Nuclear fuel cycle - Knowledge (XXG)

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actinides are also increasing. These actinides have to be consequently disposed in a safe, ecological and economical way. The promising strategy that consists of utilising plutonium and minor actinides using a once-through fuel approach within existing commercial nuclear power reactors e.g. US, European, Russian or Japanese Light Water Reactors (LWR), Canadian Pressured Heavy Water Reactors, or in future transmutation units, has been emphasised since the beginning of the initiative. The approach, which makes use of inert matrix fuel is now studied by several groups in the world. This option has the advantage of reducing the plutonium amounts and potentially minor actinide contents prior to geological disposal. The second option is based on using a uranium-free fuel leachable for reprocessing and by following a multi-recycling strategy. In both cases, the advanced fuel material produces energy while consuming plutonium or the minor actinides. This material must, however, be robust. The selected material must be the result of a careful system study including inert matrix – burnable absorbent – fissile material as minimum components and with the addition of stabiliser. This yields a single-phase solid solution or more simply if this option is not selected a composite inert matrix–fissile component. In screening studies pre-selected elements were identified as suitable. In the 90s an IMF once through strategy was adopted considering the following properties:

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optimisation can be reached by reducing the moderation and the fission product concentration in the liquid fuel/coolant. These effects can be achieved by using a maximum amount of actinides and a minimum amount of alkaline/earth alkaline elements yielding a harder neutron spectrum. Under these optimal conditions the consumption of natural uranium would be 7 tons per year and per gigawatt (GW) of produced electricity. The coupling of uranium extraction from the sea and its optimal utilisation in a molten salt fast reactor should allow nuclear energy to gain the label renewable. In addition, the amount of seawater used by a nuclear power plant to cool the last coolant fluid and the turbine would be ~2.1 giga tons per year for a fast molten salt reactor, corresponding to 7 tons of natural uranium extractable per year. This practice justifies the label renewable.

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Extraction of uranium from a diluted fluid ore such as seawater has been studied in various countries worldwide. This extraction should be carried out parsimoniously, as suggested by Degueldre (2017). An extraction rate of kilotons of U per year over centuries would not modify significantly the equilibrium concentration of uranium in the oceans (3.3 ppb). This equilibrium results from the input of 10 kilotons of U per year by river waters and its scavenging on the sea floor from the 1.37 exatons of water in the oceans. For a renewable uranium extraction, the use of a specific biomass material is suggested to adsorb uranium and subsequently other transition metals. The uranium loading on the biomass would be around 100 mg per kg. After contact time, the loaded material would be dried and burned (CO

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water or crushed into dust without water. Once the Materials have been physically treated, they then begin the process of being chemically treated by being doused in acids. Acids used include hydrochloric and nitrous acids but the most common acids are sulfuric acids. Alternatively if the material that the ore is made of is particularly resistant to acids then an alkali is used instead. After being treated chemically the uranium particles are dissolved into the solution used to treat them. This solution is then filtered until what solids remain are separated from the liquids that contain the uranium. The undesirable solids are disposed of as

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destroy the long-lived actinides safely. In contrast, the power output of a sub-critical reactor is limited by the intensity of the driving particle accelerator, and thus it need not contain any uranium or plutonium at all. In such a system, it may be preferable to have an inert matrix that does not produce additional long-lived isotopes. Having a low fraction of delayed neutrons is not only not a problem in a subcritical reactor, it may even be slightly advantageous as criticality can be brought closer to unity, while still staying subcritical.

251:. When 3% enriched LEU fuel is used, the spent fuel typically consists of roughly 1% U-235, 95% U-238, 1% plutonium and 3% fission products. Spent fuel and other high-level radioactive waste is extremely hazardous, although nuclear reactors produce orders of magnitude smaller volumes of waste compared to other power plants because of the high energy density of nuclear fuel. Safe management of these byproducts of nuclear power, including their storage and disposal, is a difficult problem for any country using nuclear power. 97: 1269:, a spike in coolant activity due to a sudden shutdown/loss of pressure (core remains covered with water), a cladding failure resulting in the release of the activity in the fuel/cladding gap (this could be due to the fuel being uncovered by the loss of water for 15–30 minutes where the cladding reached a temperature of 650–1250 °C) or a melting of the core (the fuel will have to be uncovered for at least 30 minutes, and the cladding would reach a temperature in excess of 1650 °C). 442:. In the first of these a solvent is mixed into the solution. The dissolved uranium binds to the solvent and floats to the top while the other dissolved materials remain in the mixture. During ion exchange a different material is mixed into the solution and the uranium binds to it. Once filtered the material is panned out and washed off. The solution will repeat this process of filtration to pull as much usable uranium out as possible. The filtered uranium is then dried out into U 789:

within the reactor core. Furthermore, for efficiency reasons, it is not a good policy to put the new assemblies exactly at the location of the removed ones. Even bundles of the same age will have different burn-up levels due to their previous positions in the core. Thus the available bundles must be arranged in such a way that the yield is maximized, while safety limitations and operational constraints are satisfied. Consequently, reactor operators are faced with the so-called

320: 1059: 380:" isotope. The nucleus of a U-238 atom on the other hand, rather than undergoing fission when struck by a free neutron, will nearly always absorb the neutron and yield an atom of the isotope U-239. This isotope then undergoes natural radioactive decay to yield Pu-239, which, like U-235, is a fissile isotope. The atoms of U-238 are said to be fertile, because, through neutron irradiation in the core, some eventually yield atoms of fissile Pu-239. 1228:) of the caesium. The physical or nuclear half-life of Cs is about 30 years. This is a constant which can not be changed but the biological half-life is not a constant. It will change according to the nature and habits of the organism for which it is expressed. Caesium in humans normally has a biological half-life of between one and four months. An added advantage of the Prussian blue is that the caesium which is stripped from the animal in the 1375:) or potentially in a common facility away from reactor sites. If on-site pool storage capacity is exceeded, it may be desirable to store the now cooled aged fuel in modular dry storage facilities known as Independent Spent Fuel Storage Installations (ISFSI) at the reactor site or at a facility away from the site. The spent fuel rods are usually stored in water or boric acid, which provides both cooling (the spent fuel continues to generate 281: 263: 3738:"The isotopic analyses disclosed a species of mass 248 in constant abundance in three samples analysed over a period of about 10 months. This was ascribed to an isomer of Bk with a half-life greater than 9 . No growth of Cf was detected, and a lower limit for the β half-life can be set at about 10 . No alpha activity attributable to the new isomer has been detected; the alpha half-life is probably greater than 300 ." 2237:. After the emplacement and the retrievability period, drillholes would be backfilled and sealed. A series of tests of the technology were carried out in November 2018 and then again publicly in January 2019 by a U.S. based private company. The test demonstrated the emplacement of a test-canister in a horizontal drillhole and retrieval of the same canister. There was no actual high-level waste used in this test. 563: 854:. In used fuel the solid state structure of most of the solid remains the same as that of pure cubic uranium dioxide. SIMFUEL is the name given to the simulated spent fuel which is made by mixing finely ground metal oxides, grinding as a slurry, spray drying it before heating in hydrogen/argon to 1700 °C. In SIMFUEL, 4.1% of the volume of the solid was in the form of metal 4369: 2455:

concentration to make a new combined metal oxide fuel with 1% Reactor Grade plutonium and a U-235 concentration of 4%. These fuel rods are suitable for use in standard PWR reactors as the Plutonium content is no higher than that which exists at the end of cycle in the spent nuclear fuel. As of February 2020 Russia was deploying this fuel in some of their fleet of

2356: 916: 1426:, which is why the fuel had to be removed. These fissile and fertile materials can be chemically separated and recovered from the spent fuel. The recovered uranium and plutonium can, if economic and institutional conditions permit, be recycled for use as nuclear fuel. This is currently not done for civilian spent nuclear fuel in the 1100:, hence it remains in the upper layers of soil where it can be accessed by plants with shallow roots (such as grass). Hence grass and mushrooms can carry a considerable amount of Cs which can be transferred to humans through the food chain. But Cs is not able to migrate quickly through most soils and thus is unlikely to contaminate 2340: 2497:) changes in favour of fission as the neutron energy increases. Thus with a sufficiently high neutron energy, it should be possible to destroy even curium without the generation of the transcurium metals. This could be very desirable as it would make it significantly easier to reprocess and handle the actinide fuel. 501:), the input stock for most commercial uranium enrichment facilities. A solid at room temperature, uranium hexafluoride becomes gaseous at 57 °C (134 °F). At this stage of the cycle, the uranium hexafluoride conversion product still has the natural isotopic mix (99.28% of U-238 plus 0.71% of U-235). 2707:

To fulfill the conditions required for a nuclear renewable energy concept, one has to explore a combination of processes going from the front end of the nuclear fuel cycle to the fuel production and the energy conversion using specific fluid fuels and reactors, as reported by Degueldre et al. (2019).

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assume that under normal operation the coolant of a water-cooled reactor will contain some radioactivity but during a reactor accident the coolant radioactivity level may rise. The IAEA states that under a series of different conditions different amounts of the core inventory can be released from the

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The nuclear chemistry associated with the nuclear fuel cycle can be divided into two main areas; one area is concerned with operation under the intended conditions while the other area is concerned with maloperation conditions where some alteration from the normal operating conditions has occurred or

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There are two ways to convert uranium oxide into its usable forms uranium dioxide and uranium hexafluoride; the wet option and the dry option. In the wet option the yellowcake is dissolved in nitric acid then extracted using tributyl phosphate. The resulting mixture is then dried and washed resulting

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The lifecycle of fuel in the present US system. If put in one place the total inventory of spent nuclear fuel generated by the commercial fleet of power stations in the United States, would stand 7.6 metres (25 ft) tall and be 91 metres (300 ft) on a side, approximately the footprint of one

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and plutonium and depleted uranium which behaves similarly, although not identically, to the enriched uranium feed for which most nuclear reactors were designed. MOX fuel is an alternative to low-enriched uranium (LEU) fuel used in the light water reactors which predominate nuclear power generation.

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to reduce potential radiation exposures. In the case of some materials, such as fresh uranium fuel assemblies, the radiation levels are negligible and no shielding is required. Other materials, such as spent fuel and high-level waste, are highly radioactive and require special handling. To limit the

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neutral) with heat conversion into electricity. The uranium ‘burning’ in a molten salt fast reactor helps to optimize the energy conversion by burning all actinide isotopes with an excellent yield for producing a maximum amount of thermal energy from fission and converting it into electricity. This

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and are thus important to keep a critical reactor stable; this limits the amount of minor actinides that can be destroyed in a critical reactor. As a consequence, it is important that the chosen matrix allows the reactor to keep the ratio of fissile to non-fissile nuclei high, as this enables it to

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that diffuse out of the lattice of the fuel into voids such as the narrow gap between the fuel and the cladding. After diffusing into these voids, it decays to caesium isotopes. Because of the thermal gradient which exists in the fuel during use, the volatile fission products tend to be driven from

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process that consumes the fuels, the old fuel rods must be replaced periodically with fresh ones (this is called a (replacement) cycle). During a given replacement cycle only some of the assemblies (typically one-third) are replaced since fuel depletion occurs at different rates at different places

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is an integral part of the nuclear fuel cycle. There are nuclear power reactors in operation in several countries but uranium mining is viable in only a few areas. Also, in the course of over forty years of operation by the nuclear industry, a number of specialized facilities have been developed in

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produced from natural uranium sources must be enriched to a higher concentration of the fissionable isotope before being used as nuclear fuel in such reactors. The level of enrichment for a particular nuclear fuel order is specified by the customer according to the application they will use it for:

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begins when uranium is mined, enriched and manufactured to nuclear fuel (1) which is delivered to a nuclear power plant. After usage in the power plant the spent fuel is delivered to a reprocessing plant (if fuel is recycled) (2) or to a final repository (if no recycling is done) (3) for geological

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When Uranium is mined out of the ground it does not contain enough pure uranium per pound to be used. The process of milling is how the cycle extracts the usable uranium from the rest of the materials, also known as tailings. To begin the milling process the ore is either ground into fine dust with

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If the actinides are incorporated into a uranium-metal or uranium-oxide matrix, then the neutron capture of U is likely to generate new plutonium-239. An advantage of mixing the actinides with uranium and plutonium is that the large fission cross sections of U and Pu for the less energetic delayed

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The raison d’être of the Initiative for Inert Matrix Fuel (IMF) is to contribute to Research and Development studies on inert matrix fuels that could be used to utilise, reduce and dispose both weapon- and light water reactor-grade plutonium excesses. In addition to plutonium, the amounts of minor

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in which the spent nuclear fuel is put through a process like Pyroprocessing that separates the reactor Grade Plutonium and remaining Uranium from the fission products and fuel cladding. This mixed metal is then combined with a small quantity of medium enriched Uranium with approximately 17% U-235

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The releases of radioactivity from normal operations are the small planned releases from uranium ore processing, enrichment, power reactors, reprocessing plants and waste stores. These can be in different chemical/physical form from releases which could occur under accident conditions. In addition

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While transport casks vary in design, material, size, and purpose, they are typically long tubes made of stainless steel or concrete with the ends sealed shut to prevent leaks. Frequently the casks' shell will have at least one layer of radiation-resistant material, such as lead. The inside of the

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not being optimized for long continuous operation at least the first generation of accelerator-driven sub-critical reactor is unlikely to be able to maintain a constant operation period for equally long times as a critical reactor, and each time the accelerator stops then the fuel will cool down.

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In dairy farming, one of the best countermeasures against Cs is to mix up the soil by deeply ploughing the soil. This has the effect of putting the Cs out of reach of the shallow roots of the grass, hence the level of radioactivity in the grass will be lowered. Also after a nuclear war or serious

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It is also possible to create a matrix made from a mix of the above-mentioned materials. This is most commonly done in fast reactors where one may wish to keep the breeding ratio of new fuel high enough to keep powering the reactor, but still low enough that the generated actinides can be safely

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as a function of distance from the centre of a 20 mm diameter pellet with a rim temperature of 200 °C. The uranium dioxide (because of its poor thermal conductivity) will overheat at the centre of the pellet, while the other more thermally conductive forms of uranium remain below their

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is at least 4-5 times more abundant in nature than all of uranium isotopes combined; thorium is fairly evenly spread around Earth with a lot of countries having huge supplies of it; preparation of thorium fuel does not require difficult and expensive enrichment processes; the thorium fuel cycle

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reactor which began operation in 1962. The cost of recovering U-233 from the spent fuel was deemed uneconomical, since less than 1% of the thorium was converted to U-233. The plant's owner switched to uranium fuel, which was used until the reactor was permanently shut down in 1974.

2888: 970:), the effect of adding an alpha emitter (Pu) to uranium dioxide on the leaching rate of the oxide has been investigated. For the crushed oxide, adding Pu tended to increase the rate of leaching, but the difference in the leaching rate between 0.1 and 10% Pu was very small. 732:) which is considered a gas. Most of the material used in nuclear fuel is transported several times during the cycle. Transports are frequently international, and are often over large distances. Nuclear materials are generally transported by specialized transport companies. 1512:. Strong and long-term international cooperation, and many decades of research and huge investments remain necessary before to reach a mature industrial scale where the safety and the economical feasibility of partitioning and transmutation (P&T) could be demonstrated. 2482:, have been designed for this rather different fuel cycle. In principle, it should be possible to derive energy from the fission of any actinide nucleus. With a careful reactor design, all the actinides in the fuel can be consumed, leaving only lighter elements with short 299: 2936:

which makes it harder to use in a normal, pre-assembled nuclear weapon which is stable over long periods of time (unfortunately drawbacks are much lower for immediate use weapons or where final assembly occurs just prior to usage time); elimination of at least the

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and dihydrogen monoxide or water. After that the uranium dioxide is mixed with four parts hydrogen fluoride resulting in more water and uranium tetrafluoride. Finally the end product of uranium hexafluoride is created by simply adding more fluoride to the mixture.

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is high enough to allow its use as fuel for reactors capable of using natural uranium based fuel. However, this would require at least mechanical and/or thermal reprocessing (forming the spent fuel into a new fuel assembly) and is thus not currently widely done.

2332: 345:, discovered by geophysical techniques, is evaluated and sampled to determine the amounts of uranium materials that are extractable at specified costs from the deposit. Uranium reserves are the amounts of ore that are estimated to be recoverable at stated costs. 405:. In this technology, uranium is leached from the in-place ore through an array of regularly spaced wells and is then recovered from the leach solution at a surface plant. Uranium ores in the United States typically range from about 0.05 to 0.3% uranium oxide (U 1430:, however it is done in Russia. Russia aims to maximise recycling of fissile materials from used fuel. Hence reprocessing used fuel is a basic practice, with reprocessed uranium being recycled and plutonium used in MOX, at present only for fast reactors. 1300:) to investigate the effects of a large iodine release from the reprocessing of short cooled fuel. It is normal in reprocessing plants to scrub the off gases from the dissolver to prevent the emission of iodine. In addition to the emission of iodine the 842:, where used fuel is examined to know more about the processes that occur in fuel during use, and how these might alter the outcome of an accident. For example, during normal use, the fuel expands due to thermal expansion, which can cause cracking. Most 2157:

has responsibility for the development of the waste disposal system for spent nuclear fuel and high-level radioactive waste. Current plans call for the ultimate disposal of the wastes in solid form in a licensed deep, stable geologic structure called a

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This once-through then out strategy may be adapted as a last cycle after multi-recycling if the fission yield is not large enough, in which case the following property is required good leaching properties for reprocessing and multi-recycling.

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Just because a radioisotope is released it does not mean it will enter a human and then cause harm. For instance, the migration of radioactivity can be altered by the binding of the radioisotope to the surfaces of soil particles. For example,

2447:" or "refined" from the spent fuel, the plutonium is never separated on its own, instead it comes over into the new fuel mixed with gamma and alpha emitting actinides, species that "self-protect" it in numerous possible thief scenarios. 760:

typically have no internal organization. Depending on the purpose and radioactivity of the materials some casks have systems of ventilation, thermal protection, impact protection, and other features more specific to the route and cargo.

3031:. As mining for rare earth elements occurs mainly in China and as it is not associated in the public consciousness with the nuclear fuel cycle, Thorium-containing mine tailings - despite their radioactivity - are not commonly seen as a 1032:

and then starts to react with the surface of the zirconium alloy, forming a new layer which contains both fuel and zirconium (from the cladding). Then, on the fuel side of this mixed layer, there is a layer of fuel which has a higher

702:(PWR), the tubes are assembled into bundles with the tubes spaced precise distances apart. These bundles are then given a unique identification number, which enables them to be tracked from manufacture through use and into disposal. 413:). Some uranium deposits developed in other countries are of higher grade and are also larger than deposits mined in the United States. Uranium is also present in very low-grade amounts (50 to 200 parts per million) in some domestic 723:

material occur between different stages of the cycle, but occasionally a material may be transported between similar facilities. With some exceptions, nuclear fuel cycle materials are transported in solid form, the exception being

1358:(BWR) designs. Each tube can be individually isolated and refueled by an operator-controlled fueling machine, typically at a rate of up to 8 channels per day out of roughly 400 in CANDU reactors. On-load refueling allows for the 739:, it is important to ensure that radiation exposure of those involved in the transport of such materials and of the general public along transport routes is limited. Packaging for nuclear materials includes, where appropriate, 2261:, as well as uranium, plutonium, and other transuranic elements. Where plutonium is recycled, it is normally reused once in light water reactors, although fast reactors could lead to more complete recycling of plutonium. 1362:

to be dealt with continuously, leading to more efficient use of fuel. This increase in efficiency is partially offset by the added complexity of having hundreds of pressure tubes and the fueling machines to service them.

683:. The tubes are sealed to contain the fuel pellets: these tubes are called fuel rods. The finished fuel rods are grouped in special fuel assemblies that are then used to build up the nuclear fuel core of a power reactor. 348:

Naturally occurring uranium consists primarily of two isotopes U-238 and U-235, with 99.28% of the metal being U-238 while 0.71% is U-235, and the remaining 0.01% is mostly U-234. The number in such names refers to the

793:, which consists of optimizing the rearrangement of all the assemblies, the old and fresh ones, while still maximizing the reactivity of the reactor core so as to maximise fuel burn-up and minimise fuel-cycle costs. 1232:

is in a form which is not available to plants. Hence it prevents the caesium from being recycled. The form of Prussian blue required for the treatment of humans or animals is a special grade. Attempts to use the

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accident, the removal of top few cm of soil and its burial in a shallow trench will reduce the long-term gamma dose to humans due to Cs, as the gamma photons will be attenuated by their passage through the soil.

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are released from the fuel when it is dissolved. It has been proposed that by voloxidation (heating the fuel in a furnace under oxidizing conditions) the majority of the tritium can be recovered from the

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is the ratio of the soil's radioactivity (Bq g) to that of the soil water (Bq ml). If the radioisotope is tightly bound to the minerals in the soil, then less radioactivity can be absorbed by crops and

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destroyed without transporting them to another site. One way to do this is to use fuel where actinides and uranium is mixed with inert zirconium, producing fuel elements with the desired properties.

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The study of the nuclear fuel cycle includes the study of the behaviour of nuclear materials both under normal conditions and under accident conditions. For example, there has been much work on how

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potential or possible diversion of fissile material as the processing facility is in-situ. Similarly as plutonium is not separated on its own in the pyroprocessing cycle, rather all actinides are "

2309:. Some countries, notably Finland, Sweden and Canada, have designed repositories to permit future recovery of the material should the need arise, while others plan for permanent sequestration in a 981:(VI) forms soluble anionic carbonate complexes such as and . When carbonate ions are absent, and the water is not strongly acidic, the hexavalent uranium compounds which form on oxidation of 816:

packages have been written to support fuel management. This is an ongoing issue in reactor operations as no definitive solution to this problem has been found. Operators use a combination of

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Claude Degueldre, Richard James Dawson, Vesna Najdanovic-Visak Nuclear fuel cycle, with a liquid ore and fuel: toward renewable energy, Sustainable Energy and Fuels 3 (2019) 1693-1700.

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Uranium dioxide is minimally soluable in water, but after oxidation it can be converted to uranium trioxide or another uranium(VI) compound which is much more soluble. Uranium dioxide (UO

1322:. These were found by gamma spectroscopy to contain Ce, Ce, Ru, Ru, Cs, Zr and Nb. Additionally, a zinc activation product (Zn) was found, which is thought to be due to the corrosion of 2602:

Depending on the matrix the process can generate more transuranics from the matrix. This could either be viewed as good (generate more fuel) or can be viewed as bad (generation of more

1350:, can be refueled without being shut down. This is achieved through the use of many small pressure tubes to contain the fuel and coolant, as opposed to one large pressure vessel as in 1542: 587:

light-water reactor fuel normally is enriched to 3.5% U-235, but uranium enriched to lower concentrations is also required. Enrichment is accomplished using any of several methods of

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Currently, plants in Europe are reprocessing spent fuel from utilities in Europe and Japan. Reprocessing of spent commercial-reactor nuclear fuel is currently not permitted in the

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and other phosphate chemicals, at some phosphate processing plants the uranium, although present in very low concentrations, can be economically recovered from the process stream.

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Even after the radioactive element arrives at the roots of the plant, the metal may be rejected by the biochemistry of the plant. The details of the uptake of Sr and Cs into

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proposed that the U.S. form an international partnership to see spent nuclear fuel reprocessed in a way that renders the plutonium in it usable for nuclear fuel but not for

3390: 2905:, a breeding cycle similar to but more efficient than that with U-238 and plutonium can be created. The Th-232 absorbs a neutron to become Th-233 which quickly decays to 2516:(Japanese design) is directed into a target. In the case of protons, very fast neutrons will spall off the target, while in the case of the electrons, very high energy 719:

various locations around the world to provide fuel cycle services and there is a need to transport nuclear materials to and from these facilities. Most transports of

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After its operating cycle, the reactor is shut down for refueling. The fuel discharged at that time (spent fuel) is stored either at the reactor site (commonly in a

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is composed of a few hundred "assemblies", arranged in a regular array of cells, each cell being formed by a fuel or control rod surrounded, in most designs, by a

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the isotope signature of a hypothetical accident may be very different from that of a planned normal operational discharge of radioactivity to the environment.

2677:. U is fissile, and has a larger fission cross section than both U and U, and thus it is far less likely to produce higher actinides through neutron capture. 4017: 280: 1104:

water. Colloids of soil minerals can migrate through soil so simple binding of a metal to the surfaces of soil particles does not completely fix the metal.

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Baetslé, L.H.; De Raedt, Ch. (1997). "Limitations of actinide recycle and fuel cycle consequences: a global analysis Part 1: Global fuel cycle analysis".

2326: 438:. Once the solution has had the tailings removed the uranium is extracted from the rest of the liquid solution, in one of two ways, solvent exchange or 178:(LWR) uses water in the form that occurs in nature, and requires fuel enriched to higher concentrations of fissile isotopes. Typically, LWRs use uranium 2564:

As an alternative, the curium-244, with a half-life of 18 years, could be left to decay into plutonium-240 before being used in fuel in a fast reactor.

1220:. The cyanide is so tightly bonded to the iron that it is safe for a human to eat several grams of Prussian blue per day. The Prussian blue reduces the 3906: 2571:

A pair of fuel cycles in which uranium and plutonium are kept separate from the minor actinides. The minor actinide cycle is kept within the green box.

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as the location for the repository. Its opening has been repeatedly delayed. Since 1999 thousands of nuclear waste shipments have been stored at the

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Muller, Richard A.; Finsterle, Stefan; Grimsich, John; Baltzer, Rod; Muller, Elizabeth A.; Rector, James W.; Payer, Joe; Apps, John (May 29, 2019).

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Plus radium (element 88). While actually a sub-actinide, it immediately precedes actinium (89) and follows a three-element gap of instability after

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Warin D.; Konings R.J.M; Haas D.; Maritin P.; Bonnerot J-M.; Vambenepe G.; Schram R.P.C.; Kuijper J.C.; Bakker K.; Conrad R. (October 2002).

3344: 3189: 3796: 2883:{\displaystyle {\ce {{\overset {neutron}{n}}+ ^{232}_{90}Th -> ^{233}_{90}Th -> ^{233}_{91}Pa -> {\overset {fuel}{^{233}_{92}U}}}}} 394:

Uranium ore can be extracted through conventional mining in open pit and underground methods similar to those used for mining other metals.

4394: 3050:, in which the ratio of U-235 to U-238 is increased. In civilian reactors, the enrichment is increased to 3-5% U-235 and 95% U-238, but in 2568: 2281:, fuel is used once and then sent to storage without further processing save additional packaging to provide for better isolation from the 1185:

leaves. It was found that 12% of the caesium entered the plant, and 20% of the strontium. This paper also reports details of the effect of

2270: 247:. The buildup of fission products and consumption of fissile isotopes eventually stop the nuclear reaction, causing the fuel to become a 1276:, and that the activity of the fuel of a 1 GWe reactor is as the IAEA predicts, then the coolant activity after an accident such as the 417:-bearing deposits of marine origin. Because very large quantities of phosphate-bearing rock are mined for the production of wet-process 4320: 3711:

Milsted, J.; Friedman, A. M.; Stevens, C. M. (1965). "The alpha half-life of berkelium-247; a new long-lived isomer of berkelium-248".

675:. The cylindrical pellets then undergo a grinding process to achieve a uniform pellet size. The pellets are stacked, according to each 186:, the only fissile isotope that is found in significant quantity in nature. One alternative to this low-enriched uranium (LEU) fuel is 3889: 2154: 1310: 1261: 748:

are used which are designed to maintain integrity under normal transportation conditions and during hypothetical accident conditions.

623: 3764:" nuclides with half-lives significantly in excess of Th; e.g., while Cd has a half-life of only fourteen years, that of Cd is eight 224:

Some reactors do not use moderators to slow the neutrons. Like nuclear weapons, which also use unmoderated or "fast" neutrons, these

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that used Th as the fertile material and U as the fissile fuel. Due to a lack of funding, the MSR program was discontinued in 1976.

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C. Degueldre, M. Pouchon, M. Dobeli, K. Sickafus, K. € Hojou, G. Ledergerber, S. Abolhassani-Dadras, J. Nucl. Mater. 289 (2001) 115

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than uranium (and 550 times more abundant than uranium-235). There has been little exploration for thorium resources, and thus the

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rises with each pass through the cycle, there are currently no plans to reuse plutonium from used MOX fuel for a third pass in a

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The natural concentration (0.71%) of the fissile isotope U-235 is less than that required to sustain a nuclear chain reaction in

190:(MOX) fuel produced by blending plutonium with natural or depleted uranium, and these fuels provide an avenue to utilize surplus 3506:

For a review of the corrosion of uranium dioxide in a waste store which explains much of the chemistry, see Shoesmith DW (2000)

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Spent fuel discharged from reactors contains appreciable quantities of fissile (U-235 and Pu-239), fertile (U-238), and other

4111:"Concept of a Small-scale Electron Accelerator Driven System for Nuclear Waste Transmutation Part 2. Investigation of burnup" 2964: 1062:

Temperature profile for a 20 mm diameter fuel pellet with a power density of 1 kW per cubic meter. The fuels other than

4404: 4294: 3765: 3101: 2949: 2218: 4359: 3940: 3597:

Generic Assessment Procedures for Determining Protective Actions During a Reactor Accident, IAEA-TECDOC-955, 1997, p. 171

3588:

Generic Assessment Procedures for Determining Protective Actions During a Reactor Accident, IAEA-TECDOC-955, 1997, p. 173

3579:

Generic Assessment Procedures for Determining Protective Actions During a Reactor Accident, IAEA-TECDOC-955, 1997, p. 169

2587:, it is likely that the fuel will have to be able to tolerate more thermal cycles than conventional fuel. Due to current 2520:

will be generated. These high-energy neutrons and photons will then be able to cause the fission of the heavy actinides.

1292:

isotopes to decay away. In one experiment in the US, fresh fuel which had not been allowed to decay was reprocessed (the

239:

During the nuclear reaction inside a reactor, the fissile isotopes in nuclear fuel are consumed, producing more and more

4389: 2201: 1746: 1707: 1674: 1647: 1454: 839: 833: 752:

tube will also vary depending on what is being transported. For example casks that are transporting depleted or unused

32: 4409: 2963:

kept hot enough to be liquid, thus eliminating the need for fabricating fuel elements. This effort culminated in the

2167: 228:

require much higher concentrations of fissile isotopes in order to sustain a chain reaction. They are also capable of

1050:

the centre of the pellet to the rim area. Below is a graph of the temperature of uranium metal, uranium nitride and

4414: 3106: 2995:, although the proposed thorium fuel cycle has advantages. Some modern reactors, with minor modifications, can use 2971: 2212: 2159: 2145:

or, if the reprocessing option is used, wastes from reprocessing plants. These materials must be isolated from the

2038: 2007: 1984: 1962: 1931: 1277: 160: 4253:

Claude Degueldre, Uranium as a renewable for nuclear energy, Progress in Nuclear Energy, 94 (2017) 174-186.

4214:

L.M. Wang, S. Zhu, S.X. Wang, R.C. Ewing, N. Boucharat, A. Fernandez, Hj. Matzke, Prog. Nucl. Energy 38 (2001) 295

4028: 4373: 3051: 1351: 883: 699: 611: 599:

are the commonly used uranium enrichment methods, but new enrichment technologies are currently being developed.

2641:

neutron properties i.e. low absorption cross-section, optimal constant reactivity, suitable Doppler coefficient,

977:

in the water which is in contact with the used fuel has a considerable effect on the rate of corrosion, because

2439:

rather than the present day aqueous reprocessing, is claimed to potentially be able to considerably reduce the

2150: 875: 2363:

Several countries, including Japan, Switzerland, and previously Spain and Germany, are using or have used the

2913:

designs, the Pa-233 is extracted and protected from neutrons (which could transform it to Pa-234 and then to

159:

are the most effective moderators, because they slow the neutrons through collisions without absorbing them.

3914: 2599:, then the fuel will most likely not be exposed to many more thermal cycles than in a normal power station. 240: 102: 3777:

M. I. Ojovan, W.E. Lee. An Introduction to Nuclear Waste Immobilisation, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.,

2493:

of many actinides decreases with increasing neutron energy, but the ratio of fission to simple activation (

2486:. Whereas this has been done in prototype plants, no such reactor has ever been operated on a large scale. 4399: 3111: 3016: 1296: 298: 113: 3308: 3028: 2596: 2557: 2490: 2479: 2440: 2410: 2344: 2310: 1583: 1509: 1450: 1355: 919:

The solid state structure of uranium dioxide, the oxygen atoms are in green and the uranium atoms in red

797: 695: 4232:

J.P. Coulon, R. Allonce, A. Filly, F. Chartier, M. Salmon, M. Trabant, Prog. Nucl. Energy 38 (2001) 431

3988: 3676:(84) where no nuclides have half-lives of at least four years (the longest-lived nuclide in the gap is 1288:

It is normal to allow used fuel to stand after the irradiation to allow the short-lived and radiotoxic

3847:

Mallants, Dirk; Travis, Karl; Chapman, Neil; Brady, Patrick V.; Griffiths, Hefin (February 14, 2020).

450:

uranium. The milling process commonly yields dry powder-form material consisting of natural uranium, "

3720: 3218: 2588: 2432: 2403: 2364: 2173: 1407: 1221: 879: 847: 770: 757: 725: 676: 631: 571: 494: 306: 225: 218: 69: 3184:. Woodhead Publishing series in energy. Duxford, UK: Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier. 96: 3996:

Seventh Information Exchange Meeting on Actinide and Fission Product Partitioning and Transmutation

3059: 3039: 2953: 2942: 2910: 2606: 2584: 2505: 2388: 2221:

describes proposals to drill over one kilometer vertically, and two kilometers horizontally in the

1438: 740: 660:) powder that is then processed into pellet form. The pellets are then fired in a high temperature 615: 579: 479: 175: 164: 4054: 3152: 1379:

as a result of residual radioactive decay) and shielding to protect the environment from residual

1009: 4269: 3936: 3761: 3748: 3024: 2722: 2384: 2226: 2215:

have relatively low radioactivity, often compared favorably to that of the original uranium ore.

2197: 2177: 2149:

until the radioactivity contained in them has diminished to a safe level. In the U.S., under the

2142: 2136: 1413: 1380: 1242: 1005: 664: 588: 248: 195: 886:) phases of these metals were found in the SIMFUEL. Also present within the SIMFUEL was a cubic 4187:

N. Nitani, T. Yamashita, T. Matsuda, S.-I. Kobayashi, T. Ohmichi, J. Nucl. Mater. 274 (1999) 15

2609:). A series of different matrices exists which can control this production of heavy actinides. 1293: 1012:

experiments, and these offer an insight into the likely leaching behaviour of uranium dioxide.

3885: 3778: 3655: 3340: 3293: 3234: 3185: 2625:

The actinides will be mixed with a metal which will not form more actinides; for instance, an

2258: 2132: 1058: 1029: 774: 592: 244: 129: 73: 3422: 4328: 3860: 3827: 3728: 3684:). Radium's longest lived isotope, at 1,600 years, thus merits the element's inclusion here. 3647: 3449: 3283: 3257: 3226: 3047: 2960: 2957: 2894: 2752: 2613: 2254: 2222: 1598: 1384: 1046: 986: 851: 809: 672: 603: 557: 206: 179: 4160:

C. Degueldre, U. Kasemeyer, F. Botta, G. Ledergerber, Proc. Mater. Res. Soc. 412 (1996) 15.

3625:"Russia's Nuclear Fuel Cycle | Russian Nuclear Fuel Cycle - World Nuclear Association" 3698: 3694: 3321: 3043: 3004: 3000: 2918: 2580:

To date the nature of the fuel (targets) for actinide transformation has not been chosen.

2534: 2494: 2414: 2380: 2376: 2193: 2189: 2141:

A current concern in the nuclear power field is the safe disposal and isolation of either

2099: 1616: 1575: 1493: 1489: 1473: 1372: 1327: 1182: 1097: 1063: 1051: 1021: 982: 967: 785: 691: 687: 653: 619: 526: 506: 418: 233: 229: 168: 137: 4082:"Accelerator-driven Systems (ADS) and Fast Reactors (FR) in Advanced Nuclear Fuel Cycles" 3724: 3222: 505:

in uranium trioxide. The uranium trioxide is then mixed with pure hydrogen resulting in

4081: 3368: 2541: 2468: 2444: 2436: 2348: 2119: 1607: 1590: 1461: 1423: 1004:

gas mixture. These gold surfaces modified with uranium dioxide have been used for both

596: 574:

95% of spent fuel can be recycled to be returned to usage in a nuclear power plant (4).

389: 366: 148: 133: 3651: 3206: 2471:

could be used in a critical power reactor. Tests are already being conducted in which

2253:

is more accurate, because the spent fuel is never fully recycled. Spent fuel includes

4383: 3732: 3032: 2992: 2523:

Such reactors compare very well to other neutron sources in terms of neutron energy:

2286: 1446: 1427: 1347: 1217: 1205: 1204:

farming, an important countermeasure against Cs is to feed animals a small amount of

801: 402: 395: 191: 109: 3849:"The State of the Science and Technology in Deep Borehole Disposal of Nuclear Waste" 2909:-233. Protactinium-233 in turn decays with a half-life of 27 days to U-233. In some 2690:, which is likely to be both cheaper and simpler than an accelerator driven system. 2331: 3073: 3068: 2922: 2906: 2740: 2687: 2418: 2306: 2234: 855: 843: 753: 720: 647: 439: 373: 327: 53: 37: 4223:

M.A. Pouchon, E. Curtis, C. Degueldre, L. Tobler, Prog. Nucl. Energy 38 (2001) 443

2567: 1241:

have not been successful. Note that a source of data on the subject of caesium in

562: 17: 3747:

This is the heaviest nuclide with a half-life of at least four years before the "

2656:

optimal properties after irradiation with insolubility for once through then out.

482:) is then processed into either of two substances depending on the intended use. 140:

will occur. This allows reactors to use material with far lower concentration of

4254: 2988: 2984: 2938: 2933: 2914: 2898: 2748: 2744: 2728: 2674: 2407: 2230: 2181: 1579: 1559: 1419: 1272:

Based upon the assumption that a Pressurized water reactor contains 300 tons of

817: 805: 736: 540:

In the current nuclear industry, the volume of material converted directly to UO

354: 270: 210: 203: 199: 156: 40:

cycles describes how nuclear fuel is extracted, processed, used, and disposed of

2686:

neutrons could make the reaction stable enough to be carried out in a critical

2647:

acceptable thermo-physical properties i.e. heat capacity, thermal conductivity,

2595:

On the other hand, if actinides are destroyed using a fast reactor, such as an

2269: 1488:

elements could be removed through advanced reprocessing. After separation, the

4110: 4018:"Why Accelerator-Driven Transmutation of Wastes Enables Future Nuclear Power?" 3945: 3230: 3055: 2736: 2451: 1485: 1376: 1331: 1174: 1101: 993: 887: 859: 451: 422: 288: 3659: 3297: 3238: 217:, respectively, and can be separated from spent uranium and thorium fuels in 3677: 3130: 2483: 2472: 2392: 2282: 2185: 2146: 1564: 1319: 1301: 1280:(where a core is uncovered and then recovered with water) can be predicted. 1225: 1201: 1186: 1170: 1144: 1134: 1108: 1025: 974: 897: 894: 871: 863: 821: 715: 661: 414: 342: 125: 2351:

fuel cycle below. A more detailed animation and demonstration is available.

622:. As of 2008 there are vast quantities of depleted uranium in storage. The 202:. Both plutonium and U-233 are produced from the absorption of neutrons by 3974:"REMIX fuel pilot testing starts at Balakovo reactor - World Nuclear News" 756:

will have sleeves that keep the rods separate, while casks that transport

236:

is one that generates more fissile material in this way than it consumes.

3673: 3300: 3081: 3020: 2630: 2513: 2422: 2396: 2368: 1555: 1434: 1190: 813: 652:

For use as nuclear fuel, enriched uranium hexafluoride is converted into

435: 187: 152: 144: 3361:"How much depleted uranium hexafluoride is stored in the United States?" 3288: 2650:

good behaviour under irradiation i.e. phase stability, minimum swelling,

2355: 2339: 372:

The atomic nucleus of U-235 will nearly always fission when struck by a

76:. If spent fuel is not reprocessed, the fuel cycle is referred to as an 4281: 3865: 3848: 3832: 3815: 3337:

Uranium for nuclear power: resources, mining and transformation to fuel

3182:

Uranium for nuclear power: resources, mining and transformation to fuel

3077: 3012: 3008: 2996: 2928: 2917:), until it has decayed to U-233. This is done in order to improve the 2732: 2670: 2425: 2400: 2298: 2106: 1501: 1497: 1330:. It is likely that the modern releases of all these isotopes from the 1305: 1246: 1234: 1213: 1194: 1178: 1089: 1038: 1034: 978: 915: 867: 778: 744:

risk in transporting highly radioactive materials, containers known as

668: 534: 377: 362: 350: 214: 141: 121: 117: 2948:

One of the earliest efforts to use a thorium fuel cycle took place at

2421:

become available, they may be able to burn these, or almost any other

992:

Thin films of uranium dioxide can be deposited upon gold surfaces by ‘

4242: 4196:

R.A. Verall, M.D. Vlajic, V.D. Krstic, J. Nucl. Mater. 274 (1999) 54.

3989:"The Preparation of the EFTTRA-T5 Americium Transmutation Experiment" 3882:

Energy and the New Reality 2: Carbon-Free Energy Supply – section 8.4

3445: 3253: 3089: 3085: 2902: 2551: 2517: 2509: 2294: 2290: 2204: 1505: 1481: 1323: 1315: 1289: 1154: 1124: 1093: 1001: 891: 398: 358: 64:

in which the fuel is used during reactor operation, and steps in the

3816:"Disposal of High-Level Nuclear Waste in Deep Horizontal Drillholes" 3453: 3261: 2846: 2815: 3027:

and most of the thorium is simply dumped on spoils tips similar to

2467:

It has been proposed that in addition to the use of plutonium, the

686:

The alloy used for the tubes depends on the design of the reactor.

4151:

Hj. Matzke, V. Rondinella, Th. Wiss, J. Nucl. Mater. 274 (1999) 47

2626: 2566: 2550:

Accelerator driven core 200 MeV (lead driven by 1.6 GeV

2372: 2330: 2302: 2268: 2208: 2184:. Unlike LWRs, in principle these fuel cycles could recycle their 1477: 1273: 1256:

Release of radioactivity from fuel during normal use and accidents

1238: 1229: 1117: 1057: 1042: 1028:

alloy tubing used to cover it. During use, the fuel swells due to

997: 914: 680: 679:'s design specifications, into tubes of corrosion-resistant metal 627: 607: 514: 183: 95: 56:

through a series of differing stages. It consists of steps in the

31: 4133:

C. Degueldre, J.-M. Paratte (Eds.), J. Nucl. Mater. 274 (1999) 1.

3448:(Report). Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI). 3444:

Greene, Sherrell; Medford, James; Macy, Sharon (August 9, 2013).

3256:(Report). Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI). 2225:, for the purpose of disposing of high-level waste forms such as 1383:, although after at least a year of cooling they may be moved to 927:) can be oxidised to an oxygen rich hyperstoichiometric oxide (UO 4142:

C. Degueldre, J. Porta (Eds.), Prog. Nucl. Energy 38 (2001) 221.

3946:"Historical video about the Integral Fast Reactor (IFR) concept" 3446:

Storage and Transport Cask Data For Used Commercial Nuclear Fuel

3207:"Uranium processing: A review of current methods and technology" 2456: 1569: 1343: 1209: 292:– the form in which uranium is transported to a conversion plant 4178:

J.L. Kloosterman, P.M.G. Damen, J. Nucl. Mater. 274 (1999) 112.

3339:. Woodhead publishing series in energy. Waltham, MA: Elsevier. 2956:

technology to study the feasibility of such an approach, using

2450:

Beginning in 2016 Russia has been testing and is now deploying

3466:

A good report on the microstructure of used fuel is Lucuta PG

3423:"Nuclear Fuel Cycle | World Nuclear Transport Institute" 2893:

After starting the reactor with existing U-233 or some other

2327:

Nuclear power proposed as renewable_energy § Fuel supply

2122:(thermal neutron capture cross section greater than 3k barns) 966:

Because used fuel contains alpha emitters (plutonium and the

194:

plutonium. Another type of MOX fuel involves mixing LEU with

4327:. Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited. Archived from 2999:. Thorium is approximately three times more abundant in the 84:); if the spent fuel is reprocessed, it is referred to as a 68:, which are necessary to safely manage, contain, and either 4056:

An overview of accelerator-driven transmutation technology

2952:

in the 1960s. An experimental reactor was built based on

544:

is typically quite small compared to that converted to UF

4352: 4295:"Thorium Reactors: Their Backers Overstate the Benefits" 3797:"Can We Drill a Hole Deep Enough for Our Nuclear Waste?" 3542:

Further reading on fuel cladding interactions: Tanaka K

3046:, but the vast majority of the world's reactors require 2653:

retention of fission products or residual actinides, and

878:) of Mo-Ru-Rh-Pd alloy, while smaller amounts of the α ( 2644:

phase stability, chemical inertness, and compatibility,

2347:

concept (color), with the reactor above and integrated

1250:

Ukrainian Research Institute for Agricultural Radiology

209:

in a reactor, in particular the common uranium isotope

3960:"Nuclear Fuel Fabrication - World Nuclear Association" 3054:

there is as much as 93% U-235. The fissile content in

3023:

is currently mostly of interest due to its content of

2612:

Fissile nuclei (such as U, U, and Pu) respond well to

2500:

One promising alternative from this perspective is an

812:

have been proposed for solving it and many commercial

60:, which are the preparation of the fuel, steps in the 4357: 2983:

Currently the only isotopes used as nuclear fuel are

2764: 2735:

in either a fast or thermal reactor. The thorium-233

2941:

portion of the nuclear waste problem is possible in

1181:

was found in the leaf veins, in the stem and in the

874:. Most of these metal particles are of the ε phase ( 3562:P. Soudek, Š. Valenová, Z. Vavříková and T. Vaněk, 2211:diminish by a factor of 10 each century; while the 800:problem, and computationally infeasible by current 602:The bulk (96%) of the byproduct from enrichment is 27:

Process of manufacturing and consuming nuclear fuel

3907:"Management of Spent Fuel at Nuclear Power Plants" 2882: 1284:Releases from reprocessing under normal conditions 690:was used in the past, but most reactors now use a 136:of the neutrons and increase the probability that 112:relies on fissionable material that can sustain a 3035:issue and are not treated as such by regulators. 3205:Edwards, C. R.; Oliver, A. J. (September 2000). 2335:A fuel cycle in which plutonium is used for fuel 1265:fuel, the four conditions the IAEA consider are 2576:Fuel or targets for this actinide transmutation 2359:IFR concept (Black and White with clearer text) 2285:. This method is favored by six countries: the 2084: 2079: 2072: 2051: 2044: 2032: 2023: 1903: 1898: 1884: 462:. Note that the material is not always yellow. 167:or graphite as the moderator can operate using 4264: 4262: 1968: 1954: 1947: 1940: 1935: 1923: 1918: 1913: 4255:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnucene.2016.03.031 3042:and some graphite-moderated reactors can use 2932:creates mainly Uranium-233 contaminated with 2747:, which in turn is used as fuel. Hence, like 2016: 2011: 1997: 1988: 1866: 1861: 1849: 1844: 1839: 1834: 1824: 1819: 1805: 1798: 1774: 1769: 1760: 1755: 1750: 1740: 1735: 1728: 1721: 1716: 1711: 1701: 1696: 1691: 1686: 1536: 1041:ratio than most of the fuel. This is because 808:and the complexity of each computation. Many 630:. About 95% of depleted uranium is stored as 401:methods also are used to mine uranium in the 376:, and the isotope is therefore said to be a " 8: 4062:. LAMPF user`s group meeting. Washington, DC 1524:Actinides and fission products by half-life 1496:could be converted to short-lived or stable 1314:A paper was written on the radioactivity in 1092:(Cs) binds tightly to clay minerals such as 274:– the principal raw material of nuclear fuel 3606:A. Preston, J.W.R. Dutton and B.R. Harvey, 3365:Depleted UF6 Management Information Network 2970:Thorium was first used commercially in the 1791:in the range of 100 a–210 ka ... 1662: 1653: 1635: 454:", which is sold on the uranium market as U 232:fissile isotopes from fertile materials; a 4169:H. Kleykamps, J. Nucl. Mater. 275 (1999) 1 3697:fission of uranium-235, e.g. in a typical 1543: 1529: 850:solid with a structure similar to that of 3864: 3831: 3287: 2858: 2841: 2810: 2766: 2765: 2763: 1472:As an alternative to the disposal of the 1197:ions on the uptake of the radioisotopes. 694:. For the most common types of reactors, 517:which do not require enriched fuel, the U 2512:(United States and European designs) or 2354: 2338: 2245:Although the most common terminology is 2113:naturally occurring radioactive material 2102:cross section in the range of 8–50 barns 561: 4364: 3122: 2502:accelerator-driven sub-critical reactor 2315:Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository 258: 3564:Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 3317: 3306: 2530:Epithermal 100 eV to 100 keV 2478:A number of reactor designs, like the 198:, which generates the fissile isotope 4321:"Towards an Energy Independent India" 3301:http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-012-53210 3153:"Nuclear Waste May Get A Second Life" 2391:are separated from the reactor-grade 2257:, which generally must be treated as 2176:can fission all actinides, while the 2065: 1784: 120:. Examples of such materials include 7: 3175: 3173: 3019:. The main thorium-bearing mineral, 2399:. Because the proportion of the non- 2395:, which can then be fabricated into 931:) which can be further oxidised to U 4109:Brolly Á.; Vértes P. (March 2005). 3680:with a half life of less than four 3252:Karpius, Peter (February 2, 2017). 3072:is not normally used in respect to 2945:and other breeder reactor designs. 2273:A once through (or open) fuel cycle 824:techniques to manage this problem. 804:methods, due to the huge number of 781:, which is water in most reactors. 331:– a compact, inert, insoluble solid 4243:https://doi.org/10.1039/C8SE00610E 3391:"Susquehanna Nuclear Energy Guide" 1177:conditions has been reported. The 711:Transport of radioactive materials 624:United States Department of Energy 25: 4353:World Nuclear Transport Institute 4025:XX International Linac Conference 3948:. Nuclear Engineering at Argonne. 3795:Conca, James (January 31, 2019). 3396:. PPL Corporation. Archived from 3276:World Journal of Nuclear Medicine 3131:"Why Nuclear – Generation Atomic" 2583:If actinides are transmuted in a 2200:as waste. The highly radioactive 2162:. The Department of Energy chose 1930: 1458:Global Nuclear Energy Partnership 746:spent nuclear fuel shipping casks 4367: 4053:Heighway, E. A. (July 1, 1994). 2629:of actinides in a solid such as 2435:facility onsite, and the use of 1397:Spent nuclear fuel shipping cask 1111:, the distribution coefficient K 838:Used nuclear fuel is studied in 318: 297: 279: 261: 3905:Dyck, Peter; Crijns, Martin J. 2703:Uranium cycle in renewable mode 2265:Once-through nuclear fuel cycle 1449:due to the perceived danger of 846:is uranium dioxide, which is a 470:Usually milled uranium oxide, U 243:, most of which are considered 3640:Nuclear Engineering and Design 2965:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment 2793: 1468:Partitioning and transmutation 1360:optimal fuel reloading problem 1342:Some reactor designs, such as 1071:Normal and abnormal conditions 1024:based fuel interacts with the 985:often form insoluble hydrated 791:optimal fuel reloading problem 341:A deposit of uranium, such as 128:. Most nuclear reactors use a 1: 3652:10.1016/S0029-5493(96)01374-X 2950:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 2681:Actinides in a uranium matrix 2665:Actinides in a thorium matrix 2219:Horizontal drillhole disposal 2202:medium-lived fission products 996:’ using uranium metal and an 4284:for discussion of abundance. 4016:Gudowski, W. (August 2000). 3785:, Amsterdam, 315 pp. (2005). 3733:10.1016/0029-5582(65)90719-4 3335:Hore-Lacy, Ian, ed. (2016). 3038:Virtually all ever deployed 2621:Actinides in an inert matrix 2537:) 100 keV to 3 MeV 2067:... nor beyond 15.7 Ma 1508:irradiation. This is called 1080:) an accident is occurring. 840:Post irradiation examination 834:Post irradiation examination 735:Since nuclear materials are 606:(DU), which can be used for 525:may instead be converted to 513:For use in reactors such as 4395:Nuclear fuel infrastructure 3015:in some countries, notably 2979:Current industrial activity 2213:long-lived fission products 2168:Waste Isolation Pilot Plant 1786:No fission products have a 1519: 533:) which can be included in 485:For use in most reactors, U 4431: 3254:Uranium Mining and Milling 3107:Deep Geological Repository 2727:In the thorium fuel cycle 2720: 2669:Upon neutron bombardment, 2431:The use of a medium-scale 2324: 2160:deep geological repository 2130: 1411: 1405: 1394: 1278:Three Mile Island accident 1016:Fuel cladding interactions 831: 700:pressurized water reactors 645: 612:kinetic energy penetrators 555: 387: 3231:10.1007/s11837-000-0181-2 3007:are comparatively small. 2921:which is low compared to 2873: 2840: 2809: 2792: 2475:is being used as a fuel. 2463:Minor actinides recycling 2249:some argue that the term 2094: 1574: 1563: 1554: 1522: 1352:pressurized water reactor 1107:According to Jiří Hála's 357:, which is the number of 2866: 2860: 2833: 2827: 2802: 2796: 2785: 2779: 2527:Thermal 0 to 100 eV 2508:. Here a beam of either 2153:of 1982 as amended, the 2151:Nuclear Waste Policy Act 2143:spent fuel from reactors 493:is usually converted to 52:, is the progression of 4319:Chidambaram R. (1997). 3880:Harvey, L.D.D. (2010). 3180:Hore-Lacy, Ian (2016). 3011:is more plentiful than 2489:It so happens that the 2180:produces low levels of 1045:isotopes are formed as 765:In-core fuel management 582:cores. Accordingly, UF 103:American football field 82:once-through fuel cycle 2884: 2572: 2360: 2352: 2336: 2317:in the United States. 2274: 1067: 920: 828:The study of used fuel 696:boiling water reactors 575: 421:used in high analysis 106: 41: 4089:Nuclear Energy Agency 3029:uranium mine tailings 2885: 2597:Integral Fast Reactor 2589:particle accelerators 2570: 2558:Muon-catalyzed fusion 2547:DT fusion 14 MeV 2491:neutron cross-section 2480:Integral Fast Reactor 2441:nuclear proliferation 2411:isotopes of plutonium 2358: 2345:integral fast reactor 2342: 2334: 2311:geological repository 2272: 2174:Fast-neutron reactors 2111:№, primarily a 2098:₡, has thermal 1455:Bush Administration's 1451:nuclear proliferation 1422:materials, including 1356:boiling water reactor 1120:growing on the soil. 1061: 973:The concentration of 918: 798:discrete optimization 565: 226:fast-neutron reactors 99: 35: 4405:Nuclear reprocessing 4331:on December 17, 2007 4034:on November 29, 2007 3917:on December 10, 2007 3403:on November 29, 2007 3371:on December 23, 2007 3102:Horizontal Drillhole 3060:light water reactors 3040:heavy water reactors 2762: 2673:can be converted to 2607:transuranic elements 2367:services offered by 2155:Department of Energy 1492:and some long-lived 1408:Nuclear reprocessing 1224:(different from the 1222:biological half-life 1216:compound acts as an 1066:are not compromised. 771:nuclear reactor core 758:uranium hexafluoride 726:uranium hexafluoride 677:nuclear reactor core 632:uranium hexafluoride 495:uranium hexafluoride 313:– used in enrichment 147:than are needed for 4390:Hazardous materials 3725:1965NucPh..71..299M 3548:J Nuclear Materials 3528:J Nuclear Materials 3508:J Nuclear Materials 3486:V.V. Rondinella VV 3472:J Nuclear Materials 3289:10.1055/s-012-53210 3282:(4). October 2019. 3223:2000JOM....52i..12E 3025:rare earth elements 2972:Indian Point Unit 1 2954:molten salt reactor 2911:molten salt reactor 2855: 2824: 2751:, thorium-232 is a 2585:Subcritical reactor 2506:subcritical reactor 2389:reprocessed uranium 2385:activation products 2198:activation products 1439:reprocessed uranium 616:radiation shielding 580:light water reactor 480:triuranium octoxide 361:plus the number of 219:reprocessing plants 176:light water reactor 4410:Nuclear technology 4374:Nuclear technology 4282:Thorium occurrence 4270:thorium fuel cycle 3866:10.3390/en13040833 3833:10.3390/en12112052 3762:classically stable 3749:sea of instability 3693:Specifically from 3133:. January 26, 2021 2880: 2723:Thorium fuel cycle 2573: 2361: 2353: 2337: 2275: 2227:spent nuclear fuel 2178:thorium fuel cycle 2137:Spent nuclear fuel 1675:> 9 a 1414:Spent nuclear fuel 1381:ionizing radiation 1334:event is smaller. 1245:fallout exists at 1068: 1006:cyclic voltammetry 921: 858:which are made of 626:alone has 470,000 589:isotope separation 576: 567:Nuclear fuel cycle 466:Uranium conversion 249:spent nuclear fuel 107: 74:spent nuclear fuel 50:nuclear fuel chain 46:nuclear fuel cycle 42: 18:Uranium fuel cycle 4415:Radioactive waste 3760:Excluding those " 3492:Radiochimica Acta 3346:978-0-08-100307-7 3316:Missing or empty 3191:978-0-08-100307-7 2877: 2876: 2865: 2864: 2863: 2856: 2832: 2831: 2830: 2825: 2801: 2800: 2799: 2784: 2783: 2782: 2774: 2773: 2770: 2743:-233 and then to 2133:Radioactive waste 2129: 2128: 2090:0.7–14.1 Ga 2086: 2081: 2074: 2053: 2046: 2034: 2025: 2018: 2013: 1999: 1990: 1970: 1956: 1949: 1942: 1937: 1925: 1920: 1915: 1905: 1900: 1886: 1868: 1863: 1851: 1846: 1841: 1836: 1826: 1821: 1807: 1800: 1776: 1771: 1762: 1757: 1752: 1742: 1737: 1730: 1723: 1718: 1713: 1703: 1698: 1693: 1688: 1664: 1655: 1637: 1484:matrix, the most 1326:fuel cladding in 1226:nuclear half-life 1141:= 10000 to 100000 1030:thermal expansion 890:phase which is a 810:numerical methods 593:Gaseous diffusion 245:radioactive waste 207:fertile materials 86:closed fuel cycle 16:(Redirected from 4422: 4372: 4371: 4370: 4363: 4341: 4340: 4338: 4336: 4316: 4310: 4308: 4306: 4304: 4299: 4291: 4285: 4278: 4272: 4266: 4257: 4251: 4245: 4239: 4233: 4230: 4224: 4221: 4215: 4212: 4206: 4203: 4197: 4194: 4188: 4185: 4179: 4176: 4170: 4167: 4161: 4158: 4152: 4149: 4143: 4140: 4134: 4131: 4125: 4124: 4122: 4120: 4115: 4106: 4100: 4099: 4097: 4095: 4086: 4078: 4072: 4071: 4069: 4067: 4061: 4050: 4044: 4043: 4041: 4039: 4033: 4027:. Archived from 4022: 4013: 4007: 4006: 4004: 4002: 3993: 3984: 3978: 3977: 3970: 3964: 3963: 3956: 3950: 3949: 3933: 3927: 3926: 3924: 3922: 3913:. Archived from 3902: 3896: 3895: 3877: 3871: 3870: 3868: 3844: 3838: 3837: 3835: 3811: 3805: 3804: 3792: 3786: 3775: 3769: 3758: 3752: 3745: 3739: 3736: 3708: 3702: 3691: 3685: 3670: 3664: 3663: 3646:(1–3): 191–201. 3635: 3629: 3628: 3621: 3615: 3604: 3598: 3595: 3589: 3586: 3580: 3577: 3571: 3560: 3554: 3540: 3534: 3520: 3514: 3504: 3498: 3484: 3478: 3464: 3458: 3457: 3441: 3435: 3434: 3432: 3430: 3419: 3413: 3412: 3410: 3408: 3402: 3395: 3387: 3381: 3380: 3378: 3376: 3367:. Archived from 3357: 3351: 3350: 3332: 3326: 3325: 3319: 3314: 3312: 3304: 3291: 3272: 3266: 3265: 3249: 3243: 3242: 3202: 3196: 3195: 3177: 3168: 3167: 3165: 3163: 3149: 3143: 3142: 3140: 3138: 3127: 3048:enriched uranium 2958:thorium fluoride 2895:fissile material 2889: 2887: 2886: 2881: 2879: 2878: 2874: 2861: 2859: 2857: 2854: 2842: 2828: 2826: 2823: 2811: 2797: 2780: 2775: 2771: 2768: 2767: 2753:fertile material 2614:delayed neutrons 2377:Fission products 2255:fission products 2194:fission products 2085: 2080: 2073: 2052: 2045: 2033: 2024: 2017: 2012: 2008:1.61–6.5 Ma 1998: 1989: 1969: 1955: 1948: 1941: 1936: 1924: 1919: 1914: 1904: 1899: 1885: 1874:8.3–8.5 ka 1867: 1862: 1855:4.7–7.4 ka 1850: 1845: 1840: 1835: 1830:1.3–1.6 ka 1825: 1820: 1806: 1799: 1789: 1775: 1770: 1761: 1756: 1751: 1741: 1736: 1729: 1722: 1717: 1712: 1702: 1697: 1692: 1687: 1663: 1654: 1636: 1576:Fission products 1545: 1538: 1531: 1520: 1494:fission products 1437:, is a blend of 1433:Mixed oxide, or 1424:reaction poisons 1385:dry cask storage 1338:On-load reactors 1328:spent fuel pools 1267:normal operation 1055:melting points. 1047:fission products 987:uranium trioxide 852:calcium fluoride 673:enriched uranium 667:to create hard, 604:depleted uranium 570:disposition. In 558:Enriched uranium 322: 301: 283: 265: 241:fission products 21: 4430: 4429: 4425: 4424: 4423: 4421: 4420: 4419: 4380: 4379: 4378: 4368: 4366: 4358: 4349: 4344: 4334: 4332: 4318: 4317: 4313: 4302: 4300: 4297: 4293: 4292: 4288: 4279: 4275: 4267: 4260: 4252: 4248: 4240: 4236: 4231: 4227: 4222: 4218: 4213: 4209: 4204: 4200: 4195: 4191: 4186: 4182: 4177: 4173: 4168: 4164: 4159: 4155: 4150: 4146: 4141: 4137: 4132: 4128: 4118: 4116: 4113: 4108: 4107: 4103: 4093: 4091: 4084: 4080: 4079: 4075: 4065: 4063: 4059: 4052: 4051: 4047: 4037: 4035: 4031: 4020: 4015: 4014: 4010: 4000: 3998: 3991: 3986: 3985: 3981: 3972: 3971: 3967: 3958: 3957: 3953: 3944: 3941:Wayback Machine 3934: 3930: 3920: 3918: 3904: 3903: 3899: 3892: 3879: 3878: 3874: 3846: 3845: 3841: 3813: 3812: 3808: 3794: 3793: 3789: 3776: 3772: 3759: 3755: 3746: 3742: 3737: 3713:Nuclear Physics 3710: 3709: 3705: 3699:nuclear reactor 3695:thermal neutron 3692: 3688: 3671: 3667: 3637: 3636: 3632: 3623: 3622: 3618: 3605: 3601: 3596: 3592: 3587: 3583: 3578: 3574: 3561: 3557: 3541: 3537: 3521: 3517: 3505: 3501: 3485: 3481: 3465: 3461: 3454:10.2172/1553317 3443: 3442: 3438: 3428: 3426: 3421: 3420: 3416: 3406: 3404: 3400: 3393: 3389: 3388: 3384: 3374: 3372: 3359: 3358: 3354: 3347: 3334: 3333: 3329: 3315: 3305: 3274: 3273: 3269: 3262:10.2172/1342847 3251: 3250: 3246: 3204: 3203: 3199: 3192: 3179: 3178: 3171: 3161: 3159: 3151: 3150: 3146: 3136: 3134: 3129: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3098: 3044:natural uranium 3005:proven reserves 2981: 2847: 2816: 2760: 2759: 2725: 2719: 2711: 2705: 2696: 2683: 2667: 2633:could be used. 2623: 2578: 2535:nuclear fission 2495:neutron capture 2469:minor actinides 2465: 2415:thermal reactor 2381:minor actinides 2371:and previously 2329: 2323: 2321:Plutonium cycle 2267: 2243: 2192:and leave only 2190:minor actinides 2170:in New Mexico. 2139: 2131:Main articles: 2125: 2100:neutron capture 1963:327–375 ka 1932:150–250 ka 1811:430–900 a 1790: 1787: 1782:141–351 a 1567: 1550: 1549: 1518: 1490:minor actinides 1474:PUREX raffinate 1470: 1462:nuclear weapons 1416: 1410: 1404: 1399: 1393: 1373:spent fuel pool 1369: 1367:Interim storage 1340: 1286: 1258: 1160: 1150: 1140: 1130: 1114: 1098:montmorillonite 1073: 1064:uranium dioxide 1052:uranium dioxide 1022:uranium dioxide 1018: 983:uranium dioxide 968:minor actinides 962: 958: 954: 950: 946: 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 911: 907: 903: 836: 830: 784:Because of the 767: 731: 713: 708: 692:zirconium alloy 688:Stainless steel 659: 654:uranium dioxide 650: 644: 637: 585: 560: 554: 547: 543: 537:fuel elements. 532: 527:uranium dioxide 524: 520: 507:uranium dioxide 500: 492: 488: 477: 473: 468: 461: 457: 449: 445: 431: 419:phosphoric acid 412: 408: 392: 386: 339: 332: 323: 314: 310: 302: 293: 284: 275: 266: 257: 234:breeder reactor 169:natural uranium 149:nuclear weapons 94: 78:open fuel cycle 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4428: 4426: 4418: 4417: 4412: 4407: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4382: 4381: 4377: 4376: 4356: 4355: 4348: 4347:External links 4345: 4343: 4342: 4311: 4286: 4273: 4258: 4246: 4234: 4225: 4216: 4207: 4198: 4189: 4180: 4171: 4162: 4153: 4144: 4135: 4126: 4101: 4073: 4045: 4008: 3979: 3965: 3951: 3928: 3897: 3891:978-1849710732 3890: 3872: 3839: 3806: 3787: 3770: 3753: 3740: 3703: 3686: 3665: 3630: 3616: 3599: 3590: 3581: 3572: 3555: 3535: 3515: 3499: 3479: 3459: 3436: 3414: 3382: 3352: 3345: 3327: 3267: 3244: 3197: 3190: 3169: 3144: 3121: 3119: 3116: 3115: 3114: 3109: 3104: 3097: 3094: 3076:, which fuses 3052:naval reactors 2980: 2977: 2919:breeding ratio 2891: 2890: 2872: 2869: 2853: 2850: 2845: 2839: 2836: 2822: 2819: 2814: 2808: 2805: 2795: 2791: 2788: 2778: 2721:Main article: 2718: 2715: 2709: 2704: 2701: 2695: 2692: 2682: 2679: 2666: 2663: 2658: 2657: 2654: 2651: 2648: 2645: 2642: 2622: 2619: 2577: 2574: 2562: 2561: 2555: 2548: 2545: 2538: 2531: 2528: 2464: 2461: 2437:pyroprocessing 2349:pyroprocessing 2322: 2319: 2266: 2263: 2242: 2239: 2164:Yucca Mountain 2127: 2126: 2124: 2123: 2120:neutron poison 2116: 2109: 2103: 2095: 2092: 2091: 2088: 2083: 2078: 2076: 2070: 2069: 2064: 2061: 2059: 2057: 2055: 2049: 2048: 2043: 2041: 2036: 2031: 2029: 2027: 2021: 2020: 2015: 2010: 2005: 2003: 2001: 1996: 1993: 1992: 1987: 1982: 1980: 1978: 1976: 1973: 1972: 1967: 1965: 1960: 1958: 1953: 1951: 1945: 1944: 1939: 1934: 1929: 1927: 1922: 1917: 1911: 1910: 1909:32–76 ka 1907: 1902: 1897: 1895: 1892: 1891: 1888: 1883: 1881: 1879: 1876: 1875: 1872: 1870: 1865: 1860: 1857: 1856: 1853: 1848: 1843: 1838: 1832: 1831: 1828: 1823: 1818: 1816: 1813: 1812: 1809: 1804: 1802: 1797: 1794: 1793: 1783: 1780: 1778: 1773: 1768: 1765: 1764: 1759: 1754: 1749: 1744: 1739: 1734: 1732: 1726: 1725: 1720: 1715: 1710: 1705: 1700: 1695: 1690: 1684: 1683: 1681: 1679: 1677: 1672: 1670: 1668: 1666: 1660: 1659: 1657: 1652: 1650: 1645: 1643: 1641: 1639: 1633: 1632: 1629: 1626: 1623: 1614: 1605: 1596: 1587: 1586: 1573: 1562: 1552: 1551: 1548: 1547: 1540: 1533: 1525: 1523: 1517: 1516:Waste disposal 1514: 1469: 1466: 1406:Main article: 1403: 1400: 1395:Main article: 1392: 1391:Transportation 1389: 1368: 1365: 1348:CANDU reactors 1339: 1336: 1285: 1282: 1257: 1254: 1237:grade used in 1163: 1162: 1158: 1152: 1148: 1142: 1138: 1132: 1128: 1112: 1072: 1069: 1017: 1014: 960: 956: 952: 948: 944: 940: 936: 932: 928: 924: 909: 905: 901: 832:Main article: 829: 826: 766: 763: 729: 712: 709: 707: 706:Service period 704: 657: 646:Main article: 643: 640: 635: 597:gas centrifuge 583: 556:Main article: 553: 550: 545: 541: 530: 522: 518: 498: 490: 486: 475: 471: 467: 464: 459: 455: 447: 443: 430: 427: 410: 406: 390:Uranium mining 388:Main article: 385: 382: 367:atomic nucleus 338: 335: 334: 333: 324: 317: 315: 308: 303: 296: 294: 285: 278: 276: 267: 260: 256: 253: 134:kinetic energy 114:chain reaction 93: 92:Basic concepts 90: 72:or dispose of 62:service period 48:, also called 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4427: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4408: 4406: 4403: 4401: 4400:Nuclear fuels 4398: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4388: 4387: 4385: 4375: 4365: 4361: 4354: 4351: 4350: 4346: 4330: 4326: 4322: 4315: 4312: 4296: 4290: 4287: 4283: 4277: 4274: 4271: 4265: 4263: 4259: 4256: 4250: 4247: 4244: 4238: 4235: 4229: 4226: 4220: 4217: 4211: 4208: 4202: 4199: 4193: 4190: 4184: 4181: 4175: 4172: 4166: 4163: 4157: 4154: 4148: 4145: 4139: 4136: 4130: 4127: 4112: 4105: 4102: 4090: 4083: 4077: 4074: 4058: 4057: 4049: 4046: 4030: 4026: 4019: 4012: 4009: 3997: 3990: 3983: 3980: 3975: 3969: 3966: 3961: 3955: 3952: 3947: 3942: 3938: 3932: 3929: 3916: 3912: 3911:IAEA Bulletin 3908: 3901: 3898: 3893: 3887: 3884:. Earthscan. 3883: 3876: 3873: 3867: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3843: 3840: 3834: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3810: 3807: 3802: 3798: 3791: 3788: 3784: 3783:0-08-044462-8 3780: 3774: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3757: 3754: 3750: 3744: 3741: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3707: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3690: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3669: 3666: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3634: 3631: 3626: 3620: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3603: 3600: 3594: 3591: 3585: 3582: 3576: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3559: 3556: 3552: 3549: 3545: 3539: 3536: 3532: 3529: 3525: 3519: 3516: 3512: 3509: 3503: 3500: 3496: 3493: 3489: 3483: 3480: 3476: 3473: 3469: 3463: 3460: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3440: 3437: 3424: 3418: 3415: 3399: 3392: 3386: 3383: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3356: 3353: 3348: 3342: 3338: 3331: 3328: 3323: 3310: 3302: 3299: 3295: 3290: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3271: 3268: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3248: 3245: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3201: 3198: 3193: 3187: 3183: 3176: 3174: 3170: 3158: 3154: 3148: 3145: 3132: 3126: 3123: 3117: 3113: 3112:Deep Borehole 3110: 3108: 3105: 3103: 3100: 3099: 3095: 3093: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3070: 3064: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3036: 3034: 3033:nuclear waste 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 3001:Earth's crust 2998: 2994: 2993:plutonium-239 2990: 2986: 2978: 2976: 2973: 2968: 2966: 2962: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2946: 2944: 2940: 2935: 2930: 2926: 2924: 2923:fast reactors 2920: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2870: 2867: 2851: 2848: 2843: 2837: 2834: 2820: 2817: 2812: 2806: 2803: 2789: 2786: 2776: 2758: 2757: 2756: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2724: 2717:Thorium cycle 2716: 2714: 2702: 2700: 2693: 2691: 2689: 2680: 2678: 2676: 2672: 2664: 2662: 2655: 2652: 2649: 2646: 2643: 2640: 2639: 2638: 2634: 2632: 2628: 2620: 2618: 2615: 2610: 2608: 2605: 2600: 2598: 2593: 2590: 2586: 2581: 2575: 2569: 2565: 2559: 2556: 2553: 2549: 2546: 2543: 2539: 2536: 2532: 2529: 2526: 2525: 2524: 2521: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2498: 2496: 2492: 2487: 2485: 2481: 2476: 2474: 2470: 2462: 2460: 2458: 2453: 2448: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2429: 2427: 2424: 2420: 2419:fast reactors 2416: 2412: 2409: 2405: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2357: 2350: 2346: 2341: 2333: 2328: 2320: 2318: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2287:United States 2284: 2280: 2271: 2264: 2262: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2240: 2238: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2223:Earth's crust 2220: 2216: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2138: 2134: 2121: 2117: 2114: 2110: 2108: 2104: 2101: 2097: 2096: 2093: 2089: 2077: 2071: 2068: 2062: 2060: 2058: 2056: 2050: 2042: 2040: 2039:15–24 Ma 2037: 2030: 2028: 2022: 2009: 2006: 2004: 2002: 1995: 1994: 1986: 1983: 1981: 1979: 1977: 1975: 1974: 1966: 1964: 1961: 1959: 1952: 1946: 1933: 1928: 1912: 1908: 1896: 1894: 1893: 1890:24.1 ka 1889: 1882: 1880: 1878: 1877: 1873: 1871: 1859: 1858: 1854: 1833: 1829: 1817: 1815: 1814: 1810: 1803: 1796: 1795: 1792: 1781: 1779: 1767: 1766: 1748: 1745: 1733: 1727: 1709: 1706: 1685: 1682: 1680: 1678: 1676: 1673: 1671: 1669: 1667: 1661: 1658: 1651: 1649: 1646: 1644: 1642: 1640: 1634: 1630: 1627: 1624: 1622: 1620: 1615: 1613: 1611: 1606: 1604: 1602: 1597: 1595: 1594: 1589: 1588: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1571: 1566: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1546: 1541: 1539: 1534: 1532: 1527: 1526: 1521: 1515: 1513: 1511: 1510:transmutation 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1467: 1465: 1463: 1459: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1447:United States 1443: 1440: 1436: 1431: 1429: 1428:United States 1425: 1421: 1415: 1409: 1401: 1398: 1390: 1388: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1366: 1364: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1337: 1335: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1318:found in the 1317: 1312: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1297: 1295: 1291: 1283: 1281: 1279: 1275: 1270: 1268: 1263: 1255: 1253: 1251: 1247: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1218:ion-exchanger 1215: 1211: 1207: 1206:Prussian blue 1203: 1198: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1167: 1161:= 0.007 to 50 1156: 1153: 1146: 1143: 1136: 1133: 1126: 1123: 1122: 1121: 1119: 1110: 1105: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1085: 1081: 1079: 1070: 1065: 1060: 1056: 1053: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1015: 1013: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 990: 988: 984: 980: 976: 971: 969: 964: 917: 913: 899: 896: 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 873: 869: 865: 861: 857: 856:nanoparticles 853: 849: 845: 841: 835: 827: 825: 823: 819: 818:computational 815: 811: 807: 803: 802:combinatorial 799: 794: 792: 787: 782: 780: 776: 772: 764: 762: 759: 755: 749: 747: 742: 738: 733: 727: 722: 717: 710: 705: 703: 701: 697: 693: 689: 684: 682: 678: 674: 670: 666: 663: 655: 649: 641: 639: 633: 629: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 605: 600: 598: 594: 590: 581: 573: 568: 564: 559: 551: 549: 538: 536: 528: 516: 511: 508: 502: 496: 483: 481: 465: 463: 453: 441: 437: 428: 426: 424: 420: 416: 404: 403:United States 400: 397: 396:In-situ leach 391: 383: 381: 379: 375: 370: 368: 364: 360: 356: 352: 346: 344: 336: 330: 329: 321: 316: 312: 311: 300: 295: 291: 290: 282: 277: 273: 272: 264: 259: 254: 252: 250: 246: 242: 237: 235: 231: 227: 222: 220: 216: 212: 208: 205: 201: 197: 193: 192:weapons-grade 189: 185: 181: 177: 172: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 143: 139: 135: 132:to lower the 131: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 110:Nuclear power 104: 98: 91: 89: 87: 83: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 39: 34: 30: 19: 4333:. 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This 1195:calcium 1179:caesium 1090:caesium 1039:uranium 1035:caesium 979:uranium 868:rhodium 786:fission 779:coolant 669:ceramic 665:furnace 620:ballast 535:ceramic 429:Milling 378:fissile 365:in the 359:protons 351:isotope 215:thorium 196:thorium 142:fissile 138:fission 122:uranium 4360:Portal 3888: 3801:Forbes 3781: 3768:years. 3658: 3608:Nature 3553::58–68 3544:et al. 3524:et al. 3488:et al. 3477::48-60 3468:et al. 3343: 3296: 3237: 3188: 3090:energy 3086:helium 2903:Pu-239 2542:fusion 2387:, and 2295:Sweden 2291:Canada 2279:per se 2205:Cs-137 2115:(NORM) 1506:photon 1482:Synroc 1453:. The 1324:magnox 1290:iodine 1239:paints 1183:apical 1135:Pu-239 1131:= 1000 1125:Cs-137 1094:illite 1002:oxygen 955:and UO 892:barium 628:tonnes 399:mining 384:Mining 163:using 80:(or a 4298:(PDF) 4114:(PDF) 4085:(PDF) 4060:(PDF) 4032:(PDF) 4021:(PDF) 3992:(PDF) 3513::1–31 3401:(PDF) 3394:(PDF) 3084:into 3017:India 2915:U-234 2899:U-235 2627:alloy 2417:. 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