factor in mistaken identity and shooting-down)
1392:
1347:
1038:
247:
1578:
1372:
517:
305:
200:
344: — September 29, 2006 (midair collision; one of the aircraft had its transponder accidentally switched off)
1362:
915:
845:
375:
1407:
175:
used by the controller to locate the aircraft amongst others by requesting the ident function from the pilot,
1690:
1665:
1427:
1332:
1222:
1192:
1167:
1033:
998:
228:
633:
1705:
1506:
1402:
1227:
1187:
1043:
514:"TP 14371 — Transport Canada Aeronautical Information Manual (TC AIM) RAC 1.9 Transponder Operation"
1685:
1603:
1593:
1098:
810:
1650:
1453:
1247:
1058:
1013:
335:
688:"Air Traffic Services Surveillance Systems, Including An Explanation of Primary and Secondary Radar"
1629:
1536:
1252:
960:
789:
323:
235:
85:
51:
166:(TCAS) installed on some aircraft needs the altitude information supplied by transponder signals.
46:
1741:
1337:
1317:
1312:
1286:
1197:
1138:
910:
320: — August 31, 1986 (one of the aircraft equipped with a Mode A, but not Mode C, transponder)
275:
607:
332: — July 30, 1998 (mid-air collision; one of the aircraft had its transponder switched off)
1736:
1645:
1382:
1327:
1307:
1237:
1232:
1217:
905:
563:
119:
1700:
1583:
1257:
1152:
875:
850:
793:
1710:
1680:
1675:
1526:
1447:
1412:
1377:
1172:
820:
92:, "Squawk 7421". Squawk thus can be said to mean "select transponder code" or "squawking
338: — September 11, 2001 (suspected hijack involving the transponder code, false alarm)
154:(which does not directly display altitude) is connected to the transponder. Around busy
1695:
1555:
1272:
830:
825:
1725:
1624:
1563:
1367:
1302:
940:
920:
835:
88:
units use the term "squawk" when they are assigning an aircraft a transponder code,
1660:
1588:
1551:
1531:
1521:
1496:
1461:
1242:
1212:
1182:
1148:
1128:
1118:
1113:
1083:
1018:
885:
855:
815:
147:
758:
1608:
1491:
1207:
1063:
687:
584:
562:(27th Revised ed.). Ottawa Ontario: Aviation Publishers. pp. 238–239.
214:
The use of the word "squawk" comes from the system's origin in the World War II
159:
71:
38:
17:
1598:
1486:
1481:
1437:
1432:
1267:
1202:
1177:
1133:
1108:
1093:
1028:
890:
880:
424:
150:. Where the pilot's altimeter does not contain a suitable altitude encoder, a
30:"Squawk code" redirects here. For the similarly named compression scheme, see
446:
402:
1655:
1573:
1501:
1476:
1466:
1322:
1103:
1088:
1068:
1023:
1008:
965:
950:
945:
935:
870:
840:
659:
143:
468:
54:
flight (in North
American airspace). The green IDENT button is marked "ID".
1568:
1541:
1516:
1282:
1262:
1123:
1053:
970:
895:
865:
801:
155:
1342:
993:
975:
900:
1078:
1048:
955:
930:
860:
139:
31:
379:
1471:
1073:
925:
287:
207:
123:
75:
45:
762:
203:(FIR). This allows easy identification of aircraft on radar.
690:. The Airways Museum & Civil Aviation Historical Society
587:. The Airways Museum & Civil Aviation Historical Society
308:
for list of country-specific and historic allocations.
74:
to assist in identifying them on air traffic control
1638:
1617:
1550:
1446:
1281:
1147:
984:
800:
741:"JO 7110.66D, National Beacon Code Allocation Plan"
258:The following codes are applicable worldwide.
774:
218:(IFF) system, which was code-named "Parrot".
190:, "Cessna 123AB, if you read, squawk ident".
8:
734:
732:
730:
96:" to mean "I have selected transponder code
707:
705:
585:"Air Traffic Services Surveillance Systems"
781:
767:
759:
635:Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge
260:
553:
551:
549:
547:
545:
543:
541:
539:
537:
535:
179:, "Cessna 123AB, squawk 0363 and ident".
37:For uses non related to aeronautics, see
507:
505:
355:Aviation transponder interrogation modes
503:
501:
499:
497:
495:
493:
491:
489:
487:
485:
366:
713:"ENR 1.6.2 — SSR Operating Procedures"
199:to identify an aircraft uniquely in a
222:Codes assigned by air traffic control
7:
655:"Ask the Captain: Strangle my WHAT?"
632:"Chapter 14: Airport Operations".
342:Gol Transportes Aéreos Flight 1907
164:traffic collision avoidance system
25:
743:. Federal Aviation Administration
739:Federal Aviation Administration.
653:Getline, Meryl (April 17, 2006).
606:Rogers, Tom (September 6, 1998).
512:Transport Canada (May 20, 2010).
640:Federal Aviation Administration
318:1986 Cerritos mid-air collision
1691:In-flight entertainment system
1388:Horizontal situation indicator
376:"The Truth About Transponders"
1:
312:Transponder-related incidents
1671:Environmental control system
642:. July 17, 2023. p. 25.
216:identification friend or foe
113:Secondary surveillance radar
107:Secondary surveillance radar
638:(FAA-H-8083-25C ed.).
330:Proteus Airlines Flight 706
80:Collision avoidance systems
1758:
1348:Course deviation indicator
1039:Electro-hydraulic actuator
248:flight information service
110:
36:
29:
27:Airborne radio transponder
1579:Conventional landing gear
306:List of transponder codes
201:flight information region
1363:Flight management system
374:Mangine, Robert (2007).
1666:Emergency oxygen system
1428:Turn and slip indicator
1223:Leading-edge droop flap
1193:Drag-reducing aerospike
1168:Adaptive compliant wing
1163:Active Aeroelastic Wing
558:Peppler, I. L. (1996).
229:instrument flight rules
206:Codes are made of four
186:receive, but not both,
1706:Passenger service unit
1507:Self-sealing fuel tank
1403:Multi-function display
55:
1686:Ice protection system
1604:Tricycle landing gear
1594:Landing gear extender
811:Aft pressure bulkhead
467:Farlex, Inc. (2008).
445:Farlex, Inc. (2008).
423:Farlex, Inc. (2008).
401:Farlex, Inc. (2008).
49:
1651:Auxiliary power unit
1059:Flight control modes
608:"Transponder Basics"
336:Korean Air Flight 85
1732:Air traffic control
1630:Escape crew capsule
1537:War emergency power
1408:Pitot–static system
1253:Variable-sweep wing
961:Vertical stabilizer
667:on January 23, 2009
324:Iran Air Flight 655
288:lost communications
236:visual flight rules
86:Air traffic control
1338:Attitude indicator
1318:Airspeed indicator
1313:Aircraft periscope
560:From The Ground Up
382:on August 16, 2011
276:Aircraft hijacking
56:
1719:
1718:
1646:Aircraft lavatory
1383:Heading indicator
1328:Annunciator panel
1308:Air data computer
1218:Leading-edge cuff
302:
301:
298:Emergency (ICAO)
194:Transponder codes
120:pressure altitude
16:(Redirected from
1749:
1701:Navigation light
1681:Hydraulic system
1656:Bleed air system
1584:Drogue parachute
1258:Vortex generator
876:Interplane strut
783:
776:
769:
760:
753:
752:
750:
748:
736:
725:
724:
722:
720:
709:
700:
699:
697:
695:
683:
677:
676:
674:
672:
663:. Archived from
650:
644:
643:
629:
623:
622:
620:
618:
603:
597:
596:
594:
592:
580:
574:
573:
555:
530:
529:
527:
525:
516:. Archived from
509:
480:
479:
477:
475:
464:
458:
457:
455:
453:
442:
436:
435:
433:
431:
420:
414:
413:
411:
409:
398:
392:
391:
389:
387:
378:. Archived from
371:
261:
135:their identity.
21:
18:Transponder code
1757:
1756:
1752:
1751:
1750:
1748:
1747:
1746:
1722:
1721:
1720:
1715:
1711:Ram air turbine
1676:Flight recorder
1634:
1613:
1546:
1527:Thrust reversal
1451:
1442:
1413:Radar altimeter
1378:Head-up display
1288:
1277:
1173:Anti-shock body
1155:
1143:
1004:Artificial feel
986:Flight controls
980:
846:Fabric covering
796:
792:components and
787:
757:
756:
746:
744:
738:
737:
728:
718:
716:
715:. July 29, 2021
711:
710:
703:
693:
691:
685:
684:
680:
670:
668:
652:
651:
647:
631:
630:
626:
616:
614:
605:
604:
600:
590:
588:
582:
581:
577:
570:
557:
556:
533:
523:
521:
520:on July 9, 2010
511:
510:
483:
473:
471:
466:
465:
461:
451:
449:
444:
443:
439:
429:
427:
422:
421:
417:
407:
405:
400:
399:
395:
385:
383:
373:
372:
368:
363:
351:
314:
286:Radio failure (
256:
254:Emergency codes
224:
196:
172:
132:
115:
109:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1755:
1753:
1745:
1744:
1739:
1734:
1724:
1723:
1717:
1716:
1714:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1698:
1696:Landing lights
1693:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1642:
1640:
1636:
1635:
1633:
1632:
1627:
1621:
1619:
1618:Escape systems
1615:
1614:
1612:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1560:
1558:
1556:arresting gear
1548:
1547:
1545:
1544:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1512:Splitter plate
1509:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1469:
1464:
1458:
1456:
1444:
1443:
1441:
1440:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1370:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1330:
1325:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1294:
1292:
1279:
1278:
1276:
1275:
1270:
1265:
1260:
1255:
1250:
1245:
1240:
1235:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1210:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1190:
1185:
1180:
1175:
1170:
1165:
1159:
1157:
1145:
1144:
1142:
1141:
1136:
1131:
1126:
1121:
1116:
1111:
1106:
1101:
1096:
1091:
1086:
1081:
1076:
1071:
1066:
1061:
1056:
1051:
1046:
1041:
1036:
1031:
1026:
1021:
1016:
1011:
1006:
1001:
996:
990:
988:
982:
981:
979:
978:
973:
968:
963:
958:
953:
948:
943:
938:
933:
928:
923:
918:
913:
908:
903:
898:
893:
888:
883:
878:
873:
868:
863:
858:
853:
848:
843:
838:
833:
831:Cruciform tail
828:
826:Crack arrestor
823:
818:
813:
807:
805:
798:
797:
788:
786:
785:
778:
771:
763:
755:
754:
726:
701:
678:
645:
624:
598:
575:
568:
531:
481:
459:
437:
415:
393:
365:
364:
362:
359:
358:
357:
350:
347:
346:
345:
339:
333:
327:
321:
313:
310:
300:
299:
296:
292:
291:
284:
280:
279:
273:
269:
268:
265:
255:
252:
223:
220:
195:
192:
171:
168:
131:
128:
122:and a 4-digit
111:Main article:
108:
105:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1754:
1743:
1740:
1738:
1735:
1733:
1730:
1729:
1727:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1697:
1694:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1667:
1664:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1643:
1641:
1639:Other systems
1637:
1631:
1628:
1626:
1625:Ejection seat
1623:
1622:
1620:
1616:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1580:
1577:
1575:
1572:
1570:
1569:Arrestor hook
1567:
1565:
1564:Aircraft tire
1562:
1561:
1559:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1535:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1459:
1457:
1455:
1449:
1445:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1374:
1371:
1369:
1368:Glass cockpit
1366:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1344:
1341:
1339:
1336:
1334:
1331:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1304:
1303:Air data boom
1301:
1299:
1296:
1295:
1293:
1290:
1284:
1280:
1274:
1271:
1269:
1266:
1264:
1261:
1259:
1256:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1241:
1239:
1236:
1234:
1231:
1229:
1226:
1224:
1221:
1219:
1216:
1214:
1211:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1160:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1140:
1137:
1135:
1132:
1130:
1127:
1125:
1122:
1120:
1117:
1115:
1112:
1110:
1107:
1105:
1102:
1100:
1097:
1095:
1092:
1090:
1087:
1085:
1084:Rudder pedals
1082:
1080:
1077:
1075:
1072:
1070:
1067:
1065:
1062:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1052:
1050:
1047:
1045:
1042:
1040:
1037:
1035:
1032:
1030:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1005:
1002:
1000:
997:
995:
992:
991:
989:
987:
983:
977:
974:
972:
969:
967:
964:
962:
959:
957:
954:
952:
949:
947:
944:
942:
941:Trailing edge
939:
937:
934:
932:
929:
927:
924:
922:
921:Stressed skin
919:
917:
914:
912:
909:
907:
904:
902:
899:
897:
894:
892:
889:
887:
884:
882:
879:
877:
874:
872:
869:
867:
864:
862:
859:
857:
854:
852:
849:
847:
844:
842:
839:
837:
834:
832:
829:
827:
824:
822:
819:
817:
814:
812:
809:
808:
806:
803:
799:
795:
791:
784:
779:
777:
772:
770:
765:
764:
761:
747:September 23,
742:
735:
733:
731:
727:
719:September 11,
714:
708:
706:
702:
689:
686:Vabre, Phil.
682:
679:
666:
662:
661:
656:
649:
646:
641:
637:
636:
628:
625:
613:
609:
602:
599:
586:
583:Vabre, Phil.
579:
576:
571:
569:0-9690054-9-0
565:
561:
554:
552:
550:
548:
546:
544:
542:
540:
538:
536:
532:
519:
515:
508:
506:
504:
502:
500:
498:
496:
494:
492:
490:
488:
486:
482:
470:
463:
460:
448:
441:
438:
426:
419:
416:
404:
397:
394:
381:
377:
370:
367:
360:
356:
353:
352:
348:
343:
340:
337:
334:
331:
328:
325:
322:
319:
316:
315:
311:
309:
307:
297:
294:
293:
289:
285:
282:
281:
277:
274:
271:
270:
266:
263:
262:
259:
253:
251:
249:
243:
239:
237:
232:
230:
221:
219:
217:
212:
209:
204:
202:
193:
191:
189:
185:
180:
178:
169:
167:
165:
161:
157:
153:
152:blind encoder
149:
145:
141:
136:
129:
127:
125:
121:
114:
106:
104:
101:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
53:
48:
44:
40:
33:
19:
1661:Deicing boot
1589:Landing gear
1532:Townend ring
1522:Thrust lever
1497:NACA cowling
1462:Autothrottle
1454:fuel systems
1452:devices and
1422:
1243:Stall strips
1213:Krueger flap
1183:Channel wing
1129:Wing warping
1119:Stick shaker
1114:Stick pusher
1034:Dual control
1019:Centre stick
886:Leading edge
856:Flying wires
816:Cabane strut
745:. Retrieved
717:. Retrieved
692:. Retrieved
681:
669:. Retrieved
665:the original
658:
648:
634:
627:
615:. Retrieved
611:
601:
589:. Retrieved
578:
559:
522:. Retrieved
518:the original
474:December 24,
472:. Retrieved
462:
452:December 24,
450:. Retrieved
440:
430:December 24,
428:. Retrieved
418:
408:December 24,
406:. Retrieved
396:
384:. Retrieved
380:the original
369:
303:
257:
244:
240:
233:
225:
213:
205:
197:
187:
183:
181:
176:
173:
151:
148:Gillham code
137:
133:
126:identifier.
116:
102:
97:
93:
89:
84:
72:transponders
67:
63:
59:
57:
43:
1609:Tundra tire
1492:Intake ramp
1423:Transponder
1208:Gurney flap
1149:Aerodynamic
1064:Fly-by-wire
946:Triple tail
234:Flights on
160:Mode C veil
146:, called a
62:(short for
60:transponder
39:Transponder
1726:Categories
1599:Oleo strut
1487:Inlet cone
1482:Gascolator
1448:Propulsion
1438:Yaw string
1433:Variometer
1289:instrument
1268:Wing fence
1203:Gouge flap
1178:Blown flap
1134:Yaw damper
1109:Stabilator
1094:Side-stick
1029:Dive brake
916:Stabilizer
891:Lift strut
881:Jury strut
524:August 21,
361:References
246:receive a
66:mitter-res
1742:Encodings
1574:Autobrake
1502:NACA duct
1477:Fuel tank
1467:Drop tank
1450:controls,
1333:Astrodome
1323:Altimeter
1188:Dog-tooth
1153:high-lift
1104:Spoileron
1089:Servo tab
1069:Gust lock
1024:Deceleron
1009:Autopilot
966:Wing root
951:Twin tail
936:Tailplane
871:Hardpoint
841:Empennage
804:structure
694:March 13,
671:March 13,
660:USA Today
617:March 18,
591:April 15,
290:) (ICAO)
144:Gray code
130:Operation
1737:Avionics
1542:Wet wing
1517:Throttle
1263:Vortilon
1124:Trim tab
1054:Flaperon
1044:Elevator
999:Airbrake
971:Wing tip
896:Longeron
866:Fuselage
802:Airframe
790:Aircraft
386:March 5,
349:See also
156:airspace
1552:Landing
1343:Compass
1291:systems
1283:Avionic
1273:Winglet
1156:devices
1099:Spoiler
994:Aileron
976:Wingbox
901:Nacelle
851:Fairing
794:systems
425:"XPNDR"
278:(ICAO)
1287:flight
1248:Strake
1079:Rudder
1049:Elevon
1014:Canard
956:V-tail
931:T-tail
861:Former
821:Canopy
566:
447:"TPDR"
403:"XPDR"
140:mode S
68:ponder
32:SQUOZE
1472:FADEC
1358:EICAS
1233:Slats
1074:HOTAS
926:Strut
612:AVweb
208:octal
170:IDENT
124:octal
76:radar
64:trans
1554:and
1418:TCAS
1398:ISIS
1353:EFIS
1298:ACAS
1285:and
1238:Slot
1198:Flap
1151:and
1139:Yoke
911:Spar
836:Dope
749:2023
721:2021
696:2008
673:2008
619:2014
593:2010
564:ISBN
526:2010
476:2008
469:"TP"
454:2008
432:2008
410:2008
388:2019
304:See
295:7700
283:7600
272:7500
267:Use
264:Code
188:e.g.
177:e.g.
98:xxxx
94:xxxx
90:e.g.
1393:INS
1373:GPS
1228:LEX
906:Rib
100:".
52:VFR
1728::
729:^
704:^
657:.
610:.
534:^
484:^
184:or
78:.
58:A
782:e
775:t
768:v
751:.
723:.
698:.
675:.
621:.
595:.
572:.
528:.
478:.
456:.
434:.
412:.
390:.
41:.
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
