83:" on the ocean surface impedes wave formation for low wind speeds. For increasing concentrations of "surfactant" there is an increasing critical wind speed necessary to create ocean waves ; . Increased levels of organic compounds at the surface also hinders air-sea gas exchange at low wind speeds . One way in which particulates and organic compounds on the surface are transported into the atmosphere is the process called "bubble bursting" ; . Bubbles generate the major portion of marine
117:(over 70%) ; ; . These aerosols are able to remain suspended in the atmosphere for about 31 days . Evidence suggests that bacteria can remain viable after being transported inland through aerosols. Some reached as far as 200 meters at 30 meters above sea level . A month long study done by scientists in the
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can be transported long distances to coastal regions. If they hit land they can have detrimental effects on animals, vegetation and human health . Marine aerosols that contain viruses can travel hundreds of kilometers from their source and remain in liquid form as long as the humidity is high enough
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was the result of chemicals found in the SML . It was also noted that the process which transfers this material to the atmosphere causes further enrichment in both bacteria and viruses in comparison to either the SML or sub-surface waters (up to three orders of magnitude in some locations) .
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in the sub-surface waters, which decay and become transported to the surface ; , though other sources exist also such as atmospheric deposition, coastal runoff, and anthropogenic nutrification . The relative concentration of these compounds is dependent on the nutrient sources as well as
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Devices used to sample the concentrations of particulates and compounds of the SML include a glass fabric, metal mesh screens, and other hydrophobic surfaces. These are placed on a rotating cylinder which collects surface samples as it rotates on top of the ocean surface .
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12. Chow, J. C., Watson, J. G., Green, M. C., Lowenthal, D. H., Bates, B., Oslund, W., & Torre, G. (2000). Cross-border transport and spatial variability of suspended particles in
Mexicali and California’s Imperial Valley. Atmospheric Environment, 34, 1833–1843.
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12. Chow, J. C., Watson, J. G., Green, M. C., Lowenthal, D. H., Bates, B., Oslund, W., & Torre, G. (2000). Cross-border transport and spatial variability of suspended particles in
Mexicali and California’s Imperial Valley. Atmospheric Environment, 34,
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11. Moorthy, K. K., Satheesh, S. K., & Krishna Murthy, B.V. (1998). Characteristics ofspectral optical depths and size distributions of aerosols over tropical oceanic regions. Journal of
Atmospheric and Solar–Terrestrial Physics, 60, 981–992.
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2. Blanchard, D.C., 1983. The production, distribution and bacterial enrichment of the sea-salt aerosol. In: Liss, P.S., Slinn, W.G.N. ŽEds.., Air–Sea
Exchange of Gases and Particles. D. Reidel Publishing Co., Dordrecht, Netherlands, pp. 407–444.
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and organic pollutants as compared to the sub-surface water ; ; ; ; . These materials can be transferred from the sea-surface to the atmosphere in the form of wind-generated aqueous aerosols due to their high vapor tension and a process known as
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8. Cincinelli A.; Stortini A.M.; Perugini M.; Checchini L.; Lepri L., 2001. Organic
Pollutants in sea-surface microlayer and aerosol in the coastal environment Of Leghorn-(Tyrrhenian Sea). Marine Chemistry, Volume 76, Number 1, pp. 77-98(22)
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11. Moorthy, K. K., Satheesh, S. K., & Krishna Murthy, B.V. (1998). Characteristics ofspectral optical depths and size distributions of aerosols over tropical oceanic regions. Journal of
Atmospheric and Solar–Terrestrial Physics, 60,
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2. Blanchard, D.C., 1983. The production, distribution and bacterial enrichment of the sea-salt aerosol. In: Liss, P.S., Slinn, W.G.N. ŽEds.., Air–Sea
Exchange of Gases and Particles. D. Reidel Publishing Co., Dordrecht, Netherlands, pp.
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8. Cincinelli A.; Stortini A.M.; Perugini M.; Checchini L.; Lepri L., 2001. Organic
Pollutants in sea-surface microlayer and aerosol in the coastal environment Of Leghorn-(Tyrrhenian Sea). Marine Chemistry, Volume 76, Number 1, pp.
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3. Hoffmann, G.L., Duce, R.A., Walsh, P.R., Hoffmann, E.J., Ray, B.J., 1974. Residence time of some particulate trace metals in the oceanic surface microlayer: significance of atmospheric deposition. J. Rech. Atmos. 8, 745–759.
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17. Alter, J., Kuznetsova, M., Jahns, C., Kemp, P. The sea surface microlayer as a source of viral and bacterial enrichment in marine aerosols. Marine
Sciences Research Center. Journal of aerosol science. Vol. 36, pp. 553-812.
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3. Hoffmann, G.L., Duce, R.A., Walsh, P.R., Hoffmann, E.J., Ray, B.J., 1974. Residence time of some particulate trace metals in the oceanic surface microlayer: significance of atmospheric deposition. J. Rech. Atmos. 8,
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17. Alter, J., Kuznetsova, M., Jahns, C., Kemp, P. The sea surface microlayer as a source of viral and bacterial enrichment in marine aerosols. Marine
Sciences Research Center. Journal of aerosol science. Vol. 36, pp.
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18. Zhang, Zhengbin et. al. (2003). Studies on the sea surface microlayer II. The layer of sudden change of physical and chemical properties. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science. 264, 148-159.
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18. Zhang, Zhengbin et. al. (2003). Studies on the sea surface microlayer II. The layer of sudden change of physical and chemical properties. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science. 264, 148-159.
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7. WHO, 1998. Draft guidelines for safe recreational water environments: coastal and fresh waters, draft for consultation. World Health Organization, Geneva, EOSrDRAFTr98 14, pp. 207–299.
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7. WHO, 1998. Draft guidelines for safe recreational water environments: coastal and fresh waters, draft for consultation. World Health Organization, Geneva, EOSrDRAFTr98 14, pp. 207–299.
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19. Carlson, David J. (1983). Dissolved Organic Materials in Surface Microlayers: Temporal and Spatial Variability and Relation to Sea State. Limnology and Oceanography, 28.3. 415-431
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19. Carlson, David J. (1983). Dissolved Organic Materials in Surface Microlayers: Temporal and Spatial Variability and Relation to Sea State. Limnology and Oceanography, 28.3. 415-431
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16. Marks, R., Kruczalak, K., Jankowska, K., & Michalska, M. (2001). Bacteria and fungi in air over the GulfofGdansk and Baltic sea. Journal of Aerosol Science, 32, 237–250.
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9. Marks, R., Kruczalak, K., Jankowska, K., & Michalska, M. (2001). Bacteria and fungi in air over the GulfofGdansk and Baltic sea. Journal of Aerosol Science, 32, 237–250.
87:; ; . They can be dispersed to heights of several meters, picking up whatever particles latch on to their surface. However, the major supplier of materials comes from the SML .
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9. Marks, R., Kruczalak, K., Jankowska, K., & Michalska, M. (2001). Bacteria and fungi in air over the GulfofGdansk and Baltic sea. Journal of Aerosol Science, 32, 237–250.
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10. Klassen, R. D., & Roberge, P. R. (1999). Aerosol transport modeling as an aid to understanding atmospheric corrosivity patterns. Materials & Design, 20, 159–168.
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on the surface create a "film," referred to as a "slick" when visible , which affects the physical and optical properties of the interface. These films occur because of the
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10. Klassen, R. D., & Roberge, P. R. (1999). Aerosol transport modeling as an aid to understanding atmospheric corrosivity patterns. Materials & Design, 20, 159–168.
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15. Grammatika, M., & Zimmerman,W. B. (2001). Microhydrodynamics offloatation process in the sea surface layer. Dynamics of Atmospheres and Ocean, 34, 327–348.
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15. Grammatika, M., & Zimmerman,W. B. (2001). Microhydrodynamics offloatation process in the sea surface layer. Dynamics of Atmospheres and Ocean, 34, 327–348.
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21. Harvey, George W. (1966). Microlayer Collection from the Sea Surface: A New Method and Initial Results. Limnology and Oceanography, 11.4. 608-613
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14. Gustafsson, M. E. R., & Franzen, L. G. (2000). Inland transport of marine aerosols in southern Sweden. Atmospheric Environments, 34, 313–325.
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21. Harvey, George W. (1966). Microlayer Collection from the Sea Surface: A New Method and Initial Results. Limnology and Oceanography, 11.4. 608-613
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14. Gustafsson, M. E. R., & Franzen, L. G. (2000). Inland transport of marine aerosols in southern Sweden. Atmospheric Environments, 34, 313–325.
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The sea surface microlayer (SML) is the top 1000 micrometers of the ocean surface. It is the boundary layer where all exchange occurs between the
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6. Wallace Jr., G.T., Duce, R.A., 1978. Transport of particulateorganic matter by bubbles in marine waters. Limnol. Oceanogr. 23 Ž6., 1155–1167.
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5. Hardy, J.T., Word, J., 1986. Contamination of the water surface of Puget Sound. Puget Sound Notes, U.S. EPA. Region 10 Seattle, WA, pp. 3–6.
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6. Wallace Jr., G.T., Duce, R.A., 1978. Transport of particulateorganic matter by bubbles in marine waters. Limnol. Oceanogr. 23 Ž6., 1155–1167.
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5. Hardy, J.T., Word, J., 1986. Contamination of the water surface of Puget Sound. Puget Sound Notes, U.S. EPA. Region 10 Seattle, WA, pp. 3–6.
34:. The chemical, physical, and biological properties of the SML differ greatly from the sub-surface water just a few centimeters beneath .
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tendencies of many organic compounds, which causes them to protrude into the air-interface ; . The existence of organic compounds, or "
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13. Woodcock, A. (1953). Salt nuclei in marine air as a function of altitude and wind force. Journal of Meteorology, 10, 362–371.
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13. Woodcock, A. (1953). Salt nuclei in marine air as a function of altitude and wind force. Journal of Meteorology, 10, 362–371.
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20. Carlson, David J. (1982). Surface microlayer phenolic enrichments indicate sea surface slicks. Nature. 296.1. 426-429.
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20. Carlson, David J. (1982). Surface microlayer phenolic enrichments indicate sea surface slicks. Nature. 296.1. 426-429.
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4. Hunter, K.A., 1980. Process affecting particulate trace metals in the sea surface microlayer. Mar. Chem. 9, 49–70.
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4. Hunter, K.A., 1980. Process affecting particulate trace metals in the sea surface microlayer. Mar. Chem. 9, 49–70.
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1. Liss, P.S., Duce, R.A., 1997. The Sea Surface and Global Change. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.
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1. Liss, P.S., Duce, R.A., 1997. The Sea Surface and Global Change. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.
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