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ensure a good basic level of genetic health for future generations. To jump from this to "make the later generations as genetically talented as possible," as Pence does, is a masterpiece of misinterpretation. This, then, is the sixth argument against positive eugenics: the Veil of
Ignorance argument. Those behind the Veil in Rawls's Original Position would agree to permit negative, but not positive eugenics. This is a more complex variant of the Consent argument, as the Veil of Ignorance merely forces us to adopt a position of hypothetical consent to particular principles of justice.
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distribution) over maximizing the floor or the average alone. The finding that a much less demanding distributive principle of justice is agreed upon in a (simulated) original position than Rawls's specification of the "difference principle", implies that the (rational) resistance to a cosmopolitan application of justice as fairness could be less forceful than its critics imagine.
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In the original position, one is asked to consider which principles they would select for the basic structure of society, but they must select as if they had no knowledge ahead of time what position they would end up having in that society. This choice is made from behind a "veil of ignorance", which
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Philosopher and Law
Professor Harold Anthony Lloyd argues that Rawls's veil of ignorance is hardly hypothetical but instead dangerously real since individuals cannot know at any point in time the future either for themselves or for others (or in fact know all aspects of either their relevant past or
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argues that, while the original position may be the just starting point, any inequalities derived from that distribution by means of free exchange are equally just, and that any re-distributive tax is an infringement on people's liberty. He also argues that Rawls's application of the maximin rule to
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What Rawls says is that "Over time a society is to take steps to preserve the general level of natural abilities and to prevent the diffusion of serious defects." The key words here are "preserve" and "prevent". Rawls clearly envisages only the use of negative eugenics as a preventative measure to
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has criticized Rawls's notion of a veil of ignorance, pointing out that it is impossible, for an individual, to completely prescind from beliefs and convictions (from the Me ultimately), as is required by Rawls's thought experiment. More recently, the psychological implausibility of Rawls's theory
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The reason that the least well off member gets benefited is that it is argued that under the veil of ignorance people will act as if they were risk-averse. The original position is a unique and irrevocable choice about all the most important social goods, and they do not know the probability they
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that might describe the choice of the decision-maker "behind the veil". In addition, Michael
Moehler has shown that, from a moral point of view, decision theory is not necessarily central to veil of ignorance arguments, but the precise moral ideals that are assumed to model the veil. From a moral
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In social contract theory, citizens in a state of nature contract with each other to establish a state of civil society. For example, in the
Lockean state of nature, the parties agree to establish a civil society in which the government has limited powers and the duty to protect the persons and
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In a 1987 empirical research study, Frohlich, Oppenheimer and Eavey showed that, in a simulated original position, undergraduates at
American universities agreed upon a distributive principle that maximizes the average with a specified floor constraint (a minimum for the worst-off in any given
110:. Rawls claims this will cause them to choose "fair" policies. As noted elsewhere in this article, philosopher and law professor Harold Anthony Lloyd argues that such a veil of ignorance is real rather than hypothetical and drives the thoughtful egoist to degrees of altruism.
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prevents them from knowing their ethnicity, social status, gender and, crucially in Rawls's formulation, their or anyone else's idea of how to lead a good life. Ideally, this would force participants to select principles impartially and rationally.
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rather than an argument for a social contract, as rational agents consider expected outcomes, not maximin outcomes or the worst-case outcomes. Harsanyi argued that a person in the original position would maximize their expected
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present). Faced with the high stakes of such ignorance, careful egoism effectively becomes altruism by minimizing/sharing risk through social safety nets and other means such as insurance.
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A visual depiction of philosopher John Rawls's hypothetical veil of ignorance. Citizens making choices about their society are asked to make them from an "original position" of equality
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will become any particular member of society. As insurance against the worst possible outcome, they will pick rules that maximize the benefits given to the minimum outcome (maximin).
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stands for maximizing the minimum, i.e., making the choice that produces the highest payoff for the least advantaged position. Thus, maximin in the original position represents a
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has elaborated on the concept of original position, arguing that social ethics should be built taking into account the tension between original and actual positions.
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that are to govern the basic structure of society. Rawls argues that the representative parties in the original position would select two principles of justice:
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the original position is risk aversion taken to its extreme, and is therefore unsuitable even to those behind the veil of ignorance.
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Rawls specifies that the parties in the original position are concerned only with citizens' share of what he calls
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used for reasoning about the principles that should structure a society based on mutual dependence. The phrases
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Harsanyi, J. C. (1955). "Cardinal
Welfare, Individualistic Ethics, and Interpersonal Comparisons of Utility".
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In Rawls's theory the original position plays the same role that the "state of nature" does in the
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Harsanyi, J. C. (1953). "Cardinal
Utility in Welfare Economics and in the Theory of Risk-taking".
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helped to formalize the concept in economics, and argued that it provides an argument in favor of
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argues that people in the original position should not be risk-averse, leading them to adopt the
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property of citizens. In the original position, the representative parties select principles of
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point of view, there is not one veil of ignorance but many different versions of it.
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Vickery, William (1945). "Measuring
Marginal Utility by Reactions to Risk".
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to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged (the difference principle);
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Recently, the original position has been modeled mathematically along
30:"Veil of ignorance" redirects here. For the album by Raised Fist, see
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220:. The usage of the term by John Rawls was developed in his 1971 book
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Choices of Principles of Distributive Justice in Experimental Groups
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Cipriani, Enrico (2015). "A modal account of the initial position".
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169:. The original position figures prominently in Rawls's 1971 book,
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Social and economic inequalities must satisfy two conditions:
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A model of deliberation based on Rawls’s political liberalism
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Arrow and the Foundations of the Theory of Economic Policy
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Minimal Morality: A Multilevel Social Contract Theory
142:, but the thought experiment itself was developed by
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How to Make Good Decisions and Be Right All the Time
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738:"The Impartial Observer Theorem of Social Ethics"
667:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
56:for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling
851:. Bern, Switzerland: Peter Lang. p. 147.
468:Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press, 2001.
284:attached to positions and offices open to all.
226:. Modern work tends to focus on the different
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191:whose work discussed the concept of the
138:were coined by the American philosopher
2860:Reflections on the Revolution in France
1028:Lloyd, Harold Anthony (March 2, 2016).
665:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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199:with his "impartial spectator", or the
987:Applying Rawls in a Globalizing World
951:American Journal of Political Science
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903:Liberalism and the Limits of Justice
373:Liberalism and the Limits of Justice
2970:The End of History and the Last Man
2880:Elements of the Philosophy of Right
1074:, Cambridge University Press, 2002.
1184:Justice as Fairness: A Restatement
722:Justice as Fairness: A Restatement
464:Justice as Fairness: A Restatement
422:Justice as Fairness: A Restatement
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3188:Thought experiments in philosophy
1095:Macquarie University page on this
1084:, Cornell University Press, 1989.
837:Soc Choice Welf (2011) 36: 121–78
3198:Concepts in political philosophy
2940:The Open Society and Its Enemies
1243:A Theory of Justice: The Musical
1072:The Cambridge Companion to Rawls
1067:, Oxford University Press, 2005.
990:(Thesis). University of Utrecht.
775:Gajdos, Th.; Kandil, F. (2008).
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1747:Family as a model for the state
3097:Separation of church and state
2995:Collectivism and individualism
2950:The Origins of Totalitarianism
1007:. Bloomsbury. pp. 77–78.
905:. Cambridge University Press.
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3137:Category:Political philosophy
3010:Critique of political economy
102:behind a "veil of ignorance"
3035:Institutional discrimination
3030:History of political thought
1762:Negative and positive rights
694:. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
618:Journal of Political Economy
561:Feiwel, George, ed. (1987).
519:Journal of Political Economy
122:), often referred to as the
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2830:Two Treatises of Government
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1715:Bellum omnium contra omnes
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878:Anarchy, State, and Utopia
824:. Oxford University Press.
359:Anarchy, State, and Utopia
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754:10.1017/S0266267101000219
303:Wright-Fisher's diffusion
32:Veil of Ignorance (album)
2920:The Revolt of the Masses
901:Sandel, Michael (1982).
742:Economics and Philosophy
659:Freeman, Samuel (2016).
567:. Springer. p. 92.
2900:The Communist Manifesto
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1737:Consent of the governed
876:Nozick, Robert (1974).
777:"The Ignorant Observer"
216:, rather than choosing
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719:Rawls, John (2001).
686:Rawls, John (1971).
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2960:A Theory of Justice
2930:The Road to Serfdom
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1156:A Theory of Justice
1001:King, Iain (2008).
984:Pols, Paul (2010).
690:A Theory of Justice
661:"Original Position"
592:"Veil of Ignorance"
307:population genetics
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2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2411:
2405:
2403:
2397:
2396:
2394:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2272:
2271:
2261:
2256:
2255:
2254:
2244:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2189:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2138:
2136:
2130:
2129:
2127:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2081:
2076:
2071:
2070:
2069:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2018:
2016:
2010:
2009:
2007:
2006:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1935:
1933:
1929:
1928:
1926:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1899:
1898:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1863:
1858:
1853:
1847:
1845:
1838:
1832:
1831:
1829:
1828:
1823:
1818:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1801:Overton window
1798:
1793:
1788:
1783:
1774:
1769:
1764:
1759:
1754:
1749:
1744:
1739:
1734:
1729:
1724:
1719:
1710:
1704:
1702:
1698:
1697:
1695:
1694:
1689:
1684:
1679:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1659:
1654:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1632:Libertarianism
1629:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1574:
1569:
1564:
1559:
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1549:
1544:
1538:
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1532:
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1529:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1513:
1508:
1503:
1498:
1493:
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1478:
1473:
1467:
1465:
1461:
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1452:
1447:
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1437:
1432:
1427:
1422:
1417:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1397:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1307:
1302:
1296:
1294:
1290:
1289:
1284:
1282:
1281:
1274:
1267:
1259:
1250:
1249:
1247:
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1239:
1233:
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1230:Related topics
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1197:
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1190:
1188:
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1089:External links
1087:
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957:(3): 606–636.
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887:978-0465097203
886:
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526:(5): 434–435.
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486:(4): 319–333.
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443:Counterfactual
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400:Help Principle
378:Michael Sandel
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3040:Jurisprudence
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2870:Rights of Man
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2780:De re publica
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2640:
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2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
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2577:
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2570:
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2427:
2425:
2422:
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2410:
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2404:
2400:20th and 21st
2398:
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2379:
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2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
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2329:
2327:
2324:
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2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2270:
2267:
2266:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2253:
2250:
2249:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
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2145:
2143:
2140:
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2137:
2133:18th and 19th
2131:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2068:
2065:
2064:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2019:
2017:
2011:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1989:Nizam al-Mulk
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1936:
1934:
1930:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1897:
1894:
1893:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1864:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1848:
1846:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1833:
1827:
1824:
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1814:
1812:
1809:
1807:
1804:
1802:
1799:
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1792:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1781:
1780:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1760:
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1725:
1723:
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1711:
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1706:
1705:
1703:
1699:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1672:Republicanism
1670:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1638:
1635:
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1628:
1625:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1593:
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1588:
1585:
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1469:
1468:
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1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
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1436:
1433:
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1428:
1426:
1423:
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1418:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1398:
1396:
1393:
1391:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1381:
1378:
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1373:
1371:
1368:
1366:
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1261:
1260:
1257:
1245:
1244:
1240:
1238:
1235:
1234:
1232:
1228:
1222:
1221:Primary goods
1219:
1217:
1216:Public reason
1214:
1212:
1209:
1207:
1204:
1202:
1199:
1198:
1196:
1194:Notable ideas
1192:
1186:
1185:
1181:
1179:
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1123:
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1116:
1115:
1112:
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1103:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1092:
1088:
1083:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1069:
1066:
1062:
1059:
1058:
1054:
1038:
1036:
1031:
1024:
1021:
1016:
1014:9781847063472
1010:
1006:
1005:
997:
994:
989:
988:
980:
977:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
945:
942:
937:
933:
929:
922:
919:
914:
908:
904:
897:
894:
889:
883:
879:
872:
869:
865:
860:
858:3-03911-149-3
854:
850:
843:
840:
836:
830:
827:
823:
822:
815:
812:
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
786:
778:
771:
768:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
732:
729:
724:
723:
715:
712:
707:
705:0-674-00078-1
701:
697:
696:Belknap Press
692:
691:
682:
679:
671:September 13,
666:
662:
655:
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647:
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639:
635:
631:
627:
624:(4): 309–21.
623:
619:
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587:
584:
580:
576:
574:9781349073573
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409:
407:
403:
401:
397:
393:
392:
386:
382:
379:
375:
374:
368:
365:
364:Robert Nozick
361:
360:
348:
339:
335:
332:This section
330:
327:
323:
322:
316:
314:
312:
308:
304:
299:
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292:
283:
280:
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277:
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258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
234:
232:
229:
225:
224:
219:
215:
210:
206:
205:John Harsanyi
202:
198:
194:
190:
189:Immanuel Kant
186:
178:
176:
174:
173:
168:
164:
163:Thomas Hobbes
161:tradition of
160:
155:
151:
149:
148:John Harsanyi
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
109:
105:
101:
96:
92:
84:
81:
73:
63:
57:
55:
50:This article
48:
39:
38:
33:
19:
3121:
3020:Elite theory
2968:
2958:
2948:
2938:
2928:
2918:
2908:
2898:
2888:
2878:
2868:
2858:
2848:
2838:
2828:
2818:
2808:
2798:
2788:
2778:
2768:
2758:
2057:Guicciardini
2013:Early modern
1836:Philosophers
1795:
1786:Open society
1722:Body politic
1592:Distributism
1582:Conservatism
1577:Confucianism
1496:Gerontocracy
1486:Dictatorship
1440:Sovereignty‎
1430:Ruling class
1320:Emancipation
1305:Citizenship‎
1241:
1200:
1182:
1175:
1168:
1154:
1081:
1078:Thomas Pogge
1071:
1064:
1040:. Retrieved
1033:
1023:
1002:
996:
986:
979:
954:
950:
944:
927:
921:
902:
896:
877:
871:
862:
848:
842:
829:
819:
814:
789:
783:
770:
745:
741:
731:
720:
714:
689:
681:
669:. Retrieved
664:
654:
621:
617:
611:
599:. Retrieved
595:
586:
578:
563:
556:
523:
517:
483:
480:Econometrica
479:
473:
462:
461:John Rawls,
457:
420:
404:
399:
389:
387:
383:
371:
369:
357:
355:
345:January 2024
342:
338:adding to it
333:
300:
296:Thomas Nagel
293:
289:
265:
260:
245:maximin rule
244:
240:
238:
221:
182:
170:
156:
152:
135:
131:
123:
119:
115:
113:
107:
103:
99:
91:
76:
70:October 2023
67:
54:copy editing
52:may require
51:
2894:(1835–1840)
2774:(c. 350 BC)
2764:(c. 375 BC)
2381:Tocqueville
2346:Saint-Simon
2311:Montesquieu
2162:Bolingbroke
2094:Machiavelli
1974:Ibn Khaldun
1939:Alpharabius
1932:Middle Ages
1757:Natural law
1732:Common good
1657:Nationalism
1617:Imperialism
1587:Corporatism
1562:Colonialism
1542:Agrarianism
1521:Technocracy
1501:Meritocracy
1481:Bureaucracy
1471:Aristocracy
1148:Major works
1061:Ken Binmore
438:Tabula rasa
257:formulation
249:game theory
3163:John Rawls
3158:Deontology
3152:Categories
3102:Separatism
2910:On Liberty
2810:The Prince
2539:Huntington
2042:Campanella
1969:al-Ghazali
1918:Thucydides
1876:Lactantius
1821:Statolatry
1647:Monarchism
1627:Liberalism
1552:Capitalism
1535:Ideologies
1516:Plutocracy
1464:Government
1420:Revolution
1405:Propaganda
1355:Legitimacy
1330:Government
1141:John Rawls
449:References
317:Criticisms
294:Recently,
197:Adam Smith
167:John Locke
140:John Rawls
62:editing it
2820:Leviathan
2800:Monarchia
2794:(c. 1274)
2629:Oakeshott
2574:Mansfield
2569:Luxemburg
2554:Kropotkin
2449:Bernstein
2402:centuries
2316:Nietzsche
2259:Jefferson
2187:Condorcet
2135:centuries
2114:Pufendorf
1979:Marsilius
1866:Confucius
1851:Aristotle
1844:Antiquity
1772:Noble lie
1692:Third Way
1687:Socialism
1612:Feudalism
1567:Communism
1547:Anarchism
1526:Theocracy
1511:Oligarchy
1491:Democracy
1476:Autocracy
1390:Pluralism
1375:Obedience
1340:Hierarchy
1300:Authority
646:222434288
548:222439814
396:Iain King
3075:Centrism
2770:Politics
2760:Republic
2729:Voegelin
2709:Spengler
2694:Shariati
2669:Rothbard
2624:Nussbaum
2524:Habermas
2499:Fukuyama
2489:Foucault
2414:Ambedkar
2391:Voltaire
2361:de Staël
2336:Rousseau
2217:Franklin
2192:Constant
2152:Beccaria
1984:Muhammad
1964:Gelasius
1949:Averroes
1923:Xenophon
1903:Polybius
1856:Chanakya
1701:Concepts
1667:Populism
1637:Localism
1622:Islamism
1607:Feminism
1506:Monarchy
1410:Property
1400:Progress
1365:Monopoly
1335:Hegemony
1042:March 2,
1035:HuffPost
806:11230946
762:17352285
433:Pie rule
410:See also
394:(2008),
376:(1982),
362:(1974),
3168:Justice
3112:Statism
3025:Elitism
2983:Related
2784:(51 BC)
2714:Strauss
2689:Scruton
2684:Schmitt
2674:Russell
2594:Michels
2589:Maurras
2584:Marcuse
2544:Kautsky
2514:Gramsci
2509:Gentile
2479:Dworkin
2469:Du Bois
2464:Dmowski
2459:Chomsky
2454:Burnham
2439:Benoist
2409:Agamben
2376:Thoreau
2366:Stirner
2356:Spencer
2301:Mazzini
2291:Maistre
2286:Madison
2281:Le Play
2212:Fourier
2177:Carlyle
2157:Bentham
2147:Bastiat
2142:Bakunin
2119:Spinoza
2109:MĂĽntzer
2079:Leibniz
2052:Grotius
2032:Bossuet
1999:Plethon
1944:Aquinas
1913:Sun Tzu
1881:Mencius
1871:Han Fei
1642:Marxism
1602:Fascism
1435:Society
1360:Liberty
1345:Justice
1325:Freedom
971:2111285
638:1827128
601:May 27,
540:1827289
500:1906925
269:justice
253:maximin
218:minimax
214:utility
179:History
126:, is a
108:(right)
2974:(1992)
2964:(1971)
2954:(1951)
2944:(1945)
2934:(1944)
2924:(1929)
2914:(1859)
2904:(1848)
2884:(1820)
2874:(1791)
2864:(1790)
2854:(1762)
2844:(1748)
2834:(1689)
2824:(1651)
2814:(1532)
2804:(1313)
2734:Walzer
2724:Taylor
2679:Sartre
2644:Popper
2639:Pareto
2634:Ortega
2619:Nozick
2609:Mouffe
2559:Laclau
2519:Guénon
2504:Gandhi
2444:Berlin
2434:Bauman
2429:Badiou
2419:Arendt
2386:Tucker
2276:Le Bon
2237:Herder
2227:Haller
2222:Godwin
2207:Fichte
2202:Engels
2197:Cortés
2167:Bonald
2124:Suárez
2099:Milton
2089:Luther
2062:Hobbes
2047:Filmer
2037:Calvin
2022:Boétie
2015:period
1994:Ockham
1861:Cicero
1662:Nazism
1450:Utopia
1425:Rights
1415:Regime
1385:People
1370:Nation
1011:
969:
909:
884:
855:
804:
760:
702:
644:
636:
571:
546:
538:
498:
165:, and
100:(left)
3123:Index
2752:Works
2739:Weber
2704:Spann
2699:Sorel
2664:Röpke
2659:Rawls
2614:Negri
2604:Mosca
2599:Mises
2564:Lenin
2534:Hoppe
2529:Hayek
2494:Fromm
2484:Evola
2474:Dugin
2371:Taine
2351:Smith
2331:Renan
2326:Paine
2247:Iqbal
2232:Hegel
2182:Comte
2172:Burke
2084:Locke
2074:James
2027:Bodin
1959:Dante
1954:Bruni
1908:Shang
1891:Plato
1445:State
1395:Power
1380:Peace
1315:Elite
1293:Terms
967:JSTOR
802:S2CID
780:(PDF)
758:S2CID
642:S2CID
634:JSTOR
544:S2CID
536:JSTOR
496:JSTOR
2654:Rand
2649:Qutb
2549:Kirk
2424:Aron
2341:Sade
2321:Owen
2306:Mill
2296:Marx
2264:Kant
2242:Hume
2104:More
2004:Wang
1886:Mozi
1310:Duty
1044:2024
1009:ISBN
907:ISBN
882:ISBN
853:ISBN
700:ISBN
673:2017
603:2020
569:ISBN
187:and
146:and
134:and
114:The
2719:Sun
2579:Mao
1455:War
1350:Law
959:doi
932:doi
794:doi
750:doi
626:doi
528:doi
488:doi
388:In
370:In
356:In
340:.
259:of
3154::
1080:,
1063:,
1032:.
965:.
955:31
953:.
861:.
800:.
790:31
788:.
782:.
756:.
746:17
744:.
740:.
698:.
663:.
640:.
632:.
622:63
620:.
594:.
577:.
542:.
534:.
524:61
522:.
508:^
494:.
484:13
482:.
263:.
251:,
203:.
195:,
120:OP
1278:e
1271:t
1264:v
1165:"
1161:"
1133:e
1126:t
1119:v
1046:.
1017:.
973:.
961::
938:.
934::
915:.
890:.
808:.
796::
764:.
752::
708:.
675:.
648:.
628::
605:.
550:.
530::
502:.
490::
466:,
347:)
343:(
118:(
83:)
77:(
72:)
68:(
64:.
58:.
34:.
20:)
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