977:
chemical arms race. Predator/prey pairs are expected to coevolve over long periods of time. As the predator capitalizes on susceptible individuals, the surviving individuals are limited to those able to evade predation. Resistance typically increases over time as the predator becomes increasingly unable to subdue resistant prey. The cost of developing venom resistance is high for both predator and prey. The payoff for the cost of physiological resistance is an increased chance of survival for prey, but it allows predators to expand into underutilised trophic niches.
480:
1000:
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698:
954:
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707:
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51:
867:
Although it is proven that reptile and platypus venom have independently evolved, it is thought that there are certain protein structures that are favored to evolve into toxic molecules. This provides more evidence of why venom has become a homoplastic trait and why very different animals have convergently evolved.
218:
763:; and neurotoxins, which disrupt signalling in the nervous system. Snake venom causes symptoms including pain, swelling, tissue necrosis, low blood pressure, convulsions, haemorrhage (varying by species of snake), respiratory paralysis, kidney failure, coma, and death. Snake venom may have originated with
866:
Extensive research on platypuses shows that their toxin was initially formed from gene duplication, but data provides evidence that the further evolution of platypus venom does not rely as much on gene duplication as was once thought. Modified sweat glands are what evolved into platypus venom glands.
976:
Venom is used as a trophic weapon by many predator species. The coevolution between predators and prey is the driving force of venom resistance, which has evolved multiple times throughout the animal kingdom. The coevolution between venomous predators and venom-resistant prey has been described as a
995:
of the
Americas are constrictors that prey on many venomous snakes. They have evolved resistance which does not vary with age or exposure. They are immune to the venom of snakes in their immediate environment, like copperheads, cottonmouths, and North American rattlesnakes, but not to the venom of,
1031:
and mucous secretions. The toxins are composed of peptides and proteins. They are used to acquire prey and to deter predators by causing pain, loss of muscular coordination, and tissue damage. Clownfish have a protective mucus that acts as a chemical camouflage or macromolecular mimicry preventing
1014:
Among marine animals, eels are resistant to sea snake venoms, which contain complex mixtures of neurotoxins, myotoxins, and nephrotoxins, varying according to species. Eels are especially resistant to the venom of sea snakes that specialise in feeding on them, implying coevolution; non-prey fishes
453:) to defend their hives and food stores, whereas wasps use a chemically different venom to paralyse prey, so their prey remains alive to provision the food chambers of their young. The use of venom is much more widespread than just these examples; many other insects, such as
1190:
Nelsen, D. R., Nisani, Z., Cooper, A. M., Fox, G. A., Gren, E. C., Corbit, A. G., & Hayes, W. K. (2014). "Poisons, toxungens, and venoms: redefining and classifying toxic biological secretions and the organisms that employ them". Biological
Reviews, 89(2), 450-465.
3394:
Coss, Richard G.; Poran, Naomie S.; Gusé, Kevin L.; Smith, David G. (1 January 1993). "Development of
Antisnake Defenses in California Ground Squirrels (Spermophilus Beecheyi): II. Microevolutionary Effects of Relaxed Selection From Rattlesnakes".
3350:
Poran, Naomie S.; Coss, Richard G.; Benjamini, Eli (1 January 1987). "Resistance of
California ground squirrels (Spermophilus Beecheyi) to the venom of the northern Pacific rattlesnake (Crotalus Viridis Oreganus): A study of adaptive variation".
1026:
for the fish), and are resistant to their venom. Only 10 known species of anemones are hosts to clownfish and only certain pairs of anemones and clownfish are compatible. All sea anemones produce venoms delivered through discharging
988:. The resistance involves toxin scavenging and depends on the population. Where rattlesnake populations are denser, squirrel resistance is higher. Rattlesnakes have responded locally by increasing the effectiveness of their venom.
342:
Venom is widely distributed taxonomically, being found in both invertebrates and vertebrates, in aquatic and terrestrial animals, and among both predators and prey. The major groups of venomous animals are described below.
1802:
Pinto, Antônio F. M.; Berger, Markus; Reck, José; Terra, Renata M. S.; Guimarães, Jorge A. (15 December 2010). "Lonomia obliqua venom: In vivo effects and molecular aspects associated with the hemorrhagic syndrome".
786:. Mass spectrometry showed that the mixture of proteins present in their venom is as complex as the mixture of proteins found in snake venom. Some lizards possess a venom gland; they form a hypothetical clade,
878:
resulted in 57,000 human deaths in 2013, down from 76,000 deaths in 1990. Venoms, found in over 173,000 species, have potential to treat a wide range of diseases, explored in over 5,000 scientific papers.
1060:
2795:"Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013"
3516:
Weinstein, Scott A.; DeWitt, Clement F.; Smith, Leonard A. (December 1992). "Variability of Venom-Neutralizing
Properties of Serum from Snakes of the Colubrid Genus Lampropeltis".
191:. It is difficult to conclude exactly how this trait came to be so intensely widespread and diversified. The multigene families that encode the toxins of venomous animals are
4429:
3629:
Zimmerman, K. D.; Heatwole, Harold; Davies, H. I. (1 March 1992). "Survival times and resistance to sea snake (Aipysurus laevis) venom by five species of prey fish".
668:
can extrude sharp venom-tipped ribs. Two frog species in Brazil have tiny spines around the crown of their skulls which, on impact, deliver venom into their targets.
2539:
snake venoms by liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry: Evolutionary and toxinological implications. Rapid
Communications in Mass Spectrometry 17:2047-2062.
2047:
1114:
1032:"not self" recognition by the sea anemone and nematocyst discharge. Clownfish may acclimate their mucus to resemble that of a specific species of sea anemone.
856:. Shrews have venomous saliva and most likely evolved their trait similarly to snakes. The presence of tarsal spurs akin to those of the platypus in many non-
1749:
Baracchi, David (January 2012). "From individual to collective immunity: The role of the venom as antimicrobial agent in the
Stenogastrinae wasp societies".
2433:
423:, venom is used as an alarm pheromone, coordinating a response from the nest and attracting nearby wasps to attack the predator. In some species, such as
5288:
3594:
Heatwole, Harold; Powell, Judy (May 1998). "Resistance of eels (Gymnothorax) to the venom of sea kraits (Laticauda colubrina): a test of coevolution".
4742:
1897:
Graystock, Peter; Hughes, William O. H. (2011). "Disease resistance in a weaver ant, Polyrhachis dives, and the role of antibiotic-producing glands".
1461:
Samejima, Y.; Aoki, Y.; Mebs, D. (1991). "Amino acid sequence of a myotoxin from venom of the eastern diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus)".
2137:
Nowak, R. T.; Brodie, E. D. (1978). "Rib
Penetration and Associated Antipredator Adaptations in the Salamander Pleurodeles waltl (Salamandridae)".
195:, creating more diverse toxins with specific functions. Venoms adapt to their environment and victims, evolving to become maximally efficient on a
3805:
da Silva, Karen Burke; Nedosyko, Anita (2016), Goffredo, Stefano; Dubinsky, Zvy (eds.), "Sea
Anemones and Anemonefish: A Match Made in Heaven",
925:, has been established to study the proteins associated with venom and how individual components of venom can be used for pharmaceutical means.
4342:
3822:
3135:
2246:
1969:
1090:
4422:
4060:
2748:
Jørn H. Hurum, Zhe-Xi Luo, and Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska, Were mammals originally venomous?, Acta
Palaeontologica Polonica 51 (1), 2006: 1-11
1065:
3067:
Dawkins, Richard; Krebs, John Richard; Maynard Smith, J.; Holliday, Robin (21 September 1979). "Arms races between and within species".
2902:
Fox, Eduardo G.P.; Xu, Meng; Wang, Lei; Chen, Li; Lu, Yong-Yue (May 2018). "Speedy milking of fresh venom from aculeate hymenopterans".
2870:
5378:
4395:
2011:
Olivera, B. M.; Teichert, R. W. (2007). "Diversity of the neurotoxic Conus peptides: a model for concerted pharmacological discovery".
417:, the female continuously releases a venom that contains a sex pheromone that induces copulatory behavior in males. In wasps such as
4859:
4281:
3492:
2958:
3762:
Mebs, Dietrich (15 December 2009). "Chemical biology of the mutualistic relationships of sea anemones with fish and crustaceans".
3672:
Litsios, Glenn; Sims, Carrie A.; Wüest, Rafael O.; Pearman, Peter B.; Zimmermann, Niklaus E.; Salamin, Nicolas (2 November 2012).
5173:
2262:
1550:"Chemical characterization, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic properties of bee venom collected in Northeast Portugal"
2549:
Fry, B. G.; Vidal, N.; Norman, J. A.; et al. (February 2006). "Early evolution of the venom system in lizards and snakes".
4415:
3018:
2842:
Pal, S. K.; Gomes, A.; Dasgupta, S. C.; Gomes, A. (2002). "Snake venom as therapeutic agents: from toxin to drug development".
1655:
Post Downing, Jeanne (1983). "Venom: Source of a Sex Pheromone in the Social Wasp Polistes fuscatus (Hymenoptera: Vespidae)".
4991:
4986:
4352:
4256:
3904:
Mebs, D. (1 September 1994). "Anemonefish symbiosis: Vulnerability and resistance of fish to the toxin of the sea anemone".
240:
that they contain; some venoms are complex mixtures of toxins of differing types. Major classes of toxin in venoms include:
3559:
Heatwole, Harold; Poran, Naomie S. (15 February 1995). "Resistances of Sympatric and Allopatric Eels to Sea Snake Venoms".
1933:
5258:
4996:
4684:
1168:
4814:
1293:
Raffray, M.; Cohen, G. M. (1997). "Apoptosis and necrosis in toxicology: a continuum or distinct modes of cell death?".
985:
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981:
963:
5414:
5253:
4759:
4747:
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42:
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4276:
4103:
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479:
178:
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2284:
Hargreaves, Adam D.; Swain, Martin T.; Hegarty, Matthew J.; Logan, Darren W.; Mulley, John F. (30 July 2014).
107:, which is actively transferred to the external surface of another animal via a physical delivery mechanism.
103:, which is a toxin that is passively delivered by being ingested, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin, and
5298:
4919:
4829:
4633:
4139:
4093:
3019:"Coevolution takes the sting out of it: Evolutionary biology and mechanisms of toxin resistance in animals"
1706:
Post Downing, Jeanne (1984). "Alarm response to venom by social wasps Polistes exclamans and P. fuscatus".
4643:
4296:
4240:
38:
5366:
4383:
3225:"Venom Resistance as a Model for Understanding the Molecular Basis of Complex Coevolutionary Adaptations"
4966:
4869:
4849:
4261:
2086:"Venom Evolution Widespread in Fishes: A Phylogenetic Road Map for the Bioprospecting of Piscine Venoms"
1365:"Solution structure of crotamine, a Na+ channel affecting toxin from Crotalus durissus terrificus venom"
1328:
Dutertre, Sébastien; Lewis, Richard J. (2006). "Toxin insights into nicotinic acetylcholine receptors".
775:
514:
3947:
Lubbock, R.; Smith, David Cecil (13 February 1980). "Why are clownfishes not stung by sea anemones?".
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Venomous Amphibians (Page 1) – Reptiles (Including Dinosaurs) and Amphibians – Ask a Biologist Q&A
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of differing types. Toxins from venom are used to treat a wide range of medical conditions including
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4824:
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4625:
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3850:
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3076:
2617:
2558:
2490:
2342:
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1163:
188:
3432:"Coevolution of venom function and venom resistance in a rattlesnake predator and its squirrel prey"
2535:
Fry, B. G.; Wuster, W.; Ramjan, S. F. R.; Jackson, T.; Martelli, P.; Kini, R. M. 2003c. Analysis of
739:) and delivered to the target through tubular or channeled fangs. Snake venoms contain a variety of
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4504:
4478:
4371:
4118:
4108:
4046:
2875:
2333:
Daltry, Jennifer C.; Wuester, Wolfgang; Thorpe, Roger S. (1996). "Diet and snake venom evolution".
2052:
1549:
1003:
736:
298:
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Morgenstern, David; King, Glenn F. (1 March 2013). "The venom optimization hypothesis revisited".
2172:
Jared, Carlos; Mailho-Fontana, Pedro Luiz; Antoniazzi, Marta Maria; et al. (17 August 2015).
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2409:
2366:
2286:"Restriction and Recruitment—Gene Duplication and the Origin and Evolution of Snake Venom Toxins"
2219:
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882:
490:
419:
3223:
Holding, Matthew L.; Drabeck, Danielle H.; Jansa, Sharon A.; Gibbs, H. Lisle (1 November 2016).
2663:
Nekaris, K. Anne-Isola; Moore, Richard S.; Rode, E. Johanna; Fry, Bryan G. (27 September 2013).
110:
Venom has evolved in terrestrial and marine environments and in a wide variety of animals: both
3118:
McCabe, Thomas M.; Mackessy, Stephen P. (2015). Gopalakrishnakone, P.; Malhotra, Anita (eds.).
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722:
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413:
229:
192:
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Nedosyko, Anita M.; Young, Jeanne E.; Edwards, John W.; Silva, Karen Burke da (30 May 2014).
2974:
Calvete, Juan J. (December 2013). "Snake venomics: From the inventory of toxins to biology".
2880:
2665:"Mad, bad and dangerous to know: the biochemistry, ecology and evolution of slow loris venom"
1959:
79:
that is actively delivered through a wound by means of a bite, sting, or similar action. The
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1302:
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1218:
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717:
264:
221:
1414:"A new small myotoxin from the venom of the prairie rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis viridis)"
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4266:
4149:
3157:
3017:
Arbuckle, Kevin; Rodríguez de la Vega, Ricardo C.; Casewell, Nicholas R. (December 2017).
1209:
Kordiš, D.; Gubenšek, F. (2000). "Adaptive evolution of animal toxin multigene families".
906:
819:
3224:
3173:"Antagonistic Coevolution Mediated by Phenotypic Differences Between Quantitative Traits"
1608:"Cytotoxic and apoptotic activities of black widow spiderling extract against HeLa cells"
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1986:
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within the prey). Consequently, venoms become specialized to an animal's standard diet.
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1375:(9). Franzoni, L.; de Chiara, C.; Mancin, A. C.; Giglio, J. R.; Spisni, A.: 1969–1979.
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860:
807:
768:
756:
625:
3839:"Searching for a Toxic Key to Unlock the Mystery of Anemonefish and Anemone Symbiosis"
3607:
3272:
Calvete, Juan J. (1 March 2017). "Venomics: integrative venom proteomics and beyond".
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286:
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2413:
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Cantrell, F. L. (2003). "Envenomation by the Mexican beaded lizard: a case report".
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1918:
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have defensive venom glands associated with specialized bristles on the body called
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4882:
4230:
3104:
2714:
Ligabue-Braun, R.; Verli, H.; Carlini, C. R. (2012). "Venomous mammals: a review".
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3814:
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917:
venom has demonstrated biomedical applications, ranging from cancer treatment to
122:. Venoms kill through the action of at least four major classes of toxin, namely
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433:
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278:
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247:, which cause necrosis (i.e., death) in the cells they encounter. The venoms of
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50:
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169:
are investigating the potential use of venom toxins for many other conditions.
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408:
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290:
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154:
131:
115:
3925:
3872:
3783:
3707:
3698:
3674:"Mutualism with sea anemones triggered the adaptive radiation of clownfishes"
3650:
3483:
A field guide to reptiles and amphibians of Eastern and Central North America
3416:
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2207:
1865:
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5032:
4956:
4607:
4572:
4440:
4215:
3408:
2758:
Wong, E. S.; Belov, K. (2012). "Venom evolution through gene duplications".
2681:
2503:
2102:
2085:
1501:"Defensins and the convergent evolution of platypus and reptile venom genes"
1196:
1023:
992:
918:
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837:
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597:
569:
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369:
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139:
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The Cnidaria, Past, Present and Future: The world of Medusa and her sisters
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2649:
2578:
2522:
2405:
2319:
2215:
2111:
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1883:
1838:
Touchard, Axel; Aili, Samira; Fox, Eduardo; et al. (20 January 2016).
1824:
1780:
1727:
1684:
1641:
1584:
1534:
1499:
Whittington, C. M.; Papenfuss, A. T.; Bansal, P.; et al. (June 2008).
1390:
1349:
1279:
1246:"Animal poisons and the nervous system: what the neurologist needs to know"
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groups suggests that venom was an ancestral characteristic among mammals.
706:
5201:
5186:
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4638:
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3949:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences
3241:
3069:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences
2793:
GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators (17 December 2014).
2301:
922:
914:
849:
833:, is hypothesized to have had venom glands attached to its canine teeth.
803:
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143:
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111:
104:
3430:
Holding, Matthew L.; Biardi, James E.; Gibbs, H. Lisle (27 April 2016).
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17:
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5231:
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4593:
4347:
3580:
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3171:
Nuismer, Scott L.; Ridenhour, Benjamin J.; Oswald, Benjamin P. (2007).
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546:
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442:
308:
260:
92:
57:
3993:
Litsios, Glenn; Kostikova, Anna; Salamin, Nicolas (22 November 2014).
1548:
Sobral, Filipa; Sampaio, Andreia; Falcão, Soraia; et al. (2016).
429:, venom is applied all over the body as an antimicrobial protection.
5318:
5114:
5075:
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4463:
4169:
2354:
2024:
894:
857:
841:
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162:
146:. Venomous animals cause tens of thousands of human deaths per year.
100:
76:
31:
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2150:
307:, which damage muscles by binding to a receptor. These small, basic
5332:
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4184:
2669:
Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases
1606:
Peng, Xiaozhen; Dai, Zhipan; Lei, Qian; et al. (April 2017).
998:
585:
573:
478:
312:
237:
216:
212:
184:
150:
88:
80:
72:
49:
37:
This article is about the class of biotoxins. For other uses, see
3995:"Host specialist clownfishes are environmental niche generalists"
2600:
Benoit, J.; Norton, L. A.; Manger, P. R.; Rubidge, B. S. (2017).
273:, which primarily affect the nervous systems of animals, such as
5321:
is generally non-toxic metal, but in large doses it can lead to
404:
54:
4411:
4042:
217:
760:
458:
400:
252:
4038:
725:(example on the right) which help digest prey before eating.
568:
Venom is found in some 200 cartilaginous fishes, including
3741:"The anemonefish symbiosis: what is known and what is not"
2606:(Therapsida, Therocephalia) using μCT-scanning techniques"
489:
has among the most dangerous venom of any animal, causing
2434:"Animal Venom Database Could Be Boon To Drug Development"
1961:
Aquatic Dermatology: Biotic, Chemical and Physical Agents
836:
A few species of living mammals are venomous, including
440:. These are usually merely irritating, but those of the
3999:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
3809:, Springer International Publishing, pp. 425–438,
3436:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
497:
severe pain, vomiting, and rapid rise in blood pressure
1018:
Clownfish always live among the tentacles of venomous
984:
has varying degrees of resistance to the venom of the
2941:. In Gopalakrishnakone, P.; Calvete, Juan J. (eds.).
5276:
5220:
5168:
5091:
5007:
4943:
4936:
4895:
4868:
4800:
4791:
4782:
4728:
4700:
4670:
4661:
4624:
4606:
4586:
4543:
4495:
4486:
4477:
4315:
4249:
4198:
4132:
4076:
3988:
3986:
3122:. Toxinology. Springer Netherlands. pp. 1–19.
2079:
2077:
2075:
1250:
Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry
774:Venom is found in a few other reptiles such as the
333:
of honey bees and the venom of black widow spiders.
329:, which kill individual cells and are found in the
277:. These are found in many venomous taxa, including
236:Venoms cause their biological effects via the many
3480:
2461:Fry, B. G.; Wroe, S.; Teeuwisse, W. (June 2009).
2127:. Askabiologist.org.uk. Retrieved on 2013-07-17.
885:proteins are used to treat conditions including
1840:"The Biochemical Toxin Arsenal from Ant Venoms"
1958:Bonamonte, Domenico; Angelini, Gianni (2016).
1494:
1492:
228:in bee venom, releases fatty acids, affecting
4423:
4054:
3487:(Second ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
2427:
2425:
2423:
2084:Smith, William Leo; Wheeler, Ward C. (2006).
199:'s particular prey (particularly the precise
8:
501:There are venomous invertebrates in several
449:Bees synthesize and employ an acidic venom (
2602:"Reappraisal of the envenoming capacity of
1015:have little resistance to sea snake venom.
5313:
4940:
4797:
4788:
4667:
4492:
4483:
4430:
4416:
4408:
4061:
4047:
4039:
2945:. Springer Netherlands. pp. 149–167.
2463:"A central role for venom in predation by
2386:Journal of Toxicology. Clinical Toxicology
1964:. Springer International. pp. 54–56.
1113:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
996:for example, king cobras or black mambas.
782:, and some monitor lizards, including the
183:The use of venom across a wide variety of
4018:
3880:
3862:
3751:: 23–46 – via University of Kansas.
3715:
3697:
3455:
3240:
3188:
3120:Evolution of Resistance to Toxins in Prey
2818:
2690:
2680:
2639:
2629:
2512:
2502:
2309:
2197:
2101:
1873:
1855:
1770:
1631:
1524:
1429:
1380:
1269:
1083:Reproductive and developmental toxicology
1010:tentacles and are resistant to the venom.
735:is produced by glands below the eye (the
83:is delivered through a specially evolved
3218:
3216:
2937:Fox, Eduardo Gonçalves Paterson (2021).
2456:
2454:
2048:"All Octopuses Are Venomous, Study Says"
731:Some 450 species of snake are venomous.
1076:
1074:
1053:
4343:List of extremely hazardous substances
3153:
3143:
2869:Holland, Jennifer S. (February 2013).
2844:Indian Journal of Experimental Biology
2467:(Komodo Dragon) and the extinct giant
1106:
715:The venom of the prairie rattlesnake,
584:(about 1000 venomous species); and 11
461:, also produce venom. The ant species
2174:"Venomous Frogs Use Heads as Weapons"
1985:Gallagher, Scott A. (2 August 2017).
1934:"What's Behind That Jellyfish Sting?"
1612:Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine
1128:Chippaux, JP; Goyffon, M (2006). "".
149:Venoms are often complex mixtures of
7:
5361:
4378:
1412:Griffin, P. R.; Aird, S. D. (1990).
471:for the sterilisation of pathogens.
99:. Venom is often distinguished from
5373:
4390:
3229:Integrative and Comparative Biology
1899:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
483:The fingernail-sized box jellyfish
2432:Mullin, Emily (29 November 2015).
2265:. A. D. A. M. Inc. 16 October 2017
1081:Gupta, Ramesh C. (24 March 2017).
259:; viper venoms often also contain
25:
4282:Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko
1085:. Saint Louis. pp. 963–972.
5372:
5360:
5349:
5348:
4389:
4377:
4366:
4365:
3190:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00158.x
2046:Barry, Carolyn (17 April 2009).
1382:10.1046/j.1432-1033.2003.03563.x
1244:Harris, J. B. (September 2004).
952:
943:
705:
696:
134:, which affect nervous systems;
3766:. Cnidarian Toxins and Venoms.
1932:Frost, Emily (30 August 2013).
1295:Pharmacology & Therapeutics
767:that had been expressed in the
4353:Occupational safety and health
4257:1858 Bradford sweets poisoning
2241:. Sterling. pp. 194–209.
1763:10.1016/j.jinsphys.2011.11.007
399:inject venom with a sting. In
1:
3776:10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.02.027
3608:10.1016/S0041-0101(97)00081-0
3329:10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.11.022
3128:10.1007/978-94-007-6727-0_6-1
3038:10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.10.026
2988:10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.03.020
2943:Venom Genomics and Proteomics
2916:10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.02.050
2811:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61682-2
2728:10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.02.012
1817:10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.01.013
1307:10.1016/s0163-7258(97)00037-5
1223:10.1016/s0378-1119(00)00490-x
1169:Australian Academy of Science
446:moth can be fatal to humans.
3918:10.1016/0041-0101(94)90390-5
3864:10.1371/journal.pone.0098449
3815:10.1007/978-3-319-31305-4_27
3643:10.1016/0041-0101(92)90868-6
3365:10.1016/0041-0101(87)90127-9
2951:10.1007/978-94-007-6416-3_38
2631:10.1371/journal.pone.0172047
2290:Genome Biology and Evolution
1751:Journal of Insect Physiology
1557:Food and Chemical Toxicology
1475:10.1016/0041-0101(91)90020-r
1431:10.1016/0014-5793(90)81325-I
1066:Dorland's Medical Dictionary
986:Northern Pacific rattlesnake
968:Northern Pacific rattlesnake
407:, the stinger is a modified
351:Venomous arthropods include
138:, which damage muscles; and
2939:"Venom Toxins of Fire Ants"
1708:Journal of Chemical Ecology
1657:Journal of Chemical Ecology
1006:always live among venomous
790:, containing the suborders
355:, which use fangs on their
27:Toxin secreted by an animal
5433:
5101:Arthropod bites and stings
4720:Nitrogen dioxide poisoning
3739:Fautin, Daphne G. (1991).
2772:10.1016/j.gene.2012.01.009
982:California ground squirrel
964:California ground squirrel
932:
817:
681:
675:
561:
210:
176:
36:
29:
5344:
5316:
5312:
4860:Tricyclic antidepressants
4459:
4361:
4302:2022 Aqaba toxic gas leak
2239:Snakes: A Natural History
2199:10.1016/j.cub.2015.06.061
1987:"Echinoderm Envenomation"
1911:10.1007/s00265-011-1242-y
1569:10.1016/j.fct.2016.06.008
1363:Nicastro, G. (May 2003).
1342:10.1016/j.bcp.2006.03.027
426:Parischnogaster striatula
43:Venomous (disambiguation)
4292:Consumption of Tide Pods
4277:Niigata Minamata disease
4104:Environmental toxicology
3699:10.1186/1471-2148-12-212
3678:BMC Evolutionary Biology
2237:Bauchot, Roland (1994).
1330:Biochemical Pharmacology
1262:10.1136/jnnp.2004.045724
1256:(suppl_3): iii40–iii46.
1042:Schmidt Sting Pain Index
935:Antipredator adaptations
883:In medicine, snake venom
688:Evolution of snake venom
678:Big Four (Indian snakes)
642:deepwater scorpionfishes
411:(egg-laying device). In
391:to deliver venom, while
179:Evolution of snake venom
30:Not to be confused with
5299:List of types of poison
4855:Serotonergic substances
4140:Acceptable daily intake
4094:Occupational toxicology
3409:10.1163/156853993X00542
2682:10.1186/1678-9199-19-21
2504:10.1073/pnas.0810883106
2013:Molecular Interventions
921:. A branch of science,
751:protein peptide bonds;
588:of spiny-rayed fishes (
60:with a droplet of venom
4587:Other non-toxic metals
4297:Visakhapatnam gas leak
4241:Whole bowel irrigation
4011:10.1098/rspb.2013.3220
3969:10.1098/rspb.1980.0013
3518:Journal of Herpetology
3479:Conant, Roger (1975).
3448:10.1098/rspb.2015.2841
3089:10.1098/rspb.1979.0081
2604:Euchambersia mirabilis
1011:
829:, an extinct genus of
755:, which hydrolyze the
509:such as the dangerous
498:
233:
95:, in a process called
61:
39:Venom (disambiguation)
4967:Ichthyoallyeinotoxism
4262:2007 pet food recalls
2871:"The Bite That Heals"
2398:10.1081/CLT-120021105
2103:10.1093/jhered/esj034
1857:10.3390/toxins8010030
1624:10.3892/etm.2017.4391
1193:doi:10.1111/brv.12062
1002:
933:Further information:
776:Mexican beaded lizard
676:Further information:
517:(a siphonophore) and
515:Portuguese man-of-war
482:
299:blue-ringed octopuses
220:
177:Further information:
53:
4160:Fixed-dose procedure
2060:on 30 September 2018
966:is resistant to the
765:duplication of genes
596:(over 300 species),
189:convergent evolution
130:, which kill cells;
5337:foodborne illnesses
5294:Lists of poisonings
4977:Shellfish poisoning
4685:Aluminium phosphide
4119:In vitro toxicology
4109:Forensic toxicology
3961:1980RSPSB.207...35L
3855:2014PLoSO...998449N
3690:2012BMCEE..12..212L
3286:10.1042/BCJ20160577
3274:Biochemical Journal
3081:1979RSPSB.205..489D
2876:National Geographic
2622:2017PLoSO..1272047B
2571:10.1038/nature04328
2563:2006Natur.439..584F
2495:2009PNAS..106.8969F
2465:Varanus komodoensis
2347:1996Natur.379..537D
2190:2015CBio...25.2166J
2090:Journal of Heredity
2053:National Geographic
1669:1983JCEco...9..259P
1004:Ocellaris clownfish
600:(over 80 species),
475:Other invertebrates
279:black widow spiders
114:and prey, and both
5289:EPA list of hazard
5071:Alpha-Bungarotoxin
4815:Anticholinesterase
4323:Biological warfare
4307:List of poisonings
4114:Medical toxicology
4084:Aquatic toxicology
4005:(1795): 20133220.
3442:(1829): 20152841.
3242:10.1093/icb/icw082
2302:10.1093/gbe/evu166
1720:10.1007/BF00990313
1677:10.1007/bf00988043
1517:10.1101/gr.7149808
1164:"Poison vs. Venom"
1130:Médecine Tropicale
1012:
970:'s powerful venom.
743:toxins, including
723:metalloproteinases
592:), containing the
499:
491:Irukandji syndrome
420:Polistes exclamans
275:ion channel toxins
234:
230:calcium signalling
62:
5405:Animal physiology
5392:
5391:
5388:
5387:
5272:
5271:
5254:Poisonous animals
4932:
4931:
4897:Vitamin poisoning
4891:
4890:
4778:
4777:
4657:
4656:
4602:
4601:
4405:
4404:
4221:Chelation therapy
3824:978-3-319-31305-4
3137:978-94-007-6727-0
3075:(1161): 489–511.
2850:(12): 1353–1358.
2805:(9963): 117–171.
2557:(7076): 584–588.
2489:(22): 8969–8974.
2341:(6565): 537–540.
2248:978-1-4027-3181-5
2184:(16): 2166–2170.
1971:978-3-319-40615-2
1905:(12): 2319–2327.
1714:(10): 1425–1433.
1172:. 3 November 2017
1092:978-0-12-804240-3
798:and the families
737:mandibular glands
721:(left), includes
464:Polyrhachis dives
414:Polistes fuscatus
193:actively selected
187:is an example of
16:(Redirected from
5422:
5415:Venomous animals
5376:
5375:
5364:
5363:
5352:
5351:
5325:, which is rare.
5314:
5249:Venomous animals
4941:
4798:
4789:
4690:Organophosphates
4668:
4545:Dietary minerals
4493:
4484:
4432:
4425:
4418:
4409:
4393:
4392:
4381:
4380:
4369:
4368:
4272:Minamata disease
4206:Activated carbon
4155:Biomagnification
4099:Entomotoxicology
4063:
4056:
4049:
4040:
4033:
4032:
4022:
3990:
3981:
3980:
3944:
3938:
3937:
3912:(9): 1059–1068.
3901:
3895:
3894:
3884:
3866:
3834:
3828:
3827:
3802:
3796:
3795:
3770:(8): 1071–1074.
3759:
3753:
3752:
3736:
3730:
3729:
3719:
3701:
3669:
3663:
3662:
3626:
3620:
3619:
3591:
3585:
3584:
3556:
3550:
3549:
3513:
3507:
3506:
3486:
3476:
3470:
3469:
3459:
3427:
3421:
3420:
3403:(1–2): 137–162.
3391:
3385:
3384:
3347:
3341:
3340:
3312:
3306:
3305:
3269:
3263:
3262:
3244:
3235:(5): 1032–1043.
3220:
3211:
3210:
3192:
3183:(8): 1823–1834.
3168:
3162:
3161:
3155:
3151:
3149:
3141:
3115:
3109:
3108:
3064:
3058:
3057:
3023:
3014:
3008:
3007:
2971:
2965:
2964:
2934:
2928:
2927:
2899:
2893:
2892:
2890:
2888:
2879:. Archived from
2866:
2860:
2859:
2839:
2833:
2832:
2822:
2790:
2784:
2783:
2755:
2749:
2746:
2740:
2739:
2722:(7–8): 680–695.
2711:
2705:
2704:
2694:
2684:
2660:
2654:
2653:
2643:
2633:
2597:
2591:
2590:
2546:
2540:
2533:
2527:
2526:
2516:
2506:
2458:
2449:
2448:
2446:
2444:
2429:
2418:
2417:
2381:
2375:
2374:
2355:10.1038/379537a0
2330:
2324:
2323:
2313:
2296:(8): 2088–2095.
2281:
2275:
2274:
2272:
2270:
2259:
2253:
2252:
2234:
2228:
2227:
2201:
2169:
2163:
2162:
2134:
2128:
2122:
2116:
2115:
2105:
2081:
2070:
2069:
2067:
2065:
2056:. Archived from
2043:
2037:
2036:
2025:10.1124/mi.7.5.7
2008:
2002:
2001:
1999:
1997:
1982:
1976:
1975:
1955:
1949:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1929:
1923:
1922:
1894:
1888:
1887:
1877:
1859:
1835:
1829:
1828:
1811:(7): 1103–1112.
1799:
1793:
1792:
1774:
1746:
1740:
1739:
1703:
1697:
1696:
1652:
1646:
1645:
1635:
1618:(6): 3267–3274.
1603:
1597:
1596:
1554:
1545:
1539:
1538:
1528:
1496:
1487:
1486:
1458:
1452:
1451:
1433:
1409:
1403:
1402:
1384:
1360:
1354:
1353:
1325:
1319:
1318:
1290:
1284:
1283:
1273:
1241:
1235:
1234:
1206:
1200:
1188:
1182:
1181:
1179:
1177:
1160:
1154:
1153:
1125:
1119:
1118:
1112:
1104:
1078:
1069:
1058:
956:
947:
905:, used to treat
871:Venom and humans
718:Crotalus viridis
709:
700:
630:red velvetfishes
496:
438:urticating hairs
390:
389:
385:
379:
378:
374:
265:serine proteases
222:Phospholipase A2
142:, which disrupt
21:
5432:
5431:
5425:
5424:
5423:
5421:
5420:
5419:
5395:
5394:
5393:
5384:
5340:
5326:
5308:
5268:
5216:
5164:
5087:
5003:
4928:
4923:
4887:
4864:
4830:Benzodiazepines
4774:
4760:Carbon monoxide
4748:Ethylene glycol
4724:
4696:
4653:
4620:
4598:
4582:
4539:
4473:
4455:
4436:
4406:
4401:
4357:
4311:
4287:Seveso disaster
4267:Bhopal disaster
4245:
4194:
4150:Bioaccumulation
4128:
4072:
4067:
4037:
4036:
3992:
3991:
3984:
3955:(1166): 35–61.
3946:
3945:
3941:
3903:
3902:
3898:
3836:
3835:
3831:
3825:
3804:
3803:
3799:
3761:
3760:
3756:
3738:
3737:
3733:
3671:
3670:
3666:
3628:
3627:
3623:
3593:
3592:
3588:
3573:10.2307/1446808
3558:
3557:
3553:
3530:10.2307/1565123
3515:
3514:
3510:
3495:
3478:
3477:
3473:
3429:
3428:
3424:
3393:
3392:
3388:
3349:
3348:
3344:
3314:
3313:
3309:
3271:
3270:
3266:
3222:
3221:
3214:
3170:
3169:
3165:
3152:
3142:
3138:
3117:
3116:
3112:
3066:
3065:
3061:
3021:
3016:
3015:
3011:
2973:
2972:
2968:
2961:
2936:
2935:
2931:
2901:
2900:
2896:
2886:
2884:
2868:
2867:
2863:
2841:
2840:
2836:
2792:
2791:
2787:
2757:
2756:
2752:
2747:
2743:
2713:
2712:
2708:
2662:
2661:
2657:
2616:(2): e0172047.
2599:
2598:
2594:
2548:
2547:
2543:
2534:
2530:
2460:
2459:
2452:
2442:
2440:
2431:
2430:
2421:
2383:
2382:
2378:
2332:
2331:
2327:
2283:
2282:
2278:
2268:
2266:
2261:
2260:
2256:
2249:
2236:
2235:
2231:
2178:Current Biology
2171:
2170:
2166:
2151:10.2307/1443606
2136:
2135:
2131:
2123:
2119:
2083:
2082:
2073:
2063:
2061:
2045:
2044:
2040:
2010:
2009:
2005:
1995:
1993:
1984:
1983:
1979:
1972:
1957:
1956:
1952:
1942:
1940:
1931:
1930:
1926:
1896:
1895:
1891:
1837:
1836:
1832:
1801:
1800:
1796:
1748:
1747:
1743:
1705:
1704:
1700:
1654:
1653:
1649:
1605:
1604:
1600:
1552:
1547:
1546:
1542:
1505:Genome Research
1498:
1497:
1490:
1460:
1459:
1455:
1411:
1410:
1406:
1369:Eur. J. Biochem
1362:
1361:
1357:
1327:
1326:
1322:
1292:
1291:
1287:
1243:
1242:
1238:
1208:
1207:
1203:
1189:
1185:
1175:
1173:
1162:
1161:
1157:
1127:
1126:
1122:
1105:
1093:
1080:
1079:
1072:
1059:
1055:
1050:
1038:
1022:(an obligatory
974:
973:
972:
971:
959:
958:
957:
949:
948:
937:
931:
913:extracted from
907:type 2 diabetes
901:venom contains
873:
831:therocephalians
822:
820:Venomous mammal
816:
769:salivary glands
729:
728:
727:
726:
712:
711:
710:
702:
701:
690:
682:Main articles:
680:
674:
662:
626:coral crouchers
602:gurnard perches
566:
560:
555:
495: —
494:
477:
387:
383:
381:
376:
372:
368:
349:
340:
338:Taxonomic range
215:
209:
181:
175:
85:venom apparatus
75:produced by an
46:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5430:
5429:
5426:
5418:
5417:
5412:
5407:
5397:
5396:
5390:
5389:
5386:
5385:
5383:
5382:
5370:
5358:
5345:
5342:
5341:
5317:
5310:
5309:
5307:
5306:
5301:
5296:
5291:
5286:
5280:
5278:
5274:
5273:
5270:
5269:
5267:
5266:
5264:Mycotoxicology
5261:
5256:
5251:
5246:
5241:
5240:
5239:
5224:
5222:
5221:Related topics
5218:
5217:
5215:
5214:
5209:
5204:
5199:
5194:
5189:
5184:
5178:
5176:
5166:
5165:
5163:
5162:
5160:Tick paralysis
5157:
5156:
5155:
5150:
5136:
5135:
5134:
5127:Scorpion venom
5124:
5123:
5122:
5117:
5103:
5097:
5095:
5089:
5088:
5086:
5085:
5084:
5083:
5078:
5073:
5059:
5054:
5053:
5052:
5042:
5041:
5040:
5035:
5030:
5025:
5014:
5012:
5005:
5004:
5002:
5001:
5000:
4999:
4994:
4989:
4984:
4974:
4969:
4964:
4959:
4953:
4951:
4938:
4934:
4933:
4930:
4929:
4927:
4926:
4921:
4917:
4912:
4907:
4901:
4899:
4893:
4892:
4889:
4888:
4886:
4885:
4880:
4874:
4872:
4870:Cardiovascular
4866:
4865:
4863:
4862:
4857:
4852:
4847:
4842:
4837:
4832:
4827:
4822:
4817:
4812:
4806:
4804:
4795:
4793:Drug overdoses
4786:
4784:Pharmaceutical
4780:
4779:
4776:
4775:
4773:
4772:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4756:
4755:
4750:
4745:
4732:
4730:
4726:
4725:
4723:
4722:
4717:
4712:
4706:
4704:
4698:
4697:
4695:
4694:
4693:
4692:
4687:
4676:
4674:
4665:
4659:
4658:
4655:
4654:
4652:
4651:
4646:
4641:
4636:
4630:
4628:
4622:
4621:
4619:
4618:
4612:
4610:
4604:
4603:
4600:
4599:
4597:
4596:
4590:
4588:
4584:
4583:
4581:
4580:
4575:
4570:
4565:
4560:
4555:
4549:
4547:
4541:
4540:
4538:
4537:
4532:
4527:
4522:
4517:
4512:
4507:
4501:
4499:
4490:
4481:
4475:
4474:
4472:
4471:
4466:
4460:
4457:
4456:
4454:
4453:
4448:
4443:
4437:
4435:
4434:
4427:
4420:
4412:
4403:
4402:
4400:
4399:
4387:
4375:
4362:
4359:
4358:
4356:
4355:
4350:
4345:
4340:
4335:
4330:
4325:
4319:
4317:
4316:Related topics
4313:
4312:
4310:
4309:
4304:
4299:
4294:
4289:
4284:
4279:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4259:
4253:
4251:
4247:
4246:
4244:
4243:
4238:
4233:
4228:
4226:Gastric lavage
4223:
4218:
4213:
4208:
4202:
4200:
4196:
4195:
4193:
4192:
4187:
4182:
4180:Toxicity class
4177:
4175:Toxic capacity
4172:
4167:
4162:
4157:
4152:
4147:
4145:Acute toxicity
4142:
4136:
4134:
4130:
4129:
4127:
4126:
4124:Toxicogenomics
4121:
4116:
4111:
4106:
4101:
4096:
4091:
4086:
4080:
4078:
4074:
4073:
4068:
4066:
4065:
4058:
4051:
4043:
4035:
4034:
3982:
3939:
3896:
3829:
3823:
3797:
3754:
3731:
3664:
3637:(3): 259–264.
3621:
3602:(4): 619–625.
3586:
3551:
3508:
3493:
3471:
3422:
3386:
3359:(7): 767–777.
3342:
3307:
3280:(5): 611–634.
3264:
3212:
3163:
3136:
3110:
3059:
3009:
2966:
2959:
2929:
2894:
2883:on 25 May 2018
2861:
2834:
2785:
2750:
2741:
2706:
2655:
2592:
2541:
2528:
2450:
2419:
2392:(3): 241–244.
2376:
2325:
2276:
2254:
2247:
2229:
2164:
2145:(3): 424–429.
2129:
2117:
2096:(3): 206–217.
2071:
2038:
2019:(5): 251–260.
2003:
1977:
1970:
1950:
1924:
1889:
1830:
1794:
1757:(1): 188–193.
1741:
1698:
1663:(2): 259–266.
1647:
1598:
1540:
1511:(6): 986–094.
1488:
1469:(4): 461–468.
1453:
1404:
1355:
1336:(6): 661–670.
1320:
1301:(3): 153–177.
1285:
1236:
1201:
1183:
1155:
1120:
1091:
1070:
1052:
1051:
1049:
1046:
1045:
1044:
1037:
1034:
961:
960:
951:
950:
942:
941:
940:
939:
938:
930:
927:
872:
869:
861:Mammaliaformes
818:Main article:
815:
812:
808:Helodermatidae
771:of ancestors.
757:phosphodiester
714:
713:
704:
703:
695:
694:
693:
692:
691:
673:
670:
661:
658:
594:scorpionfishes
562:Main article:
559:
556:
554:
551:
476:
473:
348:
345:
339:
336:
335:
334:
324:
302:
268:
257:phospholipases
211:Main article:
208:
205:
174:
171:
144:blood clotting
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5428:
5427:
5416:
5413:
5411:
5408:
5406:
5403:
5402:
5400:
5381:
5380:
5371:
5369:
5368:
5359:
5357:
5356:
5347:
5346:
5343:
5338:
5334:
5330:
5324:
5320:
5315:
5311:
5305:
5302:
5300:
5297:
5295:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5285:
5282:
5281:
5279:
5277:Miscellaneous
5275:
5265:
5262:
5260:
5259:Deadly fungus
5257:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5247:
5245:
5242:
5238:
5235:
5234:
5233:
5229:
5226:
5225:
5223:
5219:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5203:
5200:
5198:
5195:
5193:
5190:
5188:
5185:
5183:
5180:
5179:
5177:
5175:
5171:
5167:
5161:
5158:
5154:
5151:
5149:
5145:
5142:
5141:
5140:
5137:
5133:
5132:Charybdotoxin
5130:
5129:
5128:
5125:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5113:
5112:
5111:
5107:
5104:
5102:
5099:
5098:
5096:
5094:
5090:
5082:
5079:
5077:
5074:
5072:
5069:
5068:
5067:
5063:
5060:
5058:
5055:
5051:
5048:
5047:
5046:
5043:
5039:
5036:
5034:
5031:
5029:
5026:
5024:
5023:Batrachotoxin
5021:
5020:
5019:
5016:
5015:
5013:
5011:
5006:
4998:
4995:
4993:
4990:
4988:
4985:
4983:
4980:
4979:
4978:
4975:
4973:
4970:
4968:
4965:
4963:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4954:
4952:
4950:
4946:
4942:
4939:
4935:
4925:
4920:Megavitamin-B
4918:
4916:
4913:
4911:
4908:
4906:
4903:
4902:
4900:
4898:
4894:
4884:
4881:
4879:
4876:
4875:
4873:
4871:
4867:
4861:
4858:
4856:
4853:
4851:
4848:
4846:
4843:
4841:
4838:
4836:
4833:
4831:
4828:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4807:
4805:
4803:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4790:
4787:
4785:
4781:
4771:
4768:
4766:
4763:
4761:
4758:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4741:
4740:
4739:
4738:
4734:
4733:
4731:
4727:
4721:
4718:
4716:
4713:
4711:
4708:
4707:
4705:
4703:
4699:
4691:
4688:
4686:
4683:
4682:
4681:
4678:
4677:
4675:
4673:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4660:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4642:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4634:Sulfuric acid
4632:
4631:
4629:
4627:
4623:
4617:
4614:
4613:
4611:
4609:
4605:
4595:
4592:
4591:
4589:
4585:
4579:
4576:
4574:
4571:
4569:
4566:
4564:
4561:
4559:
4556:
4554:
4551:
4550:
4548:
4546:
4542:
4536:
4533:
4531:
4528:
4526:
4523:
4521:
4518:
4516:
4513:
4511:
4508:
4506:
4503:
4502:
4500:
4498:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4476:
4470:
4467:
4465:
4462:
4461:
4458:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4444:
4442:
4439:
4438:
4433:
4428:
4426:
4421:
4419:
4414:
4413:
4410:
4398:
4397:
4388:
4386:
4385:
4376:
4374:
4373:
4364:
4363:
4360:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4346:
4344:
4341:
4339:
4338:Hazard symbol
4336:
4334:
4331:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4321:
4320:
4318:
4314:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4300:
4298:
4295:
4293:
4290:
4288:
4285:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4254:
4252:
4248:
4242:
4239:
4237:
4236:Hemoperfusion
4234:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4203:
4201:
4197:
4191:
4188:
4186:
4183:
4181:
4178:
4176:
4173:
4171:
4168:
4166:
4163:
4161:
4158:
4156:
4153:
4151:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4137:
4135:
4131:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4102:
4100:
4097:
4095:
4092:
4090:
4089:Ecotoxicology
4087:
4085:
4082:
4081:
4079:
4075:
4071:
4064:
4059:
4057:
4052:
4050:
4045:
4044:
4041:
4030:
4026:
4021:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3989:
3987:
3983:
3978:
3974:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3943:
3940:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3907:
3900:
3897:
3892:
3888:
3883:
3878:
3874:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3849:(5): e98449.
3848:
3844:
3840:
3833:
3830:
3826:
3820:
3816:
3812:
3808:
3801:
3798:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3781:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3758:
3755:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3735:
3732:
3727:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3709:
3705:
3700:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3683:
3679:
3675:
3668:
3665:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3625:
3622:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3590:
3587:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3555:
3552:
3547:
3543:
3539:
3535:
3531:
3527:
3523:
3519:
3512:
3509:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3494:0-395-19979-4
3490:
3485:
3484:
3475:
3472:
3467:
3463:
3458:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3426:
3423:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3390:
3387:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3346:
3343:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3311:
3308:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3268:
3265:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3243:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3219:
3217:
3213:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3191:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3167:
3164:
3159:
3147:
3139:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3114:
3111:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3063:
3060:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3020:
3013:
3010:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2970:
2967:
2962:
2960:9789400766495
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2933:
2930:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2898:
2895:
2882:
2878:
2877:
2872:
2865:
2862:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2838:
2835:
2830:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2789:
2786:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2754:
2751:
2745:
2742:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2710:
2707:
2702:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2659:
2656:
2651:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2605:
2596:
2593:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2545:
2542:
2538:
2532:
2529:
2524:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2457:
2455:
2451:
2439:
2435:
2428:
2426:
2424:
2420:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2380:
2377:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2329:
2326:
2321:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2280:
2277:
2264:
2263:"Snake Bites"
2258:
2255:
2250:
2244:
2240:
2233:
2230:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2168:
2165:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2133:
2130:
2126:
2121:
2118:
2113:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2080:
2078:
2076:
2072:
2059:
2055:
2054:
2049:
2042:
2039:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2007:
2004:
1992:
1988:
1981:
1978:
1973:
1967:
1963:
1962:
1954:
1951:
1939:
1935:
1928:
1925:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1893:
1890:
1885:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1858:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1834:
1831:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1798:
1795:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1745:
1742:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1702:
1699:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
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1187:
1184:
1171:
1170:
1165:
1159:
1156:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1136:(3): 215–20.
1135:
1132:(in French).
1131:
1124:
1121:
1116:
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1102:
1098:
1094:
1088:
1084:
1077:
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832:
828:
827:
821:
813:
811:
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805:
801:
797:
793:
789:
785:
784:Komodo dragon
781:
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772:
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766:
762:
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746:
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734:
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659:
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639:
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631:
627:
623:
619:
615:
614:surgeonfishes
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
591:
590:Acanthomorpha
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
565:
564:Venomous fish
557:
552:
550:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
531:Echinodermata
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
511:box jellyfish
508:
504:
492:
488:
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410:
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398:
395:and stinging
394:
371:
366:
362:
358:
354:
346:
344:
337:
332:
328:
325:
322:
318:
314:
311:are found in
310:
306:
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300:
296:
292:
288:
287:box jellyfish
284:
280:
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269:
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172:
170:
168:
165:. Studies in
164:
160:
156:
152:
147:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
120:invertebrates
117:
113:
108:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
71:is a type of
70:
66:
59:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
33:
19:
5377:
5365:
5353:
5328:
5148:Latrodectism
5139:spider venom
4962:Haff disease
4883:Dipyridamole
4825:Barbiturates
4735:
4497:Toxic metals
4394:
4382:
4370:
4231:Hemodialysis
4189:
4002:
3998:
3952:
3948:
3942:
3909:
3905:
3899:
3846:
3842:
3832:
3806:
3800:
3767:
3763:
3757:
3748:
3744:
3734:
3681:
3677:
3667:
3634:
3630:
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3589:
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3554:
3521:
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3511:
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3389:
3356:
3352:
3345:
3320:
3316:
3310:
3277:
3273:
3267:
3232:
3228:
3180:
3176:
3166:
3119:
3113:
3072:
3068:
3062:
3029:
3025:
3012:
2979:
2975:
2969:
2942:
2932:
2907:
2903:
2897:
2887:30 September
2885:. Retrieved
2881:the original
2874:
2864:
2847:
2843:
2837:
2802:
2798:
2788:
2763:
2759:
2753:
2744:
2719:
2715:
2709:
2672:
2668:
2658:
2613:
2609:
2603:
2595:
2554:
2550:
2544:
2531:
2486:
2482:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2443:30 September
2441:. Retrieved
2437:
2389:
2385:
2379:
2338:
2334:
2328:
2293:
2289:
2279:
2269:30 September
2267:. Retrieved
2257:
2238:
2232:
2181:
2177:
2167:
2142:
2138:
2132:
2120:
2093:
2089:
2064:30 September
2062:. Retrieved
2058:the original
2051:
2041:
2016:
2012:
2006:
1994:. Retrieved
1990:
1980:
1960:
1953:
1943:30 September
1941:. Retrieved
1937:
1927:
1902:
1898:
1892:
1847:
1843:
1833:
1808:
1804:
1797:
1754:
1750:
1744:
1711:
1707:
1701:
1660:
1656:
1650:
1615:
1611:
1601:
1560:
1556:
1543:
1508:
1504:
1466:
1462:
1456:
1424:(1): 43–47.
1421:
1418:FEBS Letters
1417:
1407:
1372:
1368:
1358:
1333:
1329:
1323:
1298:
1294:
1288:
1253:
1249:
1239:
1217:(1): 43–52.
1214:
1210:
1204:
1186:
1174:. Retrieved
1167:
1158:
1133:
1129:
1123:
1082:
1064:
1056:
1020:sea anemones
1017:
1013:
990:
979:
975:
899:Gila monster
881:
876:Envenomation
874:
865:
854:slow lorises
846:vampire bats
835:
826:Euchambersia
824:
823:
780:gila monster
773:
730:
716:
663:
618:velvetfishes
610:rabbitfishes
567:
545:, among the
541:, including
519:sea anemones
505:, including
500:
484:
462:
448:
441:
434:caterpillars
431:
424:
418:
412:
367:, which use
361:inject venom
350:
341:
235:
201:ion channels
182:
148:
109:
97:envenomation
84:
68:
64:
63:
47:
5379:WikiProject
5192:Fish toxins
5153:Loxoscelism
5066:Snake venom
5038:Physalaemin
5010:vertebrates
4850:Paracetamol
4396:WikiProject
4333:Food safety
4165:Lethal dose
3323:: 120–128.
3154:|work=
3032:: 118–131.
2910:: 120–123.
2537:Colubroidea
1938:Smithsonian
1772:2158/790328
1577:10198/13492
1563:: 172–177.
1029:nematocysts
1008:sea anemone
911:Solenopsins
893:, and some
733:Snake venom
684:Snake venom
666:salamanders
598:stonefishes
553:Vertebrates
539:cephalopods
535:cone snails
527:sea urchins
467:uses venom
317:rattlesnake
291:cone snails
271:Neurotoxins
245:Necrotoxins
161:, and some
140:haemotoxins
132:neurotoxins
124:necrotoxins
116:vertebrates
5399:Categories
5327:including
5284:Antibiotic
5212:Strychnine
5182:Cinchonism
5144:Latrotoxin
5093:Arthropods
5081:Batroxobin
4992:Neurotoxic
4987:Diarrhetic
4937:Biological
4680:Pesticides
4672:Phosphorus
4608:Metalloids
4328:Carcinogen
4199:Treatments
4070:Toxicology
3684:(1): 212.
3567:(1): 136.
3524:(4): 452.
2766:(1): 1–7.
1996:12 October
1048:References
993:kingsnakes
929:Resistance
887:thrombosis
850:platypuses
838:solenodons
788:Toxicofera
660:Amphibians
654:stargazers
646:waspfishes
638:rockfishes
622:toadfishes
529:among the
521:among the
486:Malo kingi
409:ovipositor
370:forcipules
365:centipedes
357:chelicerae
347:Arthropods
327:Cytotoxins
295:centipedes
207:Mechanisms
155:thrombosis
128:cytotoxins
87:, such as
5304:Pollution
5244:Cnidocyte
5197:Lathyrism
5110:Bee venom
5106:Bee sting
5050:Coturnism
5033:Bufotenin
5018:Amphibian
4997:Paralytic
4972:Scombroid
4957:Ciguatera
4915:Vitamin E
4910:Vitamin D
4905:Vitamin A
4626:Nonmetals
4573:Manganese
4505:Beryllium
4479:Inorganic
4441:Poisoning
4250:Incidents
4216:Cathartic
3926:0041-0101
3873:1932-6203
3784:0041-0101
3745:Symbiosis
3708:1471-2148
3651:0041-0101
3417:0005-7959
3397:Behaviour
3373:0041-0101
3294:0264-6021
3251:1540-7063
3177:Evolution
3156:ignored (
3146:cite book
2996:0041-0101
2982:: 44–62.
2675:(1): 21.
2473:Megalania
2208:0960-9822
1991:EMedicine
1866:2072-6651
1850:(1): 30.
1789:206185438
1142:0025-682X
1109:cite book
1101:980850276
1024:symbiosis
919:psoriasis
903:exenatide
891:arthritis
800:Varanidae
792:Serpentes
759:bonds of
753:nucleases
749:hydrolyze
745:proteases
582:catfishes
578:chimaeras
570:stingrays
543:octopuses
507:jellyfish
469:topically
457:and many
455:true bugs
393:scorpions
380:modified
315:(such as
305:Myotoxins
283:scorpions
173:Evolution
159:arthritis
136:myotoxins
112:predators
5355:Category
5207:Mushroom
5187:Ergotism
5172: /
5146: /
5120:Melittin
5108: /
5064: /
5028:Bombesin
4947: /
4924:syndrome
4753:Methanol
4715:Nicotine
4702:Nitrogen
4649:Fluoride
4644:Chlorine
4639:Selenium
4553:Chromium
4530:Thallium
4451:Overdose
4446:Toxicity
4372:Category
4211:Antidote
4133:Concepts
4029:25274370
3977:86114704
3891:24878777
3843:PLOS ONE
3792:19268681
3726:23122007
3546:53706054
3466:27122552
3337:23266311
3302:28219972
3259:27444525
3199:17683426
3054:11196041
3046:29111116
3004:23578513
2924:29510162
2856:12974396
2829:25530442
2780:22285376
2736:22410495
2701:24074353
2650:28187210
2610:PLOS ONE
2579:16292255
2523:19451641
2414:24722441
2406:12807305
2320:25079342
2224:13606620
2216:26255851
2112:16740627
2033:17932414
1919:23234351
1884:26805882
1825:20114060
1781:22108024
1736:38398672
1728:24318343
1693:32612635
1685:24407344
1642:28587399
1593:21796492
1585:27288930
1535:18463304
1448:45019479
1399:20601072
1391:12709056
1350:16716265
1280:15316044
1231:11164036
1197:24102715
1195:. PMID:
1176:17 April
1150:16924809
1036:See also
923:venomics
915:fire ant
804:Anguidae
747:, which
672:Reptiles
606:blennies
547:Molluscs
523:Cnidaria
451:apitoxin
331:apitoxin
309:peptides
255:contain
197:predator
167:venomics
105:toxungen
69:zootoxin
18:Venomous
5367:Commons
5323:argyria
5232:Stinger
5202:Locoism
4982:Amnesic
4949:Seafood
4878:Digoxin
4845:Opioids
4840:Lithium
4835:Cocaine
4820:Aspirin
4810:Alcohol
4802:Nervous
4770:Toluene
4743:Ethanol
4737:alcohol
4710:Cyanide
4663:Organic
4616:Arsenic
4520:Mercury
4510:Cadmium
4469:History
4384:Commons
4348:Mutagen
4020:4213602
3957:Bibcode
3934:7801342
3906:Toxicon
3882:4039484
3851:Bibcode
3764:Toxicon
3717:3532366
3686:Bibcode
3659:1529461
3631:Toxicon
3616:9643474
3596:Toxicon
3581:1446808
3538:1565123
3503:1423604
3457:4855376
3381:3672545
3353:Toxicon
3317:Toxicon
3105:9695900
3077:Bibcode
3026:Toxicon
2976:Toxicon
2904:Toxicon
2820:4340604
2716:Toxicon
2692:3852360
2641:5302418
2618:Bibcode
2587:4386245
2559:Bibcode
2514:2690028
2491:Bibcode
2477:priscus
2469:Varanus
2371:4286612
2363:8596631
2343:Bibcode
2311:4231632
2186:Bibcode
2159:1443606
1875:4728552
1805:Toxicon
1665:Bibcode
1633:5450530
1526:2413166
1483:1862521
1463:Toxicon
1440:2253781
1315:9504137
1271:1765666
1061:"venom"
895:cancers
858:therian
848:, male
814:Mammals
796:Iguania
741:peptide
650:weevers
620:, some
616:, some
443:Lonomia
397:insects
388:
384:
377:
373:
353:spiders
323:venoms.
261:trypsin
163:cancers
93:stinger
58:stinger
5410:Toxins
5333:toxins
5329:venoms
5319:Silver
5170:Plants
5115:Apamin
5076:Ancrod
5062:Snakes
5057:Mammal
5008:Other
4765:Oxygen
4594:Silver
4563:Copper
4558:Cobalt
4525:Nickel
4488:Metals
4464:Poison
4170:Poison
4077:Fields
4027:
4017:
3975:
3932:
3924:
3889:
3879:
3871:
3821:
3790:
3782:
3724:
3714:
3706:
3657:
3649:
3614:
3579:
3561:Copeia
3544:
3536:
3501:
3491:
3464:
3454:
3415:
3379:
3371:
3335:
3300:
3292:
3257:
3249:
3205:
3197:
3134:
3103:
3095:
3052:
3044:
3002:
2994:
2957:
2922:
2854:
2827:
2817:
2799:Lancet
2778:
2734:
2699:
2689:
2648:
2638:
2585:
2577:
2551:Nature
2521:
2511:
2438:Forbes
2412:
2404:
2369:
2361:
2335:Nature
2318:
2308:
2245:
2222:
2214:
2206:
2157:
2139:Copeia
2110:
2031:
1968:
1917:
1882:
1872:
1864:
1844:Toxins
1823:
1787:
1779:
1734:
1726:
1691:
1683:
1640:
1630:
1591:
1583:
1533:
1523:
1481:
1446:
1438:
1397:
1389:
1348:
1313:
1278:
1268:
1229:
1148:
1140:
1099:
1089:
852:, and
842:shrews
806:, and
778:, the
652:, and
586:clades
580:; the
576:, and
574:sharks
533:, and
513:, the
363:, and
321:lizard
319:) and
263:-like
249:vipers
238:toxins
226:enzyme
151:toxins
101:poison
77:animal
32:Poison
5237:plant
5174:Fungi
5045:Birds
4190:Venom
4185:Toxin
3973:S2CID
3577:JSTOR
3542:S2CID
3534:JSTOR
3207:24103
3203:S2CID
3101:S2CID
3097:42057
3050:S2CID
3022:(PDF)
2583:S2CID
2410:S2CID
2367:S2CID
2220:S2CID
2155:JSTOR
1915:S2CID
1785:S2CID
1732:S2CID
1689:S2CID
1589:S2CID
1553:(PDF)
1444:S2CID
1395:S2CID
664:Some
634:scats
503:phyla
432:Many
405:wasps
313:snake
224:, an
213:Toxin
91:or a
89:fangs
81:toxin
73:toxin
65:Venom
5230:and
5228:Bite
4945:Fish
4578:Zinc
4568:Iron
4515:Lead
4025:PMID
3930:PMID
3922:ISSN
3887:PMID
3869:ISSN
3819:ISBN
3788:PMID
3780:ISSN
3722:PMID
3704:ISSN
3655:PMID
3647:ISSN
3612:PMID
3565:1995
3499:OCLC
3489:ISBN
3462:PMID
3413:ISSN
3377:PMID
3369:ISSN
3333:PMID
3298:PMID
3290:ISSN
3255:PMID
3247:ISSN
3195:PMID
3158:help
3132:ISBN
3093:PMID
3042:PMID
3000:PMID
2992:ISSN
2955:ISBN
2920:PMID
2889:2018
2852:PMID
2825:PMID
2776:PMID
2760:Gene
2732:PMID
2697:PMID
2646:PMID
2575:PMID
2519:PMID
2483:PNAS
2445:2018
2402:PMID
2359:PMID
2316:PMID
2271:2018
2243:ISBN
2212:PMID
2204:ISSN
2143:1978
2108:PMID
2066:2018
2029:PMID
1998:2010
1966:ISBN
1945:2018
1880:PMID
1862:ISSN
1821:PMID
1777:PMID
1724:PMID
1681:PMID
1638:PMID
1581:PMID
1531:PMID
1479:PMID
1436:PMID
1387:PMID
1346:PMID
1311:PMID
1276:PMID
1227:PMID
1211:Gene
1178:2022
1146:PMID
1138:ISSN
1115:link
1097:OCLC
1087:ISBN
991:The
980:The
962:The
794:and
686:and
558:Fish
537:and
459:ants
403:and
401:bees
382:legs
297:and
253:bees
251:and
185:taxa
126:and
118:and
55:Wasp
41:and
4729:CHO
4535:Tin
4015:PMC
4007:doi
4003:281
3965:doi
3953:207
3914:doi
3877:PMC
3859:doi
3811:doi
3772:doi
3712:PMC
3694:doi
3639:doi
3604:doi
3569:doi
3526:doi
3452:PMC
3444:doi
3440:283
3405:doi
3401:124
3361:doi
3325:doi
3282:doi
3278:474
3237:doi
3185:doi
3124:doi
3085:doi
3073:205
3034:doi
3030:140
2984:doi
2947:doi
2912:doi
2908:146
2815:PMC
2807:doi
2803:385
2768:doi
2764:496
2724:doi
2687:PMC
2677:doi
2636:PMC
2626:doi
2567:doi
2555:439
2509:PMC
2499:doi
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