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2351:, in fact, denotes to the subject, which studies about the harm(s) caused to victims in commission of crime and the relative scope for compensation to the victim as a means of redressal. In criminal jurisprudence, mere punishment of an offender is not considered sufficient in redressing the grievance of victim; there is need to compensate the loss or harms suffered by the victim. In Criminal Procedure Code, though provisions have been made in Section 357 to provide compensation to victims, who have suffered loss or harms in consequence to commission of offence. But, what has been provided in Indian Law, as a compensatory measure to victims of crimes, is not enough and this aspect needs to be reviewed by the legislature to frame or enact necessary law, so as to sufficiently compensate to victims of crimes and to provide safeguards to victims of crimes, besides compensating him in monetary terms. .
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2066:(1977). Attributing failures to dispositional causes rather than situational causes, which are unchangeable and uncontrollable, satisfies our need to believe that the world is fair and we have control over our life. We are motivated to see a just world because this reduces our perceived threats, gives us a sense of security, helps us find meaning in difficult and unsettling circumstances, and benefits us psychologically. Unfortunately, the just-world hypothesis also results in a tendency for people to blame and disparage victims of a tragedy or an accident, such as victims of
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the time of the killing (example, bar, home or place of business). Hickey found that 13–15% of victims had high facilitation, 60–64% of victims had low facilitation and 23–25% of victims had a combination of high and low facilitation. Hickey also noted that among serial killer victims after 1975, one in five victims were at greater risk from hitchhiking, working as a prostitute, or involving themselves in situations in which they often came into contact with strangers.
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2295:. The concept is, essentially, that "when a crime takes place, it has two partners, one the offender and second the victim, who is providing opportunity to the criminal in committing the crime." The victim, in this view, is "a participant in the penal couple and should bear some 'functional responsibility' for the crime." The very idea is rejected by some other victimologists as
2110:. One of the ultimate purposes of this type of knowledge is to inform the public and increase awareness so fewer people become victims. Another goal of studying victim facilitation, as stated by Maurice Godwin, is to aid in investigations. Godwin discusses the theory of victim social networks as a concept in which one looks at the areas of highest risk for victimization from a
1958:(USFS), one of the researchers, said, "trees, which provide a range of other benefits, could improve quality of life in Portland by reducing crime..." because "We believe that large street trees can reduce crime by signaling to a potential criminal that a neighborhood is better cared for and, therefore, a criminal is more likely to be caught." Note that the presence of
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2130:' "primary source of information on crime victimization. Each year, data is obtained from a nationally representative sample of 77,200 households comprising nearly 134,000 persons on the frequency, characteristics and consequences of criminal victimization in the United States. This survey enables the (government) to estimate the likelihood of victimization for
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2170:: (1) "People don't hitchhike anymore;" (2) "They have means of reaching out in an emergency situation using cellphones;" (3) "There are cameras everywhere;” (4) "parents today are less likely to allow to leave home unsupervised;" (5) "interventions that help troubled children might reform potential killers" (for example,
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The theory of victim facilitation calls for study of the external elements that make a victim more accessible or vulnerable to an attack. In an article that summarizes the major movements in victimology internationally, Schneider expresses victim facilitation as a model that ultimately describes only
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in
America is conducted. As part of Hickey's analysis, he categorized victims as high, low, or mixed regarding the victim's facilitation of the murder. Categorization was based upon lifestyle risk (example, amount of time spent interacting with strangers), type of employment, and their location at
1978:
There have been some studies recently to quantify the real existence of victim-proneness. Contrary to the popular belief that more women are repeat victims, and thus more victim-prone than men, actually men in their prime (15- to 34-year-old males) are more likely to be victims of repeated crimes.
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There is importance in studying and understanding victim facilitation as well as continuing to research it as a sub-topic of victimization. For instance, a study of victim facilitation increases public awareness, leads to more research on victim-offender relationship, and advances theoretical
1982:
In the case of juvenile offenders, the study results also show that people are more likely to be victimized as a result of a serious offense by someone they know; the most frequent crimes committed by adolescents towards someone they know were sexual assault, common assault, and homicide.
1970:(USDA), a "conservative spatially adjusted model indicated that a 10% increase in tree canopy was associated with a roughly 12% decrease in crime.... we found that the inverse relationship continued in both contexts, but the magnitude was 40% greater for public than for private lands."
2047:. As a simple example, if Alice saw Bob trip over a rock and fall, Alice might consider Bob to be clumsy or careless (dispositional). If Alice later tripped over the same rock herself, she would be more likely to blame the placement of the rock (situational). Victim proneness or
1810:, who may not be clearly identifiable or directly linked to crime against a particular individual. Victims of white-collar crime are often denied their status as victims by the social construction of the concept (Croall, 2001). The concept also remains a controversial topic within
2114:. This can be connected to victim facilitation because the victim social networks are the locations in which the victim is most vulnerable to the serial killer. Using this process, investigators can create a profile of places where the serial killer and victim both frequent.
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Studies in the early 2010s showed that crimes are negatively correlated to trees in urban environments; more trees in an area are congruent with lower victimization rates or violent crime rates. This relationship was established by studies in 2010 in
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A dedicated survey for international comparison: A group of
European criminologists started an international victimization study with the sole purpose to generate international comparative crime and victimization data. The project is now known as the
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The fundamental attribution error is most visible when people explain the behavior of others. It does not explain interpretations of one's own behavior—where situational factors are often taken into consideration. This discrepancy is called the
2150:, household burglary, and motor vehicle theft for the population as a whole as well as for segments of the population such as women, the elderly, members of various racial groups, city dwellers, or other groups." According to the
2182:); (6) "easy access to pornography is providing an outlet that satiates ... sexual impulses"; and (7) "would-be serial killers are turning instead to mass shootings." Other reports show some evidence that serial killings are (8)
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Bell, S.T.; Kuriloff, P.J.; Lottes, I. (1994). "Understanding attributions of blame in stranger-rape and date-rape situations: An examinations of gender, race, identification, and students' social perceptions of rape victims".
2086:. The choice to use victim facilitation as opposed to "victim proneness" or some other term is that victim facilitation is not blaming the victim, but rather the interactions of the victim that make them vulnerable to a crime.
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such as drug (ab)use. Attempts to use the data from these national surveys for international comparison have failed. Differences in definitions of crime and other methodological differences are too big for proper comparison.
1908:(PTSD). Post-crime distress is also linked to pre-existing emotional problems and sociodemographic variables. This has been known to become a leading case of the elderly being more adversely affected.(Ferraro, 1995)
1986:
Sex workers are, anecdotally, thought to have an abnormally high incidence of violent crime committed against them, and such crimes frequently go unresolved, but there are few victimological studies of the matter.
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in which the crime victims (or relatives and friends of deceased crime victims) meet with the defendant after conviction to tell the convict about how the criminal activity affected them, in the hope of
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personnel are aware of victims' needs and concerns and to identify important issues and trends that may negatively impact victims. Where appropriate, the
Ombudsman may also make recommendations to the
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Many countries have such victimization surveys. They give a much better account for the volume crimes but are less accurate for crimes that occur with a (relative) low frequency such as homicide, or
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is defined as the relationship between perpetrator and victim of a crime. That is, both are involved in the event. A sociologist invented the term in 1963. The term is now accepted by many
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Troya, Austin; Groveb, J. Morgan; O'Neil-Dunne, Jarlath (2012). "'The relationship between tree canopy and crime rates across an urban–rural gradient in the greater
Baltimore region".
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report, it's in large part because "people are less vulnerable than in the past." This in turn is due to several societal changes, according to experts and a news reports cited by the
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Abrams, D.; Viki, G.T.; Masser, B.; Bohner, G. (2003). "Perceptions of stranger and acquaintance rape: The role of benevolent and hostile sexism in victim blame and rape proclivity".
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the misinterpretation by the offender of victim behavior. It is based upon the theory of a symbolic interaction and does not alleviate the offender of their exclusive responsibility.
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as the result of crime is a recurring theme for all victims of crime. The most common problems, affecting three-quarters of victims, were psychological problems, including
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to reassure themselves of their insusceptibility to such events. People may even blame the victim's faults in "past lives" to pursue justification for their bad outcome.
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Victim facilitation, another controversial sub-topic, but a more accepted theory than victim proneness, finds its roots in the writings of criminologists such as
1786:, and corrections officials—and the connections between victims and other social groups and institutions, such as the media, businesses, and social movements.
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2154:(BJS), the NCVS reveals that, from 1994 to 2005, violent crime rates declined, reaching the lowest levels ever recorded. Property crimes continue to decline.
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Kingma, Johannes (1999). "Repeat
Victimization of Victims of Violence: A Retrospective Study From a Hospital Emergency Department for the Period 1971–1995".
1307:
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Burger, J.M. (1981). "Motivational biases in the attribution of responsibility for an accident: A meta-analysis of the defensive-attribution hypothesis".
2126:(NCVS) is a tool to measure the existence of actual, rather than reported, crimes—the victimization rate. The National Crime Victimization Survey is the
2411:
2324:(INTERVICT), watches as participants conduct role-play scenarios during domestic and gender-based violence training at the Central Training Center.
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street trees especially indicated a reduction in crime, as opposed to newer, smaller trees. In the 2012 Baltimore study, led by scientists from the
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1967:
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Hickey, Eric W. (2006). The Male serial murderer. In Serial murderers and their victims (4th ed., pp. 152–159). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Group
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Schneider, H. J. (2001). "Victimological developments in the world during the past three decades (I): A Study of comparative victimology".
1774:, including the psychological effects on victims, the relationship between victims and offenders, the interactions between victims and the
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Adolescents victimizing people they did not know generally committed common assault, forcible confinement, and armed or unarmed robbery.
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Miethe, Terance D (1985). "The Myth or reality of victim involvement in crime: A Review and comment on victim-precipitation research".
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The environmental theory posits that the location and context of the crime bring the victim of the crime and its perpetrator together.
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Summers, G.; Feldman, N.S. (1984). "Blaming the victim versus blaming the perpetrator: An attributional analysis of spouse abuse".
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Ross, L. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in the attribution process. 'In L. Berkowitz (Ed.),
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The experience of victimization may result in increasing fear on the part of the victim, and the spread of fear in the community.
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1802:, a victim of a crime is an identifiable person who has been harmed individually and directly by the perpetrator, rather than by
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Hickey, Eric W. (2006). Victims. In Serial murderers and their victims (4th ed., pp. 260–262). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Group
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Glasgow
Caledonian University website page for Hazel Croall, Professor of Criminology, School of Law & Social Sciences
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Aronson, E., Wilson, T. D., Akert, R. M., Sommers, S. R. (2016). Social
Psychology (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
2002:
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Sebba, L., (1996). Third
Parties, Victims and the Criminal Justice System. Ohio State University Press, Columbus.
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Lerner, M.J.; Miller, D.T. (1977). "Just-world research and the attribution process: Looking back and ahead".
2917:"Prostitution, Sex Work and Violence: Discursive and Political Contexts for Five Texts on Paid Sex, 1987–2001"
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adopted the
Declaration on the Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power. Also, the
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2674:"Some City Trees May Discourage 'Shady' Behavior; Study Explores Relationship Between Urban Trees and Crime"
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meets its responsibilities to victims of crime. The ombudsman provides information to victims about their
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2255:(ICVS). After the first round in 1989, the surveys were repeated in 1992, 1996, and 2000 and 2004/2005.
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is the belief that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get, which was first theorized by
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M. C. Sengstock & J. Liang, "Elderly
Victims of Crime – A Refinement of Theory in Victimology," (
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Lusignan, Richard (2007). "Risk Assessment and Offender–Victim relationship in Juvenile Offenders".
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Thissen, David; Wainer, Howard (1983). "Toward the Measurement and Prediction of Victim Proneness".
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of others while under-valuing situational explanations for those behaviors. The term was coined by
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National Criminal Justice Reference service (NCJRS) Abstracts – a United States government website
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3588:"A/RES/40/34. Declaration of basic principles of justice for victims of crime and abuse of power"
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dealing with victims of crime. The ombudsman also works to ensure that policy makers and other
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One train of thought supposes society itself is the victim of many crimes, especially such
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Godwin, Maurice (1998). "Victim target networks as solvability factors in serial murder".
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1904:, and difficulty sleeping. These problems often result in the development of chronic
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3683:"Foreign Workers in the Second World War. The Ordeal of Slovenians in Germany"
3675:, "Understanding the Predatory Nature of Sexual Violence," 12 pages, n.d., at
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Croall, H. (2001) "The Victims of White Collar Crime," in Lindgren, S. (ed)
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can be a form of fundamental attribution error, and more specifically, the
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there and from the clean-up efforts that took place to limit the spread of
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3095:
3235:
Other lives, other selves: A Jungian psychotherapist discovers past lives
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as a whole. However, this may not always be the case, as with victims of
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528:
170:
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Wounds that Do Not Bind: Victim-based Perspectives on the Death Penalty
2143:
2139:
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963:
642:
612:
3261:
International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology
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2874:
International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology
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2279:. Many lawyers, judges, and academics have espoused this sentiment.
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2264:
2211:
1779:
559:
193:
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Crime, Office of the Federal Ombudsman for Victims of (2010-10-23).
3399:"Serial killings are waning, leading to speculation about the cause"
3292:
3290:
3074:
Walster, E (1966). "Assignment of responsibility for an accident".
2344:
developed a UN Convention for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power.
2218:, the services available to them, or to make a complaint about any
2984:
Jones, E.E.; Harris, V.A. (1967). "The attribution of attitudes".
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335:
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The perception of the world as meaningless and incomprehensible.
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1911:
Victims may experience the following psychological reactions:
29:
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National Council for Crime Prevention, Sweden. Both noted at
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White Collar Crime Research. Old Views and Future Potentials,
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2055:(Aronson, Wilson, Akert, & Sommers, 2016, p. 107).
2621:"More Trees (Equals) Less Crime in Baltimore, Study Shows"
3660:
Understanding White Collar Crime (Open University Press).
3755:
3254:
3252:
3739:
International Victimology Institute Tilburg (INTERVICT)
3517:
Pawanjit, "Hiring Domestic Help Without Verification,"
3368:"National Crime Victimization Survey Official web site"
2338:
International Victimology Institute Tilburg (INTERVICT)
1821:
first recognized the rights of crime victims to make a
3468:
Criminal Justice Glossary at the Prentice Hall website
3466:"Criminology Today" (4th ed. Prentice Hall), found at
2200:
Office of the Federal Ombudsman for Victims of Crime
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4361:
4170:
4010:
3927:
3877:
3839:
2708:"'The Effect of Trees on Crime in Portland, Oregon"
2027:or personality-based explanations for the observed
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
3759:South Asian Society of Criminology and Victimology
3491:Crime, criminal justice, and the probation service
2648:"Big Trees May Make Communities Safer, Says Study"
2202:(OFOVC) is an independent resource for victims of
2160:are waning in particular, and according to a 2020
2974:(vol. 10, pp. 173–220). New York: Academic Press.
3769:Victims Network: British Society of Criminology
3118:The correspondence bias. Psychological Bulletin
3421:"Home: Federal Ombudsman for Victims of Crime"
3789:
2564:Crime Victims: An Introduction to Victimology
2035:some years after a now-classic experiment by
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892:
8:
3146:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
3076:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
2804:Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
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3501:, at 56 (citing Mendelsohn 1963), found at
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2322:International Victimology Institute Tilburg
4007:
3796:
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3774:
3729:Tokiwa International Victimology Institute
3397:Cassens Weiss, Debra (December 17, 2020).
3116:Gilbert, D.T., & Malone, P.S. (1995).
2972:Advances in experimental social psychology
2701:
2699:
2697:
2695:
1755:
1741:
926:
910:
899:
885:
533:
162:
147:victims who died stopping the fire at the
3485:
3483:
3392:
3390:
3388:
3209:Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology
2986:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
2706:Donovan, G. H.; Prestemon, J. P. (2010).
1925:They view themselves in a negative light.
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
4619:Interdisciplinary subfields of sociology
2412:Effects of domestic violence on children
2206:. It was created in 2007 to ensure the
1915:Increase in the realization of personal
131:
3362:
3360:
3358:
3356:
2646:Messenger, Stephen (November 1, 2010).
2582:
2580:
2555:
2023:) describes the tendency to over-value
1968:United States Department of Agriculture
918:
611:
165:
3650:Acker, James R., and Karp, Daniel R.,
3546:Crime and its victims: what we can do
2186:by "longer prison sentences" and (9)
137:Monument to Those Who Saved the World
7:
4561:
3693:Wilson, Janet K. (August 25, 2009).
3182:Journal of Applied Social Psychology
58:adding citations to reliable sources
4573:
3764:Centre for Cyber Victim Counselling
3695:The Praeger Handbook of Victimology
2464:Race and crime in the United States
2124:National Crime Victimization Survey
2118:Victimization rate in United States
2095:Serial Murderers and their Victims,
143:, Ukraine, to the firefighters and
3194:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1994.tb01571.x
2253:International Crime Victims Survey
2238:International Crime Victims Survey
1974:Quantification of victim-proneness
1860:, is a form of community-based or
1819:Supreme Court of the United States
25:
3724:International Victimology Website
2839:Journal of Interpersonal Violence
2772:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.03.010
2320:(left), senior researcher at the
4586:
4572:
4560:
4537:
4536:
3734:TIVI Bibliography of Victimology
2936:10.1111/j.0953-5233.2004.00365.x
1722:
254:Risk & actuarial criminology
177:
34:
3744:American Society of Victimology
3655:, Carolina Academic Press, 2006
3532:(pdf). Retrieved April 1, 2009.
3327:Social Behavior and Personality
1308:Peace, war, and social conflict
45:needs additional citations for
2619:Davies, Alex (June 19, 2012).
1906:post-traumatic stress disorder
1:
3548:, (InterVarsity Press, 1986)
2489:Social disorganization theory
2417:Effects of rape and aftermath
2407:Developmental psychopathology
2392:Crime victim advocacy program
2013:fundamental attribution error
1997:Fundamental attribution error
1991:Fundamental attribution error
153:catastrophic nuclear accident
149:Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant
3719:World Society of Victimology
2998:10.1016/0022-1031(67)90034-0
2752:Landscape and Urban Planning
2544:World Society of Victimology
2494:Social emotional development
2342:World Society of Victimology
2190:by "a reduction in parole."
2152:Bureau of Justice Statistics
1956:United States Forest Service
1856:, which usually follows the
3577:. Retrieved April 1, 2009.
3560:. Retrieved April 1, 2009.
3505:. Retrieved April 1, 2009.
3477:. Retrieved April 1, 2009.
3034:10.1037/0033-2909.85.5.1030
2794:Educational Testing Service
2433:Like sheep to the slaughter
2427:GĂ©rard Lopez (psychiatrist)
4655:
4460:Human environmental impact
3677:Middlebury College website
3158:10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.111
3061:10.1037/0033-2909.90.3.496
2851:10.1177/088626099014001005
2816:10.1177/002242788302000206
2397:Crime Victims' Rights Week
2306:
2039:and Victor Harris (1967).
2000:
1994:
1954:. Geoffrey Donovan of the
979:Human environmental impact
234:Expressive function of law
4533:
3811:
3523:Premier Shield Newsletter
3519:Premier Shield Newsletter
3221:10.1521/jscp.1984.2.4.339
2439:Major depressive disorder
3897:Structural functionalism
3339:10.2224/sbp.1998.26.1.75
3273:10.1177/0306624x01454005
2886:10.1177/0306624x06294135
2724:10.1177/0013916510383238
2712:Environment and Behavior
2566:, Wadsworth Publishing,
2459:Psychological projection
2194:Victimization in Canada
2097:a major analysis of 329
1073:Structural functionalism
224:Differential association
4469:Industrial revolutions
3917:Symbolic interactionism
2514:Theories of victimology
2259:Society as crime victim
1858:victim impact statement
1823:victim impact statement
1093:Symbolic interactionism
988:Industrial revolutions
284:Symbolic interactionism
3907:Social constructionism
3573:study 1979), found at
3425:www.victimsfirst.gc.ca
3233:Woogler, R.J. (1988).
3049:Psychological Bulletin
3022:Psychological Bulletin
2329:
2326:Afghan National Police
1877:Consequences of crimes
1083:Social constructionism
264:Social disorganization
160:
27:Study of victimization
4514:Social stratification
4396:Conversation analysis
3953:Cultural anthropology
3943:Comparative sociology
3869:Sociological practice
2798:Princeton, New Jersey
2792:) and Howard Wainer (
2562:Andrew Karmen, 2003,
2316:
2188:deterred specifically
2060:Just-world phenomenon
2053:just-world phenomenon
2003:Dunning–Kruger effect
1964:University of Vermont
1458:Conversation analysis
1033:Social stratification
773:Biosocial criminology
480:Uniform Crime Reports
199:Biosocial criminology
157:nuclear contamination
135:
3963:Historical sociology
3590:. Un.org. 1985-11-29
3544:Daniel W. Van Ness,
3493:, (Routledge, 1992)
2924:Gender & History
2915:Shah, Svati (2004).
2786:University of Kansas
2601:Environmental Theory
2597:environmental theory
2367:British Crime Survey
2318:Anna Costanza Baldry
2216:Canadian federal law
1938:Environmental theory
1778:system—that is, the
648:Solitary confinement
54:improve this article
4524:Social cycle theory
3983:Social anthropology
3973:Political sociology
3864:Sociological theory
3237:. New York: Bantam.
2784:David Thissen (The
2764:2012LUrbP.106..262T
2454:Psychological abuse
2334:UN General Assembly
2244:victimless 'crimes'
2078:Victim facilitation
2045:actor–observer bias
2017:correspondence bias
1952:Baltimore, Maryland
1862:restorative justice
1854:victim impact panel
1043:Social cycle theory
914:Part of a series on
838:Radical criminology
209:Collective efficacy
4593:Society portal
4494:Social environment
4118:race and ethnicity
3968:Industrial society
3749:2009-12-16 at the
3658:Croall, H. (2001)
3634:Tilburg University
3613:Tilburg University
3528:2008-05-09 at the
3473:2012-12-23 at the
3443:www.pssg.gov.bc.ca
3308:Sociological Focus
3131:2005-12-11 at the
2680:. November 1, 2010
2509:Stockholm syndrome
2330:
2297:blaming the victim
2232:federal government
2208:federal government
2184:deterred generally
2021:attribution effect
1882:Emotional distress
1836:Payne v. Tennessee
1808:white-collar crime
1729:Society portal
1352:History of science
1333:Race and ethnicity
1013:Social environment
161:
151:in 1986 after the
4629:Social psychology
4601:
4600:
4489:Social complexity
4421:Social experiment
4166:
4165:
3993:Social psychology
3704:978-0-313-35935-4
3554:978-0-87784-512-6
3499:978-0-415-05034-0
3188:(19): 1719–1734.
2572:978-0-534-61632-8
2382:Clandestine abuse
2303:Rights of victims
2093:In Eric Hickey's
2009:social psychology
1790:Victim of a crime
1765:
1764:
1483:Social experiment
1363:Social psychology
1008:Social complexity
909:
908:
655:
654:
592:Prisoners' rights
496:Positivist school
139:is a monument in
130:
129:
122:
104:
16:(Redirected from
4646:
4639:Sociology of law
4591:
4590:
4576:
4575:
4564:
4563:
4540:
4539:
4519:Social structure
4416:Network analysis
4008:
3998:Sociolinguistics
3988:Social movements
3912:Social darwinism
3849:Public sociology
3798:
3791:
3784:
3775:
3708:
3638:
3637:
3631:
3627:"Search results"
3623:
3617:
3616:
3609:"Search results"
3605:
3599:
3598:
3596:
3595:
3584:
3578:
3567:
3561:
3556:at 29, found at
3542:
3533:
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3506:
3487:
3478:
3464:
3458:
3457:
3455:
3454:
3445:. Archived from
3435:
3429:
3428:
3416:
3410:
3409:
3407:
3405:
3394:
3383:
3382:
3380:
3379:
3370:. Archived from
3364:
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3322:
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3108:
3107:
3088:10.1037/h0022733
3071:
3065:
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3044:
3038:
3037:
3028:(5): 1030–1051.
3017:
3011:
3008:
3002:
3001:
2981:
2975:
2968:
2962:
2961:
2959:
2958:
2952:
2946:. Archived from
2921:
2912:
2906:
2905:
2869:
2863:
2862:
2834:
2828:
2827:
2790:Lawrence, Kansas
2782:
2776:
2775:
2747:
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2735:
2703:
2690:
2689:
2687:
2685:
2670:
2664:
2663:
2661:
2659:
2654:on July 25, 2012
2650:. Archived from
2643:
2632:
2631:
2629:
2627:
2616:
2603:
2595:Harrison on the
2593:
2587:
2584:
2575:
2560:
2524:Victim mentality
2499:Social exclusion
2228:criminal justice
2180:child psychology
1948:Portland, Oregon
1933:Victim proneness
1776:criminal justice
1770:is the study of
1757:
1750:
1743:
1727:
1726:
1478:Network analysis
1368:Sociocybernetics
1358:Social movements
1088:Social darwinism
1038:Social structure
930:
911:
901:
894:
887:
534:
491:Crime statistics
417:
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38:
30:
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18:Victims of crime
4654:
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4643:
4624:Victims' rights
4604:
4603:
4602:
4597:
4585:
4529:
4528:
4527:
4499:Social equality
4432:
4431:
4430:
4357:
4171:Major theorists
4162:
4006:
4003:Urban sociology
3978:Rural sociology
3930:
3923:
3922:
3921:
3892:Critical theory
3887:Conflict theory
3873:
3854:Social research
3841:General aspects
3835:
3807:
3802:
3751:Wayback Machine
3715:
3705:
3692:
3681:Ruhs, Florian:
3646:
3644:Further reading
3641:
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3607:
3606:
3602:
3593:
3591:
3586:
3585:
3581:
3568:
3564:
3543:
3536:
3530:Wayback Machine
3516:
3509:
3489:Robert Harris,
3488:
3481:
3475:Wayback Machine
3465:
3461:
3452:
3450:
3439:"Redirect Page"
3437:
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3178:
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3142:
3138:
3133:Wayback Machine
3115:
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2469:Role engulfment
2362:Sarah Ben-David
2357:
2311:
2309:Victims' rights
2305:
2285:
2261:
2240:
2196:
2158:Serial killings
2120:
2084:Marvin Wolfgang
2080:
2037:Edward E. Jones
2015:(also known as
2005:
1999:
1993:
1976:
1950:and in 2012 in
1940:
1935:
1892:, nervousness,
1879:
1833:in the case of
1812:women's studies
1792:
1761:
1721:
1714:
1713:
1674:
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1663:
1591:
1517:
1503:
1501:Major theorists
1493:
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1418:
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1108:
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1068:Critical theory
1063:Conflict theory
1058:
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1018:Social equality
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851:
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768:Anthropological
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656:
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470:Critical theory
455:
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427:State-corporate
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327:
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322:Archibald Reiss
317:Cesare Lombroso
302:
301:Major theorists
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269:Social learning
249:Rational choice
239:Labeling theory
219:Criminalization
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4455:Human behavior
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4148:stratification
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3929:Related fields
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2220:federal agency
2198:In Canada the
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2106:etiologies of
2099:serial killers
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2049:victim blaming
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815:
810:
805:
800:
795:
790:
785:
780:
775:
770:
765:
759:
756:
755:
752:
751:
748:
747:
746:
745:
740:
732:
727:
722:
717:
712:
707:
702:
697:
692:
687:
682:
677:
672:
666:
663:
662:
659:
658:
653:
652:
651:
650:
645:
640:
635:
633:Transformative
630:
625:
617:
616:
609:
608:
607:
606:
601:
599:Rehabilitation
596:
595:
594:
589:
587:Prisoner abuse
579:
578:
577:
572:
567:
557:
552:
550:Incapacitation
547:
542:
532:
527:
526:
523:
522:
519:
518:
513:
508:
503:
498:
493:
488:
482:
477:
472:
467:
462:
456:
453:
452:
449:
448:
445:
444:
439:
434:
429:
424:
419:
412:
407:
402:
397:
392:
387:
386:
385:
375:
374:
373:
368:
360:
359:
358:
353:
348:
339:
333:
332:
329:
328:
325:
324:
319:
314:
309:
307:Émile Durkheim
303:
300:
299:
296:
295:
292:
291:
286:
281:
276:
271:
266:
261:
259:Social control
256:
251:
246:
241:
236:
231:
226:
221:
216:
214:Crime analysis
211:
206:
204:Broken windows
201:
196:
190:
187:
186:
183:
182:
174:
173:
128:
127:
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4651:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4632:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4611:
4609:
4595:
4594:
4589:
4583:
4581:
4580:
4571:
4569:
4568:
4559:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4547:
4546:
4545:
4544:
4535:
4532:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4504:Social equity
4502:
4500:
4497:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4487:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4476:
4472:
4468:
4466:
4463:
4461:
4458:
4456:
4453:
4451:
4450:Globalization
4448:
4446:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4427:
4424:
4422:
4419:
4417:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4407:
4404:
4402:
4399:
4397:
4394:
4392:
4389:
4387:
4386:Computational
4384:
4382:
4379:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4369:
4368:
4364:
4360:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4346:
4344:
4341:
4339:
4336:
4334:
4331:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4269:
4266:
4264:
4261:
4259:
4256:
4254:
4251:
4249:
4246:
4244:
4241:
4239:
4236:
4234:
4231:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4221:
4219:
4216:
4214:
4211:
4209:
4206:
4204:
4201:
4199:
4196:
4194:
4191:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4176:
4175:
4173:
4169:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4106:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4028:consciousness
4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4015:
4013:
4009:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3954:
3951:
3949:
3946:
3944:
3941:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3932:
3931:and subfields
3926:
3918:
3915:
3913:
3910:
3908:
3905:
3903:
3900:
3898:
3895:
3893:
3890:
3888:
3885:
3884:
3880:
3876:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3859:Social theory
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3846:
3844:
3842:
3838:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3813:
3810:
3806:
3799:
3794:
3792:
3787:
3785:
3780:
3779:
3776:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3756:
3754:
3752:
3748:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3717:
3716:
3712:
3706:
3700:
3696:
3691:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3678:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3665:
3661:
3657:
3654:
3653:
3648:
3647:
3643:
3635:
3628:
3622:
3619:
3614:
3610:
3604:
3601:
3589:
3583:
3580:
3576:
3572:
3566:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3541:
3539:
3535:
3531:
3527:
3524:
3520:
3514:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3486:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3469:
3463:
3460:
3449:on 2016-01-22
3448:
3444:
3440:
3434:
3431:
3426:
3422:
3415:
3412:
3400:
3393:
3391:
3389:
3385:
3374:on 2008-02-23
3373:
3369:
3363:
3361:
3359:
3357:
3353:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3321:
3318:
3314:(3): 209–220.
3313:
3309:
3302:
3299:
3293:
3291:
3287:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3255:
3253:
3249:
3243:
3240:
3236:
3230:
3227:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3203:
3200:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3175:
3172:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3140:
3137:
3134:
3130:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3113:
3110:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3070:
3067:
3062:
3058:
3055:(3): 496–12.
3054:
3050:
3043:
3040:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3016:
3013:
3007:
3004:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2980:
2977:
2973:
2967:
2964:
2953:on 2018-01-31
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2918:
2911:
2908:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2868:
2865:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2833:
2830:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2781:
2778:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2746:
2744:
2742:
2738:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2702:
2700:
2698:
2696:
2692:
2679:
2675:
2669:
2666:
2653:
2649:
2642:
2640:
2638:
2634:
2622:
2615:
2613:
2611:
2609:
2605:
2602:
2598:
2592:
2589:
2583:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2559:
2556:
2550:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2504:Social stress
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2434:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2359:
2354:
2352:
2350:
2345:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2310:
2302:
2300:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2282:
2280:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2258:
2256:
2254:
2248:
2245:
2237:
2235:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2193:
2191:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2176:school nurses
2173:
2169:
2165:
2164:
2159:
2155:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2128:United States
2125:
2117:
2115:
2113:
2112:serial killer
2109:
2108:violent crime
2103:
2100:
2096:
2091:
2087:
2085:
2077:
2075:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2064:Melvin Lerner
2061:
2056:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2040:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2025:dispositional
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2004:
1998:
1990:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1973:
1971:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1943:
1937:
1932:
1930:
1924:
1921:
1918:
1917:vulnerability
1914:
1913:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1876:
1874:
1872:
1868:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1850:
1849: (1991).
1848:
1845:
1841:
1838:
1837:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1815:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1789:
1787:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1772:victimization
1769:
1758:
1753:
1751:
1746:
1744:
1739:
1738:
1736:
1735:
1730:
1725:
1720:
1719:
1718:
1717:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1694:Organizations
1692:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1677:
1676:
1673:
1668:
1667:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1643: ·
1642:
1639: ·
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1599: ·
1598:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1531: ·
1530:
1526:
1523:
1516:
1512:
1509:
1506:
1505:
1502:
1497:
1496:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1448:Computational
1446:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1430:
1427:
1422:
1421:
1414:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1374:
1371:
1369:
1366:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1353:
1349:
1346:
1344:
1341:
1339:
1336:
1334:
1331:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1296:
1294:
1291:
1289:
1286:
1284:
1281:
1279:
1276:
1274:
1271:
1269:
1266:
1264:
1261:
1259:
1256:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1241:
1239:
1236:
1234:
1231:
1229:
1226:
1224:
1221:
1219:
1216:
1214:
1211:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1193:Environmental
1191:
1188:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1151:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1143:Consciousness
1141:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1129:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1119:
1116:
1114:
1111:
1110:
1107:
1102:
1101:
1094:
1091:
1089:
1086:
1084:
1081:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1064:
1061:
1060:
1057:
1052:
1051:
1044:
1041:
1039:
1036:
1034:
1031:
1029:
1026:
1024:
1023:Social equity
1021:
1019:
1016:
1014:
1011:
1009:
1006:
1004:
1001:
999:
995:
991:
987:
985:
982:
980:
977:
975:
972:
970:
969:Globalization
967:
965:
962:
961:
955:
954:
949:
946:
944:
941:
939:
936:
935:
934:
933:
929:
925:
924:
921:
917:
913:
912:
902:
897:
895:
890:
888:
883:
882:
880:
879:
872:
869:
867:
866:Organizations
864:
862:
859:
857:
854:
853:
847:
846:
839:
836:
834:
831:
829:
826:
824:
821:
819:
816:
814:
813:Environmental
811:
809:
806:
804:
801:
799:
796:
794:
791:
789:
786:
784:
781:
779:
776:
774:
771:
769:
766:
764:
761:
760:
754:
753:
744:
741:
739:
736:
735:
733:
731:
730:Postmodernist
728:
726:
723:
721:
720:Neo-classical
718:
716:
713:
711:
708:
706:
703:
701:
698:
696:
695:Environmental
693:
691:
688:
686:
683:
681:
678:
676:
673:
671:
668:
667:
661:
660:
649:
646:
644:
641:
639:
636:
634:
631:
629:
626:
624:
623:Participatory
621:
620:
619:
618:
614:
610:
605:
602:
600:
597:
593:
590:
588:
585:
584:
583:
580:
576:
573:
571:
568:
566:
563:
562:
561:
558:
556:
553:
551:
548:
546:
543:
541:
538:
537:
536:
535:
530:
525:
524:
517:
514:
512:
509:
507:
504:
502:
499:
497:
494:
492:
489:
486:
485:Crime mapping
483:
481:
478:
476:
473:
471:
468:
466:
463:
461:
458:
457:
451:
450:
443:
440:
438:
435:
433:
432:Transnational
430:
428:
425:
423:
420:
418:
413:
411:
408:
406:
403:
401:
400:International
398:
396:
393:
391:
388:
384:
381:
380:
379:
376:
372:
369:
367:
364:
363:
361:
357:
354:
352:
349:
347:
344:
343:
341:
340:
337:
331:
330:
323:
320:
318:
315:
313:
310:
308:
305:
304:
298:
297:
290:
287:
285:
282:
280:
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
260:
257:
255:
252:
250:
247:
245:
242:
240:
237:
235:
232:
230:
227:
225:
222:
220:
217:
215:
212:
210:
207:
205:
202:
200:
197:
195:
192:
191:
185:
184:
180:
176:
175:
172:
168:
164:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
124:
121:
113:
102:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85:
81:
78:
74:
71: –
70:
69:"Victimology"
66:
65:Find sources:
59:
55:
49:
48:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
4584:
4577:
4565:
4541:
4509:Social power
4411:Mathematical
4391:Ethnographic
4371:Quantitative
4138:small groups
4011:Sociology of
3938:Anthropology
3878:Perspectives
3694:
3686:
3673:Lisak, David
3663:
3659:
3651:
3633:
3621:
3612:
3603:
3592:. Retrieved
3582:
3565:
3558:Google Books
3545:
3518:
3503:Google Books
3490:
3462:
3451:. Retrieved
3447:the original
3442:
3433:
3424:
3414:
3404:December 18,
3402:. Retrieved
3376:. Retrieved
3372:the original
3333:(1): 75–84.
3330:
3326:
3320:
3311:
3307:
3301:
3264:
3260:
3242:
3234:
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2682:. Retrieved
2678:ScienceDaily
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2656:. Retrieved
2652:the original
2624:. Retrieved
2596:
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2534:Victim study
2484:Slut-shaming
2474:Sexual abuse
2348:
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2293:sociologists
2289:penal couple
2288:
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2277:manslaughter
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1473:Mathematical
1453:Ethnographic
1433:Quantitative
1407:
1118:Architecture
1056:Perspectives
1028:Social power
818:Experimental
540:Denunciation
506:Quantitative
416:Public-order
371:White-collar
312:Hans Eysenck
288:
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52:Please help
47:verification
44:
4634:Criminology
4614:Victimology
4579:WikiProject
4381:Comparative
4376:Qualitative
4343:Baudrillard
4193:Tocqueville
4088:immigration
4063:environment
3948:Criminology
3697:. Praeger.
3521:, found at
2422:Hate speech
2377:Child abuse
2349:victimology
2224:legislation
2222:or federal
2172:social work
2168:ABA Journal
2163:ABA Journal
1829:phase of a
1825:during the
1796:criminology
1768:Victimology
1684:Terminology
1653:Baudrillard
1529:Tocqueville
1443:Comparative
1438:Qualitative
1408:Victimology
1238:Immigration
1223:Generations
1138:Criminology
808:Development
783:Criminology
705:Integrative
643:Utilitarian
638:Retributive
628:Restorative
615:in penology
501:Qualitative
475:Ethnography
460:Comparative
366:Blue-collar
289:Victimology
244:Psychopathy
167:Criminology
145:liquidators
4608:Categories
4543:Categories
4484:Popularity
4437:Key themes
4401:Historical
4153:technology
3958:Demography
3902:Positivism
3594:2014-05-05
3453:2016-01-06
3378:2016-05-24
2957:2018-01-31
2551:References
2001:See also:
1894:self-blame
1871:deterrence
1827:sentencing
1709:By country
1463:Historical
1388:Technology
1328:Punishment
1313:Philosophy
1288:Mathematic
1278:Literature
1243:Industrial
1233:Historical
1158:Demography
1078:Positivism
1003:Popularity
958:Key themes
803:Demography
725:Positivist
604:Recidivism
545:Deterrence
437:Victimless
279:Subculture
80:newspapers
4406:Interview
4188:Martineau
4093:knowledge
4053:education
4048:economics
3805:Sociology
3281:220641525
3124:, 21–38.
2944:145430604
2824:145440925
2347:The term
2029:behaviors
1525:Martineau
1468:Interview
1393:Terrorism
1373:Sociology
1318:Political
1258:Knowledge
1178:Education
920:Sociology
828:Political
757:Subfields
680:Classical
670:Anarchist
565:abolition
465:Profiling
410:Political
405:Organized
390:Corporate
378:Cold case
334:Types of
141:Chernobyl
110:July 2007
4554:Journals
4465:Identity
4348:Bourdieu
4338:Habermas
4333:Luhmann
4328:Foucault
4263:Mannheim
4238:Durkheim
4123:religion
4113:military
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4058:emotions
4043:deviance
3826:Timeline
3747:Archived
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3471:Archived
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3166:12518974
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1966:and the
1704:Timeline
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1657:Bourdieu
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1645:Luhmann
1641:Foucault
1585:Mannheim
1565:Durkheim
1338:Religion
1298:Military
1263:Language
1248:Internet
1203:Feminist
1187:Jealousy
1173:Economic
1168:Disaster
1163:Deviance
1106:Branches
984:Identity
861:Journals
788:Critical
778:Conflict
763:American
734:Realism
700:Feminist
690:Critical
685:Conflict
582:Prisoner
529:Penology
395:Juvenile
346:Humanity
342:Against
229:Deviance
171:penology
4567:Commons
4445:Society
4362:Methods
4353:Giddens
4318:Goffman
4313:Schoeck
4258:Du Bois
4223:Tönnies
4203:Spencer
4133:science
4103:leisure
4033:culture
3821:History
3816:Outline
3689:Nr. 32
3096:5902079
2760:Bibcode
2144:assault
2140:robbery
1890:anxiety
1804:society
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793:Culture
715:Marxist
710:Italian
675:Chicago
664:Schools
613:Justice
454:Methods
383:Perfect
94:scholar
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4283:Gehlen
4278:Adorno
4243:Addams
4233:Simmel
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1228:Health
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1198:Family
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575:reform
560:Prison
362:Class
351:Person
274:Strain
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188:Theory
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4273:Fromm
4268:Elias
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4038:death
3831:Index
3630:(PDF)
3343:S2CID
3277:S2CID
3100:S2CID
2951:(PDF)
2940:S2CID
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2898:S2CID
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2728:S2CID
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2328:(ANP)
2204:crime
2148:theft
1960:large
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1577:Weber
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856:Index
798:Cyber
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516:NIBRS
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