61:). We speak of vaccine resistance only if the immune evasion is a result of evolutionary adaptation of the pathogen (and not a feature of the pathogen that it had before any evolutionary adaptation to the vaccine) and the adaptation is driven by the selective pressure induced by the vaccine (this would not be the case of an immune evasion that is the result of genetic drift that would be present even without vaccinating the population).
57:, from the immunity conferred by the vaccine. Since the immunity conferred by a vaccine may be different from that induced by infection by the pathogen, the immune evasion may also be easier (in case of an inefficient vaccine) or more difficult (would be the case of the
1686:
Ribeiro, Guilherme S.; Reis, Joice N.; Cordeiro, Soraia M.; Lima, Josilene B. T.; Gouveia, Edilane L.; Petersen, Maya; Salgado, Kátia; Silva, Hagamenon R.; Zanella, Rosemeire Cobo; Almeida, Samanta C. Grassi; Brandileone, Maria
Cristina (January 2003).
50:. It concerns both human and animal vaccines. Although the emergence of a number of vaccine resistant pathogens has been well documented, this phenomenon is nevertheless much more rare and less of a concern than antimicrobial resistance.
647:
Welch, Timothy J.; Verner-Jeffreys, David W.; Dalsgaard, Inger; Wiklund, Thomas; Evenhuis, Jason P.; Garcia
Cabrera, Jose A.; Hinshaw, Jeffrey M.; Drennan, John D.; Lapatra, Scott E. (2011).
541:
Read, Andrew F.; Baigent, Susan J.; Powers, Claire; Kgosana, Lydia B.; Blackwell, Luke; Smith, Lorraine P.; Kennedy, David A.; Walkden-Brown, Stephen W.; Nair, Venugopal K. (2015-07-27).
1980:
110:
where actually more virulent strains emerged after vaccination because the vaccine did not protect against infection and transmission, only against serious forms of the disease
1258:"Polymorphism in the Bordetella pertussis virulence factors P.69/pertactin and pertussis toxin in The Netherlands: temporal trends and evidence for vaccine-driven evolution"
1423:
Safarchi, Azadeh; Octavia, Sophie; Luu, Laurence Don Wai; Tay, Chin Yen; Sintchenko, Vitali; Wood, Nicholas; Marshall, Helen; McIntyre, Peter; Lan, Ruiting (2015-11-17).
93:
If vaccine resistance emerges the vaccine may retain some level of protection against serious infection, possibly by modifying the immune response of the host away from
1689:"Prevention ofHaemophilus influenzaeType b (Hib) Meningitis and Emergence of Serotype Replacement with Type a Strains after Introduction of Hib Immunization in Brazil"
910:
3302:
2856:
1973:
90:, it was argued that a vaccine may provide the same immune response as natural infection, so it is expected that there should be no vaccine resistance.
1966:
3637:
3624:
2238:
1994:
2909:
3426:
2884:
816:"Avian metapneumovirus (AMPV) attachment protein involvement in probable virus evolution concurrent with mass live vaccine introduction"
814:
Cecchinato, Mattia; Catelli, Elena; Lupini, Caterina; Ricchizzi, Enrico; Clubbe, Jayne; Battilani, Mara; Naylor, Clive J. (2010-11-20).
3629:
1521:"Isolation and molecular characterization of newly emerging avian reovirus variants and novel strains in Pennsylvania, USA, 2011–2014"
3059:
3054:
3138:
2545:
2161:
1425:"Pertactin negative Bordetella pertussis demonstrates higher fitness under vaccine selection pressure in a mixed infection model"
1095:
Zanetti, A.R.; Tanzi, E.; Manzillo, G.; Maio, G.; Sbreglia, C.; Caporaso, N.; Thomas, Howard; Zuckerman, ArieJ. (November 1988).
3710:
2732:
1899:"Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) evolution before and after the vaccination introduction: A large scale epidemiological study"
193:
3473:
3071:
2790:
2768:
2139:
1150:
Romanò, Luisa; Paladini, Sara; Galli, Cristina; Raimondo, Giovanni; Pollicino, Teresa; Zanetti, Alessandro R. (2015-01-01).
706:"Longitudinal Survey of Avian Metapneumoviruses in Poultry in Israel: Infiltration of Field Strains into Vaccinated Flocks"
3705:
3441:
3468:
2864:
2621:
2384:
2099:
863:"Avian metapneumovirus SH gene end and G protein mutations influence the level of protection of live-vaccine candidates"
3510:
3381:
3317:
3285:
3233:
2530:
2512:
178:
159:
1040:
Carman, W.F.; Karayiannis, P.; Waters, J.; Thomas, H.C.; Zanetti, A.R.; Manzillo, G.; Zuckerman, A.J. (August 1990).
767:
Catelli, Elena; Lupini, Caterina; Cecchinato, Mattia; Ricchizzi, Enrico; Brown, Paul; Naylor, Clive J. (2010-01-22).
3066:
2479:
2219:
3570:
3560:
3255:
3191:
2914:
2879:
2258:
2199:
1256:
Mooi, F. R.; van
Oirschot, H.; Heuvelman, K.; van der Heide, H. G.; Gaastra, W.; Willems, R. J. (February 1998).
3388:
3250:
3125:
2979:
2094:
2084:
132:
47:
72:, that is before infection occurs, and usually act to suppress the pathogen before the host becomes infectious
46:
is the evolutionary adaptation of pathogens to infect and spread through vaccinated individuals, analogous to
1840:
Boven, Michiel van; Bouma, Annemarie; Fabri, Teun H. F.; Katsma, Elly; Hartog, Leo; Koch, Guus (2008-02-01).
1519:
Lu, Huaguang; Tang, Yi; Dunn, Patricia A.; Wallner-Pendleton, Eva A.; Lin, Lin; Knoll, Eric A. (2015-10-15).
448:
3575:
3493:
3359:
2889:
2687:
2563:
2394:
2332:
2166:
2134:
1791:
Kertesz, Daniel A.; Coulthart, Michael B.; Ryan, J. Alan; Johnson, Wendy M.; Ashton, Fraser E. (June 1998).
203:
602:"Recovery of a New Biogroup of Yersinia ruckeri from Diseased Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss, Walbaum)"
3700:
3162:
2947:
2697:
2570:
2176:
2033:
2023:
601:
198:
31:
3690:
3598:
3483:
3115:
2984:
2492:
2399:
2318:
904:
121:
58:
2742:
1639:
Radford, Alan D.; Dawson, Susan; Coyne, Karen P.; Porter, Carol J.; Gaskell, Rosalind M. (2006-10-05).
1640:
1424:
815:
768:
3685:
3565:
3458:
3404:
3332:
3322:
3014:
2869:
2682:
2659:
2349:
1910:
1532:
660:
356:
297:
154:
861:
Naylor, Clive J.; Ling, Roger; Edworthy, Nicole; Savage, Carol E.; Easton, Andrew J.YR 2007 (2007).
286:"Why the evolution of vaccine resistance is less of a concern than the evolution of drug resistance"
3695:
3652:
3642:
3608:
3213:
2664:
2651:
2633:
2487:
2298:
147:
3376:
3371:
3260:
2894:
2737:
2702:
2556:
2522:
2072:
1773:
1621:
1405:
1350:
1132:
1077:
749:
733:
704:
Banet-Noach, Caroline; Simanov, Lubov; Laham-Karam, Nihay; Perk, Shimon; Bacharach, Eran (2009).
515:
380:
207:
183:
87:
1370:"Bordetella pertussis and pertactin-deficient clinical isolates: lessons for pertussis vaccines"
344:
107:
3662:
3603:
3463:
3416:
3218:
2720:
2389:
2379:
2369:
2171:
2154:
1944:
1926:
1897:
Franzo, Giovanni; Tucciarone, Claudia Maria; Cecchinato, Mattia; Drigo, Michele (2016-12-19).
1879:
1861:
1822:
1814:
1765:
1757:
1718:
1710:
1668:
1660:
1613:
1605:
1566:
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1501:
1452:
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1397:
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1342:
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1171:
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1116:
1069:
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1022:
1004:
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835:
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629:
621:
582:
564:
523:
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468:
429:
421:
372:
325:
266:
248:
143:
37:
464:
3657:
3593:
3580:
3409:
3398:
3290:
3270:
3105:
3019:
2994:
2725:
2611:
2502:
2445:
2251:
2149:
2077:
1934:
1918:
1869:
1853:
1804:
1749:
1700:
1652:
1597:
1556:
1540:
1491:
1483:
1436:
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1326:
1285:
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1220:
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1012:
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874:
827:
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676:
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613:
572:
554:
499:
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411:
364:
315:
305:
256:
240:
114:
1958:
3525:
3520:
3364:
3312:
3120:
3097:
2942:
2919:
2303:
2268:
2144:
2089:
169:
94:
345:"Vaccination, evolution and changes in the efficacy of vaccines: a theoretical framework"
1914:
1536:
983:"Vaccine Escape Recombinants Emerge after Pneumococcal Vaccination in the United States"
664:
360:
301:
3555:
3488:
3431:
3203:
3092:
3084:
2962:
2957:
2904:
2628:
2409:
2404:
2364:
2313:
2278:
2116:
2052:
1939:
1898:
1874:
1561:
1520:
1184:
1017:
982:
958:
681:
648:
577:
542:
416:
399:
320:
285:
261:
228:
173:
54:
1496:
1472:"Effect of Vaccine Use in the Evolution of Mexican Lineage H5N2 Avian Influenza Virus"
1471:
1290:
1257:
1112:
941:
3679:
3436:
3393:
3352:
3245:
3228:
3186:
2899:
2450:
2419:
2263:
2040:
1487:
1057:
649:"Independent Emergence of Yersinia ruckeri Biotype 2 in the United States and Europe"
188:
1777:
1409:
1354:
1081:
981:
Brueggemann, Angela B.; Pai, Rekha; Crook, Derrick W.; Beall, Bernard (2007-11-16).
753:
384:
3647:
3585:
3347:
3327:
3275:
3223:
3174:
2974:
2924:
2535:
2308:
2106:
1625:
1136:
1096:
925:
1440:
1273:
1041:
784:
1656:
1385:
999:
831:
559:
543:"Imperfect Vaccination Can Enhance the Transmission of Highly Virulent Pathogens"
3540:
3342:
3265:
3240:
2989:
2969:
2874:
2834:
2672:
2129:
2045:
2028:
69:
1369:
617:
64:
Some of the causes advanced for less frequent emergence of resistance are that
3478:
3453:
3421:
3198:
3179:
3169:
3157:
3004:
2616:
2588:
2414:
2374:
2246:
1857:
1753:
721:
17:
1930:
1865:
1818:
1761:
1714:
1664:
1609:
1552:
1448:
1393:
1338:
1281:
1234:
1175:
1120:
1065:
1008:
949:
888:
839:
792:
729:
625:
568:
511:
472:
425:
252:
3550:
3029:
2354:
2062:
2057:
1990:
1841:
1737:
310:
1948:
1883:
1769:
1722:
1672:
1617:
1570:
1505:
1456:
1401:
1346:
1242:
1193:
1026:
967:
896:
847:
800:
745:
690:
633:
586:
433:
368:
329:
270:
244:
82:
different hosts may produce different immune responses to the same pathogen
1826:
1585:
1299:
1128:
1073:
879:
862:
527:
376:
229:"Why does drug resistance readily evolve but vaccine resistance does not?"
100:
The best known cases of vaccine resistance are for the following diseases
3533:
3448:
3024:
3009:
2999:
2952:
2497:
2293:
2273:
2067:
2010:
1225:
1208:
769:"Field avian Metapneumovirus evolution avoiding vaccine induced immunity"
672:
349:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences
137:
86:
For diseases that confer long lasting immunity after exposure, typically
737:
705:
3337:
3208:
2461:
2018:
1793:"Serogroup B, Electrophoretic Type 15 Neisseria meningitidis in Canada"
924:
Weinberger, Daniel M; Malley, Richard; Lipsitch, Marc (December 2011).
519:
487:
118:
because a single mutation was sufficient to generate vaccine resistance
76:
1922:
1641:"The challenge for the next generation of feline calicivirus vaccines"
1544:
1330:
3545:
3110:
2763:
2359:
1315:"Bordetella pertussis strain variation and evolution postvaccination"
1167:
1842:"Herd immunity to Newcastle disease virus in poultry by vaccination"
1601:
1314:
503:
1809:
1792:
1705:
1688:
1151:
447:
Graham, Andrea L.; Allen, Judith E.; Read, Andrew F. (2005-11-10).
2774:
2286:
2758:
2227:
2124:
926:"Serotype replacement in disease after pneumococcal vaccination"
1962:
1209:"Hepatitis B virus escape mutants induced by antiviral therapy"
488:"Increased Virulence of Marek's Disease Virus Field Isolates"
27:
Adaptation of pathogens to reduce the protection of vaccines
1470:
Lee, Chang-Won; Senne, Dennis A.; Suarez, David L. (2004).
600:
Austin, D.A.; Robertson, P.A.W.; Austin, B. (2003-01-01).
158:
because not all serotypes were targeted and later because
449:"Evolutionary Causes and Consequences of Immunopathology"
233:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences
53:
Vaccine resistance may be considered a special case of
1738:"Acute infectious bursal disease in poultry: A review"
1584:
Soubeyrand, Benoit; Plotkin, Stanley A. (June 2002).
400:"Vaccines and their impact on the control of disease"
1042:"Vaccine-induced escape mutant of hepatitis B virus"
453:
Annual Review of
Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
3617:
3509:
3301:
3150:
3137:
3042:
2933:
2855:
2827:
2813:
2799:
2783:
2751:
2713:
2642:
2604:
2597:
2579:
2511:
2478:
2471:
2435:
2428:
2340:
2331:
2218:
2115:
2009:
2002:
284:Kennedy, David A.; Read, Andrew F. (2018-12-18).
227:Kennedy, David A.; Read, Andrew F. (2017-03-29).
290:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1368:Hegerle, Nicolas; Guiso, Nicole (2014-09-01).
150:targeted a single site formed by 9 amino acids
1974:
8:
1586:"Antitoxin vaccines and pathogen virulence"
1313:Kallonen, Teemu; He, Qiushui (2009-07-01).
909:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
3147:
2601:
2475:
2432:
2337:
2006:
1981:
1967:
1959:
1938:
1873:
1808:
1704:
1560:
1495:
1289:
1224:
1183:
1016:
998:
957:
878:
680:
576:
558:
415:
319:
309:
260:
465:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102003.152622
3055:Ear-Nose-Throat/Upper respiratory tract
2228:Access to water, sanitation and hygiene
1736:Berg, Thierry P. Van Den (2000-06-01).
1207:Sheldon, J.; Soriano, V. (2008-02-04).
1156:Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics
219:
3638:Infectious disease (medical specialty)
3530:Antimicrobial resistance surveillance
902:
653:Applied and Environmental Microbiology
1213:Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy
7:
2885:Compartmental models in epidemiology
168:Other less documented cases are for
606:Systematic and Applied Microbiology
136:because recombination with another
1797:The Journal of Infectious Diseases
1693:The Journal of Infectious Diseases
417:10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a011709
343:McLean, Angela Ruth (1995-09-22).
25:
3634:Economics of Infectious Diseases
1488:10.1128/jvi.78.15.8372-8381.2004
1097:"Hepatitis B Variant in Europe"
194:infectious bursal disease virus
3643:Infectious disease informatics
3474:Transmission-based precautions
75:most vaccines target multiple
1:
3060:Chest/Lower respiratory tract
2835:Ocular (Eye) mucosal membrane
2196:Behavioral/lifestyle factors
1441:10.1016/j.vaccine.2015.09.064
1274:10.1128/IAI.66.2.670-675.1998
1113:10.1016/s0140-6736(88)90541-7
942:10.1016/s0140-6736(10)62225-8
785:10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.10.149
68:vaccines are mostly used for
2622:Aerosol-generating procedure
2400:Silent/Subclinical infection
2100:Multidrug-resistant bacteria
1657:10.1016/j.vetmic.2006.04.004
1386:10.1586/14760584.2014.932254
1058:10.1016/0140-6736(90)91874-a
1000:10.1371/journal.ppat.0030168
832:10.1016/j.vetmic.2010.04.014
560:10.1371/journal.pbio.1002198
162:targeted only a few antigens
3286:Vaccine-preventable disease
3234:Monoclonal antibody therapy
867:Journal of General Virology
398:Mclean, A. R (1998-01-01).
179:Corynebacterium diphtheriae
140:not targeted by the vaccine
3727:
3427:Respiratory source control
618:10.1078/072320203322337416
35:
29:
3571:Global Health Initiatives
3561:Evolutionary epidemiology
3256:Post-exposure prophylaxis
3192:Antimicrobial stewardship
2915:Multiplicity of infection
2880:Basic reproduction number
2656:Percutaneous inoculation
2140:Host–pathogen interaction
1858:10.1080/03079450701772391
1754:10.1080/03079450050045431
1374:Expert Review of Vaccines
1319:Expert Review of Vaccines
1152:"Hepatitis B vaccination"
722:10.1637/8466-090408-Reg.1
3389:Protective sequestration
3251:Pre-exposure prophylaxis
2542:Generational difference
2095:Horizontal gene transfer
2085:Antimicrobial resistance
404:British Medical Bulletin
133:Streptococcus pneumoniae
48:antimicrobial resistance
36:Not to be confused with
3576:Microbial phylogenetics
3494:Wastewater surveillance
3015:Geographic distribution
2890:Critical community size
2688:Surgical site infection
2536:Iatrogenic/Medical care
2455:Microbial translocation
2451:Endogenous reactivation
2446:Normal flora overgrowth
2395:Opportunistic infection
2167:Opportunistic infection
1645:Veterinary Microbiology
820:Veterinary Microbiology
311:10.1073/pnas.1717159115
204:Newcastle disease virus
3711:Pharmaceuticals policy
3648:Microbial bioterrorism
3271:efficacy/effectiveness
2679:Surgical intervention
2571:Breakthrough infection
2193:Genetic predisposition
2177:Susceptible individual
2024:Germ theory of disease
1262:Infection and Immunity
486:Witter, R. L. (1997).
369:10.1098/rspb.1995.0164
245:10.1098/rspb.2016.2562
199:Neisseria meningitidis
32:Breakthrough infection
3484:Universal precautions
2442:Endogenous overgrowth
2294:Poultry and livestock
880:10.1099/vir.0.82755-0
122:avian metapneumovirus
79:sites of the pathogen
59:universal flu vaccine
3706:Evolutionary biology
3586:Genomic reassortment
3566:Genetic epidemiology
3405:Health communication
3333:Flattening the curve
3323:Disease surveillance
3106:Systemic/Generalized
2870:Animal disease model
2350:Asymptomatic carrier
673:10.1128/aem.02997-10
155:Bordetella pertussis
3653:Pandemic prevention
3609:Viral phylodynamics
3590:Re-emerging disease
3479:Travel restrictions
2683:Postoperative wound
2652:Blood-borne disease
2634:Respiratory droplet
2546:Vertical/Congenital
2531:Nosocomial/Hospital
2488:Spillover infection
1915:2016NatSR...639458F
1537:2015NatSR...514727L
1476:Journal of Virology
1107:(8620): 1132–1133.
936:(9807): 1962–1973.
665:2011ApEnM..77.3493W
361:1995RSPSB.261..389M
302:2018PNAS..11512878K
296:(51): 12878–12886.
3599:Selection pressure
2895:Force of infection
2523:Contagious disease
2458:Endogenous seeding
2355:Chain of infection
2279:Injection drug use
2190:Vaccination status
2073:Case fatality rate
1991:infectious disease
1903:Scientific Reports
1525:Scientific Reports
1226:10.1093/jac/dkn014
239:(1851): 20162562.
208:porcine circovirus
184:feline calicivirus
160:acellular vaccines
88:childhood diseases
44:Vaccine resistance
3673:
3672:
3663:Tropical medicine
3604:Synthetic biology
3505:
3504:
3464:Social distancing
3417:Outbreak response
3038:
3037:
2865:Agent-based model
2851:
2850:
2847:
2846:
2843:
2842:
2390:Natural reservoir
2380:Infectious period
2370:Incubation period
2327:
2326:
2283:Natural disaster
2252:Tropical diseases
2235:Biodiversity loss
2172:Risk of infection
2162:Microbiome health
2155:Immunosuppression
1923:10.1038/srep39458
1596:(6889): 609–610.
1545:10.1038/srep14727
1482:(15): 8372–8381.
1435:(46): 6277–6281.
1331:10.1586/erv.09.46
1052:(8711): 325–329.
659:(10): 3493–3499.
355:(1362): 389–393.
144:hepatitis B virus
38:vaccine hesitancy
16:(Redirected from
3718:
3658:Tropical disease
3594:Reverse zoonosis
3581:One Health Model
3410:Health education
3399:Community health
3318:Cordon sanitaire
3291:Ring vaccination
3261:Repurposed drugs
3148:
3067:Gastrointestinal
2910:Machine learning
2714:Gastrointestinal
2665:Intravenous line
2602:
2516:/Cross-infection
2503:Reverse zoonosis
2476:
2433:
2338:
2319:War and conflict
2187:Nutrition status
2150:Immunodeficiency
2007:
1983:
1976:
1969:
1960:
1953:
1952:
1942:
1894:
1888:
1887:
1877:
1837:
1831:
1830:
1812:
1803:(6): 1754–1757.
1788:
1782:
1781:
1733:
1727:
1726:
1708:
1683:
1677:
1676:
1636:
1630:
1629:
1581:
1575:
1574:
1564:
1516:
1510:
1509:
1499:
1467:
1461:
1460:
1420:
1414:
1413:
1380:(9): 1135–1146.
1365:
1359:
1358:
1310:
1304:
1303:
1293:
1253:
1247:
1246:
1228:
1204:
1198:
1197:
1187:
1168:10.4161/hv.34306
1147:
1141:
1140:
1092:
1086:
1085:
1037:
1031:
1030:
1020:
1002:
978:
972:
971:
961:
921:
915:
914:
908:
900:
882:
873:(6): 1767–1775.
858:
852:
851:
811:
805:
804:
764:
758:
757:
701:
695:
694:
684:
644:
638:
637:
597:
591:
590:
580:
562:
538:
532:
531:
483:
477:
476:
444:
438:
437:
419:
395:
389:
388:
340:
334:
333:
323:
313:
281:
275:
274:
264:
224:
115:Yersinia ruckeri
104:animal diseases
21:
3726:
3725:
3721:
3720:
3719:
3717:
3716:
3715:
3676:
3675:
3674:
3669:
3613:
3526:Antigenic shift
3521:Antigenic drift
3512:
3501:
3365:Barrier nursing
3313:Contact tracing
3304:
3297:
3142:
3140:
3133:
3044:
3034:
2935:
2929:
2920:Serial interval
2839:
2823:
2814:Cervico-vaginal
2809:
2800:Trans-placental
2795:
2779:
2747:
2709:
2645:Vascular system
2644:
2638:
2593:
2581:
2575:
2515:
2507:
2467:
2424:
2342:
2323:
2214:
2145:Immune response
2111:
2090:Drug resistance
2034:Infectious dose
1998:
1987:
1957:
1956:
1896:
1895:
1891:
1846:Avian Pathology
1839:
1838:
1834:
1790:
1789:
1785:
1742:Avian Pathology
1735:
1734:
1730:
1685:
1684:
1680:
1638:
1637:
1633:
1602:10.1038/417609b
1583:
1582:
1578:
1518:
1517:
1513:
1469:
1468:
1464:
1422:
1421:
1417:
1367:
1366:
1362:
1312:
1311:
1307:
1255:
1254:
1250:
1206:
1205:
1201:
1149:
1148:
1144:
1094:
1093:
1089:
1039:
1038:
1034:
980:
979:
975:
923:
922:
918:
901:
860:
859:
855:
813:
812:
808:
766:
765:
761:
703:
702:
698:
646:
645:
641:
599:
598:
594:
553:(7): e1002198.
540:
539:
535:
504:10.2307/1592455
485:
484:
480:
446:
445:
441:
397:
396:
392:
342:
341:
337:
283:
282:
278:
226:
225:
221:
216:
170:avian influenza
128:human diseases
108:Marek's disease
95:immunopathology
41:
34:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3724:
3722:
3714:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3688:
3678:
3677:
3671:
3670:
3668:
3667:
3666:
3665:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3632:
3627:
3621:
3619:
3615:
3614:
3612:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3556:Emergent virus
3553:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3537:
3536:
3528:
3523:
3517:
3515:
3507:
3506:
3503:
3502:
3500:
3499:
3496:
3491:
3489:Vector control
3486:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3445:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3432:N95 respirator
3424:
3419:
3414:
3413:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3391:
3386:
3385:
3384:
3374:
3369:
3368:
3367:
3357:
3356:
3355:
3350:
3345:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3309:
3307:
3305:pharmaceutical
3299:
3298:
3296:
3295:
3294:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3248:
3243:
3238:
3237:
3236:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3196:
3195:
3194:
3184:
3183:
3182:
3172:
3167:
3166:
3165:
3154:
3152:
3151:Pharmaceutical
3145:
3135:
3134:
3132:
3131:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3102:Cardiovascular
3100:
3095:
3090:
3087:
3082:
3081:Nervous system
3079:
3076:
3075:
3074:
3064:
3063:
3062:
3057:
3048:
3046:
3040:
3039:
3036:
3035:
3033:
3032:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2966:
2965:
2960:
2950:
2945:
2939:
2937:
2931:
2930:
2928:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2905:Infection rate
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2861:
2859:
2853:
2852:
2849:
2848:
2845:
2844:
2841:
2840:
2838:
2837:
2831:
2829:
2825:
2824:
2822:
2821:
2817:
2815:
2811:
2810:
2808:
2807:
2803:
2801:
2797:
2796:
2794:
2793:
2787:
2785:
2781:
2780:
2778:
2777:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2755:
2753:
2749:
2748:
2746:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2729:
2728:
2717:
2715:
2711:
2710:
2708:
2707:
2706:
2705:
2700:
2692:
2691:
2690:
2685:
2677:
2676:
2675:
2670:
2667:
2662:
2660:Injection site
2654:
2648:
2646:
2640:
2639:
2637:
2636:
2631:
2629:Dental aerosol
2626:
2625:
2624:
2614:
2608:
2606:
2599:
2595:
2594:
2592:
2591:
2585:
2583:
2577:
2576:
2574:
2573:
2568:
2567:
2566:
2561:
2560:
2559:
2554:
2551:
2540:
2539:
2538:
2533:
2525:
2519:
2517:
2513:Human-to-human
2509:
2508:
2506:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2484:
2482:
2473:
2469:
2468:
2466:
2465:
2459:
2456:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2439:
2437:
2430:
2426:
2425:
2423:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2410:Super-spreader
2407:
2405:Superinfection
2402:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2346:
2344:
2335:
2329:
2328:
2325:
2324:
2322:
2321:
2316:
2314:Vector control
2311:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2290:
2289:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2255:
2254:
2249:
2243:Climate zones
2241:
2239:Climate change
2236:
2233:
2230:
2224:
2222:
2216:
2215:
2213:
2212:
2211:
2210:
2207:
2204:
2203:
2202:
2194:
2191:
2188:
2185:
2182:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2158:
2157:
2152:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2121:
2119:
2113:
2112:
2110:
2109:
2104:
2103:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2082:
2081:
2080:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2055:
2053:Quorum sensing
2050:
2049:
2048:
2038:
2037:
2036:
2026:
2021:
2015:
2013:
2004:
2000:
1999:
1988:
1986:
1985:
1978:
1971:
1963:
1955:
1954:
1889:
1832:
1810:10.1086/517439
1783:
1748:(3): 175–194.
1728:
1706:10.1086/345863
1699:(1): 109–116.
1678:
1631:
1576:
1511:
1462:
1415:
1360:
1325:(7): 863–875.
1305:
1268:(2): 670–675.
1248:
1219:(4): 766–768.
1199:
1142:
1087:
1032:
987:PLOS Pathogens
973:
916:
853:
826:(1–2): 24–34.
806:
779:(4): 916–921.
759:
716:(2): 184–189.
710:Avian Diseases
696:
639:
612:(1): 127–131.
592:
533:
498:(1): 149–163.
492:Avian Diseases
478:
459:(1): 373–397.
439:
410:(3): 545–556.
390:
335:
276:
218:
217:
215:
212:
174:avian reovirus
166:
165:
164:
163:
151:
141:
126:
125:
124:
119:
111:
84:
83:
80:
73:
55:immune evasion
26:
24:
18:Vaccine escape
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3723:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3701:Immune system
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3683:
3681:
3664:
3661:
3660:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3622:
3620:
3616:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3535:
3532:
3531:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3518:
3516:
3514:
3508:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3469:Sterilization
3467:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3437:Surgical mask
3435:
3433:
3430:
3429:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3400:
3397:
3396:
3395:
3394:Public health
3392:
3390:
3387:
3383:
3380:
3379:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3366:
3363:
3362:
3361:
3358:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3340:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3310:
3308:
3306:
3300:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3268:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3252:
3249:
3247:
3246:Phage therapy
3244:
3242:
3239:
3235:
3232:
3231:
3230:
3229:Immunotherapy
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3193:
3190:
3189:
3188:
3187:Antimicrobial
3185:
3181:
3178:
3177:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3164:
3161:
3160:
3159:
3156:
3155:
3153:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3136:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3080:
3078:Genitourinary
3077:
3073:
3070:
3069:
3068:
3065:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3052:
3050:
3049:
3047:
3041:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2955:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2940:
2938:
2936:in population
2932:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2900:Herd immunity
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2862:
2860:
2858:
2854:
2836:
2833:
2832:
2830:
2826:
2819:
2818:
2816:
2812:
2805:
2804:
2802:
2798:
2792:
2789:
2788:
2786:
2784:Genitourinary
2782:
2776:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2756:
2754:
2750:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2727:
2726:Contamination
2724:
2723:
2722:
2719:
2718:
2716:
2712:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2695:
2694:Vector-borne
2693:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2680:
2678:
2674:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2657:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2649:
2647:
2641:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2623:
2620:
2619:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2609:
2607:
2603:
2600:
2596:
2590:
2587:
2586:
2584:
2578:
2572:
2569:
2565:
2562:
2558:
2555:
2552:
2549:
2548:
2547:
2544:
2543:
2541:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2528:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2520:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2485:
2483:
2481:
2480:Cross-species
2477:
2474:
2470:
2463:
2460:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2441:
2440:
2438:
2434:
2431:
2427:
2421:
2420:Window period
2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2385:Latent period
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2347:
2345:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2330:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2288:
2285:
2284:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2264:Deforestation
2262:
2260:
2257:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2244:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2225:
2223:
2221:
2217:
2209:Stress levels
2208:
2205:
2201:
2198:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2189:
2186:
2183:
2180:
2179:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2147:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2122:
2120:
2118:
2114:
2108:
2105:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2087:
2086:
2083:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2060:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2047:
2044:
2043:
2042:
2041:Pathogenicity
2039:
2035:
2032:
2031:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2016:
2014:
2012:
2008:
2005:
2001:
1996:
1992:
1984:
1979:
1977:
1972:
1970:
1965:
1964:
1961:
1950:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1893:
1890:
1885:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1836:
1833:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1787:
1784:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1732:
1729:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1707:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1682:
1679:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1635:
1632:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1580:
1577:
1572:
1568:
1563:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1515:
1512:
1507:
1503:
1498:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1466:
1463:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1419:
1416:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1364:
1361:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1309:
1306:
1301:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1252:
1249:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1227:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1203:
1200:
1195:
1191:
1186:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1146:
1143:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
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3691:Parasitology
3377:Notification
3348:Hand washing
3343:Food hygiene
3328:Disinfection
3280:
3224:Immunization
3175:Anthelmintic
3163:prophylactic
3051:Respiratory
2975:Hyperendemic
2925:WAIFW matrix
2580:Environment-
2333:Transmission
2309:Urbanization
2107:Host tropism
2003:Determinants
1989:Concepts in
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3686:Vaccination
3630:Eradication
3541:Biosecurity
3266:Vaccination
3241:Inoculation
3219:Drug safety
3214:Combination
3141:and Control
3089:Soft tissue
3043:Anatomical
3010:Seasonality
2990:Mesoendemic
2970:Holoendemic
2963:Farr's laws
2875:Attack rate
2673:Animal bite
2669:Insect bite
2605:Respiratory
2232:Air quality
2220:Environment
2130:Comorbidity
2046:Attack rate
2029:Infectivity
148:the vaccine
70:prophylaxis
3696:Immunology
3680:Categories
3513:infections
3454:Sanitation
3422:Quarantine
3281:resistance
3199:Antiseptic
3180:Ascaricide
3170:Antifungal
3158:Antibiotic
3139:Prevention
3072:Intestinal
3005:Prevalence
2985:Inequality
2934:Occurrence
2733:Breastmilk
2617:Bioaerosol
2589:Sapronosis
2564:Horizontal
2436:Endogenous
2415:Viral load
2375:Index case
1852:(1): 1–5.
1101:The Lancet
1046:The Lancet
930:The Lancet
214:References
30:See also:
3625:Discovery
3551:Disease X
3511:Emerging
3459:Screening
3360:Isolation
3204:Antiviral
3030:Twindemic
2980:Incidence
2857:Modelling
2820:Perinatal
2752:Cutaneous
2643:Linked to
2553:Perinatal
2472:Exogenous
2464:formation
2206:Pregnancy
2063:Endotoxin
2058:Virulence
1931:2045-2322
1866:0307-9457
1819:0022-1899
1762:0307-9457
1715:0022-1899
1665:0378-1135
1610:1476-4687
1553:2045-2322
1449:0264-410X
1394:1476-0584
1339:1476-0584
1282:0019-9567
1235:0305-7453
1176:2164-5515
1121:0140-6736
1066:0140-6736
1009:1553-7374
950:0140-6736
889:1465-2099
840:0378-1135
793:0264-410X
730:0005-2086
626:0723-2020
569:1545-7885
512:0005-2086
473:1543-592X
426:0007-1420
253:0962-8452
77:antigenic
3534:EARS-Net
3449:Safe sex
3401:services
3372:Lockdown
3143:measures
3045:location
3025:Syndemic
3020:Sporadic
3000:Pandemic
2995:Outbreak
2953:Epidemic
2806:Prenatal
2698:Mosquito
2582:to-human
2557:Neonatal
2550:Prenatal
2498:Zoonosis
2343:concepts
2274:Humidity
2259:Commerce
2135:Diabetes
2068:Exotoxin
1949:27991573
1884:18202943
1778:23178744
1770:19184804
1723:12508153
1673:16698199
1618:12050654
1571:26469681
1506:15254209
1457:26432908
1410:21534501
1402:24953157
1355:22946846
1347:19538113
1243:18218641
1194:25483515
1082:45479217
1027:18020702
968:21492929
897:17485538
848:20447777
801:19931381
754:21433553
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738:25599093
691:21441334
634:12747420
587:26214839
434:10326283
385:24978821
330:30559199
271:28356449
210:type 2.
146:because
138:serotype
3338:Hygiene
3276:booster
3209:Asepsis
2948:Endemic
2943:Cluster
2527:Source
2462:Biofilm
2299:Poverty
2269:Ecology
2247:El Niño
2200:Smoking
2078:factors
2019:Biofilm
1995:Outline
1940:5171922
1911:Bibcode
1875:2556191
1827:9607865
1626:4408258
1562:4606735
1533:Bibcode
1429:Vaccine
1300:9453625
1185:4514213
1137:2638727
1129:2460710
1074:1697396
1018:2077903
959:3256741
773:Vaccine
682:3126439
661:Bibcode
578:4516275
528:9087332
520:1592455
377:8587880
357:Bibcode
321:6304978
298:Bibcode
262:5378080
3546:CRISPR
3498:Zoning
3353:Gloves
2764:Fomite
2598:Routes
2493:Vector
2360:Fomite
2341:Basic
2304:Travel
2184:Gender
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3618:Other
3126:Fetus
3121:Mouth
3116:Tooth
3111:Blood
3098:Joint
2958:Curve
2828:Other
2775:wound
2773:Open
2743:Feces
2738:Water
2429:Modes
2287:Flood
2011:Agent
1774:S2CID
1622:S2CID
1406:S2CID
1351:S2CID
1133:S2CID
1078:S2CID
750:S2CID
734:JSTOR
516:JSTOR
381:S2CID
3382:list
3303:Non-
3093:Bone
3085:Skin
2769:Soil
2759:Burn
2721:Food
2703:Tick
2365:Host
2125:Burn
2117:Host
1945:PMID
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1880:PMID
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1823:PMID
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469:ISSN
430:PMID
422:ISSN
373:PMID
326:PMID
267:PMID
249:ISSN
3442:PPE
3130:Eye
2791:Sex
2612:Air
2181:Age
1935:PMC
1919:doi
1870:PMC
1854:doi
1805:doi
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1750:doi
1701:doi
1697:187
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